ZOOLOGY

Father of biology and zoology-Aristotle

 What is classification?
• Classification: putting things into orderly
groups based on similar characteristics

• Taxonomy: the science of describing,

naming, and classifying organisms
 Carolus Linnaeus
1707 – 1778

• 18th century
taxonomist
from Sweden
• Classified
organisms by
their structure
• Developed
naming system
still used today
 Carolus Linnaeus
• Called the “Father of
Taxonomy”
• Developed the modern
system of naming known as
binomial nomenclature
• Two-
Two-word name (Genus &
species)
 ARCHAEA
• Kingdom - ARCHAEBACTERIA
• Probably the 1st cells to evolve
• Live in HARSH environments
• Found in:
– Sewage Treatment Plants
(Methanogens)
– Thermal or Volcanic Vents
(Thermophiles)
– Hot Springs or Geysers that are
acid
– Very salty water (Dead Sea; Great
Salt Lake) - Halophiles
 BACTERIA
• Kingdom - EUBACTERIA
• Some may cause DISEASE
• Found in ALL HABITATS except
harsh ones
• Important decomposers for
environment
• Commercially important in making
cottage cheese, yogurt,
buttermilk, etc.
- All bacteria are prokaryotes
- Lives in all habitats
thermophiles-high temperature(valconoes,geysers,etc)
mesophiles -room temperature
halophiles - salt conditions
psychrophiles-low temperature
methanogens-methane producing bacteria
- Many are parasitic some are symbiotic(zoamastogopera in stomach of
termite digest cellulose,nitrogen fixing bacteria)
- Smallest bacteria is Mycoplasma(primate bladder)
- Economic importance
1. fermentation-conversion of sugar to acids,alcohol.science of fermentation
is zymology. formation of lactic acid(sour taste)
2. Decomposers
bioremediation-waste management
3.Nitrogen fixation – nitrogen to
ammonia.aztobacter,azospirllium,anabena,nostoc,rhozobium(legumes),cy
anobacteria(blue green algae).All are biofertilizers
4.Biotechnology/genetic engineering
Disadvantages
Causes diseases
Typhoid-Salmonella typhi-contaminated food and water born
Tetanus-clostridium tetani-soil-lockedjaw
Cholera-vibrio cholera-contaminated food and water
Syphilis and Gonorrhoea-STD
Pneumonia-Diplococcus pneumoniae
Leprosy-Mycobacterium laprae-deformities of body parts,loss of fingers
Plague-Bacillus yersinis pestis-rodents-black death
Tuberculosis-mycobacteruim tuberculosis-MDR
Whooping cough-Berdella pertusis
Meningitis-Neisseria meningitidus
Father of bacteriology is Anton van leeuwenhoek
Bacillus-rod
Coccus-spherical
Vibrio-comma
BACTERIOPHAGE-virus that infect bacteria
Father of virology wm stanley. Virus means poison
a1
Slide 15

a1 amarnath0108, 2/27/2017
Protista
•Most are
unicellular
•Some are
multicellular
•Some are
autotrophic,, while
autotrophic
others are
heterotrophic
•Aquatic
• Photosynthetic protists :- unicellular algae which perform
photosynthesis .
e.g.:-diatoms , euglinoids etc…
• Cellulose digesting protists occur in TERMITES &WOOD EATING
animals.
• Photosynthetic protists like gonyaulax cause red tide .
• Diatoms like NAVICULAL glides toward light .
 Fungi
• Multicellular,
except yeast
• Absorptive
heterotrophs
(digest food
outside their
body & then
absorb it)
• Cell walls made
of chitin
• Lichens is a symbiotic association between an algae (phycobiont)
and a fungi (mycobiont).
• Advantages of lichens :-
1. Formation of litmus paper
2. Bio indicators of pollution
3. Formation of soil
• Mycorrhiza :- association between fungus and roots of higher
plants , helps in phosphorus uptake .
• Yeast – saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in making wine and
beer
• Spirulina is a rich source of protein .
• Antibiotics are produced from fungus .(e.g.:-penicillin –alexander
flemming ).
• Fungus is used as a food (mushrooms)
Fungal diseases
 Plantae
•Multicellular
•Autotrophic
•Absorb sunlight to
make glucose –
Photosynthesis
•Cell walls made of
cellulose
 Animalia
• Multicellular
• Ingestive
heterotrophs
(consume food
& digest it
inside their
bodies)
• Feed on plants
or animals
PHYLA
 1. Protozoa Phylum

Amoeba--like organisms (e.g., Amoeba

Amoeba Amoeba))
 General Characteristics
• Single-celled or unicellular organisms; some
live in colonies;
• Size = microscopic (3 to 1,000 microns).
• No germ layers, tissues, or organs;
• However, specialized intracellular "organelles"
are present
 General Characteristics
• Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia.
• Symmetry = all types (bilateral, radial,
spherical, or asymmetrical)
• Free living, commensal, parasitic, or
mutualistic
• Mostly naked, but few have simple protective
exoskeletons (tests). Ex. = Arcella
 General Characteristics
• Nutrition = autotrophic (holophytic),
saprozoic, saprophytic, or holozoic.
• Reproduction: asexual = longitudinal and
transverse binary fission, budding,
• Sexual = sporogony, and autogamy
Figure 11.10
Amoeba hunting
Figure 11.05
food
Euglenozoa

• Organisms move by one

or two flagella
• Monomorphic nuclei
• Capable of
photosynthesis;
chloroplasts usually
present
 Final Host
Plasmodium – agent
For malaria

Vector
• Transmitted by female anopheles mosquito .
• Quinines (from bark of cinchona tree) are the drugs
used against malaria .
• Gambuisa fish is used to kill mosquito larvae .
Paramecium
Binary Fission – Asexual Reproduction
Conjugation – sexual reproduction
2. Phylum: Porifera – The Sponges
a. Sessile (permanently attached
as adults.)
b. Pores
c. Two cell layers
d. Both marine and fresh water
e. Respiration- Oxygen absorbed by inner cells.
f. Digestion- Food absorbed by inner cell layer.
g. Circulation- 1. Flagellum create a water current.
2. No Blood

No tissues , no organs found

 3. PHYLUM :COELENTERATA
JELLY FISH & CORAL
a. They have tentacles
b. They have stinging cells
c. Some are sessile and some are free living
d. Body organization is of cell-tissue grade.
e. Exoskeleton is chitinous or calcareous (corals).
physalia jelly fish corals

Corals :- helps in biodiversity , coastal protection ,

medicine,tourism ,recreation ,indicators of pollution etc…
4. Phylum: Platyhelminthes –
The Flatworms
a. Parasites live off host

b. They can regenerate if broken.

c. Respiration – Oxygen absorbed through the skin

d. Digestion - 1. Nutrients absorbed into the skin
2. Single opening mouth

e. Circulation – Nutrients/ gas circulated by host

5. Phylum Nematoda - Roundworms
a. Many are parasites / some free - living

b. Respiration – Oxygen absorbed through the skin

c. Digestion
1. Nutrients absorbed by inner cell layer.
2. Complete system ( Two Openings)

D. Circulation - Food / gas absorbed through cells

 6. Phylum Annelida -
The Segmented Worm
a. Segmented body

b. Respiration – Gas exchange through the

skin.

c. Digestion –
1. Specialized organs
2. Complete System
3. Nutrients absorbed through inner
cell layer.
d. Circulation – Pairs of “hearts” circulate blood
e. Example : Earthworm - Nightcrawlers
7. Phylum: Mollusca – The Mollusks
a. Mostly Shell-builders

b. Mantle – Fleshy covering that secretes the shell.

c. Well developed sense organs

d. Respiration – Gills for gas exchange

e. Digestion – complete with specialized organs.

f. Circulation – hearts for pumping blood.
g. Mostly aquatic
h. Examples:-
Octopus ,squid,
Snails and clams

squid
8. Phylum Arthropods
a. Exoskeleton (outside)

b. Jointed legs

c. Segmented body

d. Circulation – open, hearts for pumps

e. Respiration - 1. Vents and spiracles ( land arthropods)
2. Gills (aquatic arthropods)

f. Digestion – complete with specialized organs

g. Five classes of arthropods

i. Class Crustacea ( crabs, lobsters) :-
a. Mostly marine (salt water)
b. Cephalothorax and abdomen (two body regions)
c. Five pair of legs
ii. Class Arachnida (spiders, ticks, mites):-
a. Many are poisonous

b. Two body regions

c. Four pairs of legs

Mites
iii. Class Insecta ( grasshoppers, bees)
a. Many fly

b. Three body regions

c. Three pairs of legs

iv. Class Chilopoda ( centipedes)
a. Many segments

b. One pair of legs per segment

c. Poisonous
v. Class Diplopoda ( millipedes)
a. Many segments

b. Two pairs of legs per segment

c. Not poisonous
 9.Phylum: Echinodermata
starfish
A. Spiny skin

B. Radial design
C. Examples: sea stars
 10.Phylum Chordata
( vertebrates with spinal cords)
A. Circulatory system
1. Closed (veins and arteries)

2. Multi chambered heart

B. Digestive System –
Complete system with specialized organs

C. Respiratory System
1. Lungs on land
2. Gills in most cases in water
A. Class: Cyclostomata
a. Cold blooded

b. Cartilage skeleton

c. No true Jaws

d. Example: The lamprey

•Study of fishes is called ICTHYOLOGY

B. Class: Chondrichthyes
a. Cold blooded

b. Sharp teeth

c. Cartilage skeleton

d. Example: sharks, rays, skates

C. Class: Osteichthyes
1. Cold blooded

2. Bone skeleton

3. Two chambered heart

4. Scales

5. Example: perch, bass

D. Class: amphibia
a. Live in water and on land
b. Smooth moist skin ( exceptions: toads)
c. Cold blooded
d. Breathe through gills as babies
e. Breathe through lungs and skin as adults
f. Lay eggs in water

g. Three chambered heart

h. Metamorphisms (tadple to frog)
i. Examples newts, salamanders, frogs and toads
E. Class: Reptilia
•Study of reptiles is called HERPATOLOGY
a. Cold blooded
b. scales

c. Lay eggs on land

d. Incomplete four chambered heart

e. Breath with lungs from birth

f. Example: snakes, lizards, turtles

F. Class: Aves The birds
a. Warm blooded

b. Complete four chambered heart

c. Streamlined (aerodynamic) body

d. Feathers
e. Lay eggs on land

f. Light weight skeleton

g. Examples: Eagles, Seagulls, Turkeys
G. Class: Mammalia
a. Warm blooded
b. Hair
c. Live birth (placentals)
Placenta- nourishes baby while developing in mom
d. Mammary glands - produce milk
- nurse young
e. Two pairs of limbs

f. High functioning brain and sense organs

 Introduction into
Cell Biology

What is Life? What is a cell?

 Intro into Cell Biology
Single cell organisms – Multi cell organisms

-> multi cell organisms -> higher degree or organization of

cells within the organism -> specialization of cells

Human red blood cells Human skin cells Plant cells

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Intro into Cell Biology

Prokaryotes – Domain Archea

-> Lack peptidoglycan

-> Live in extreme environments
Include:
Methanogens
Extreme halophiles
Extreme thermophiles
-> Role in disease not well
understood—
understood —this group has only
Thermophiles growing in
recently been discovered
Yellowstone hot springs.
Structure of
Animal Cells
 Cell Organelles
• Nucleus
– 1 Nuclear envelope
– Chromatin and DNA
– Nucleolus
• Mitochondria
– Double membrane
– Mitochondrial (maternal) DNA
– “Power House” of the cell
• Food converted into energy
– Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• Consumes Oxygen, produces CO2
 Mitochondria
• Function
– make ATP energy from cellular respiration
• sugar + O2  ATP
• fuels the work of life
• Structure ATP
– double membrane

in both animal &

plant cells
 Cell Organelles
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Site where cell membrane and
exported material is made
– Ribosomes (rough)
• Make protiens
• Smooth ER- lipids
• Golgi Apparatus
– Receives and modifies
– Directs new materials
• Lysosomes
– Intracellular digestion
– Releases nutrients
– Breakdown of waste
 Cell Organelles
• Peroxisomes
– Hydrogen Peroxide generated and degraded
• Cytosol
– Water based gel
– Chemical reactions
• Cytoskeleton
– Filaments (actin, intermediate and microtubules)
– Movement of organelles and cell
– Structure/strengthen cell
• Vessicles
– Material transport
– Membrane, ER, Golgi derived vessicles
 Organic Molecules of Cells
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids
 Proteins
• Most diverse and complex macromolecules in
the cell
• Used for structure, function and information
• Made of linearly arranged amino acid residues
– “folded” up with “active” regions
 Types of Proteins
1) Enzymes – catalyzes covalent bond breakage or formation
2) Structural – collagen, elastin, keratin, etc.
3) Motility – actin, myosin, tubulin, etc.
4) Regulatory – bind to DNA to switch genes on or off
5) Storage – ovalbumin, casein, etc.
6) Hormonal – insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc.
7) Receptors – hormone and neurotransmitter receptors
8) Transport – carries small molecules or irons
9) Special purpose proteins – green fluorescent protein, etc.
 Lipids
• Hydrophobic molecules
– Energy storage, membrane components, signal
molecules
– Triglycerides (fat), phospholipids, waxes, sterols

Carbohydrates
• Sugars, storage (glycogen, starch), Structural
polymers (cellulose and chitin)
• Major substrates of energy metabolism
 Nucleic Acids
• DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA
encode genetic
information for
synthesis of all
proteins
• Blue print
 Water Molecule
• Hydrophobic “Water-fearing”
– Molecule is not polar, cannot form H bonds and is
“repelled” from water
– Insoluble
• Hydrophillic “Water-loving”
– Molecule is polar, forms H bonds with water
– Soluble
Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane phosphate
“head”

• Function
– separates cell from outside
lipid “tail”
– controls what enters or leaves cell
• O2, CO2, food, H2O, nutrients, waste
– recognizes signals from other cells
• allows communication between cells
• Structure
– double layer of fat
• phospholipid bilayer
– receptor molecules
• proteins that
receive signals
cytoplasm
jelly-like material holding lysosome
organelles in place food digestion
garbage disposal &
vacuole & vesicles recycling
nucleus
transport inside cells protects DNA
storage controls cell

centrioles
cell division

mitochondria
make ATP energy
from sugar + O2
cell membrane
cell boundary
controls movement
of materials in & out
recognizes signals
ribosomes
builds proteins
Golgi apparatus
finishes, packages
ER & ships proteins
helps finish proteins
makes membranes
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
• Exocytosis
- membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane,
releases enclosed material to extracellular
space.
• Endocytosis
- cell membrane invaginates, pinches in,
creates vesicle enclosing contents
 The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton, a component of structural
functions, is critical to cell motility.
• Cells have three types of filaments that are
distinguishable by the diameter.
• Actin filaments (microfilaments): 5-9 nm diameter
with twisted strands.
Cancer: Unregulated Cell Division
 Cancer continued; three cancer types

• Carcinomas; constitute 90% of cancers, are

cancers of epithelial cells
• Sarcomas; are rare and consist of tumors of
connective tissues (connective tissue,
muscle, bone etc.)
• Leukemias and lymphomas; constitute 8%
of tumors. Sometimes referred to as liquid
tumors. Leukemias arise from blood
forming cells and lymphomas arise from
cells of the immune system (T and B cells).
 Terminology:
STEM CELL- cell which can make exact copies
of itself indefinitely, can differentiate, and
produce specialized cells for various tissues of
body.
TOTIPOTENT- can become any kind of cell
Early Embryonic SC
PLURIPOTENT- almost any kind of cell
Blastocyst Embryonic SC
MULTIPOTENT- limited range of cell types
Adult SC: nerve cells, blood cells, muscle cells,
bone and skin cells.
 This cell
Can form the
Embryo and placenta

This cell
Can just form the
embryo

Fully mature
 Kinds of Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells
• five to six-day-old embryo
• Tabula rasa
Embryonic germ cells
• derived from the part of a human embryo or fetus that
will ultimately produce eggs or sperm (gametes).
Adult stem cells
• undifferentiated cells found among specialized or
differentiated cells in a tissue or organ after birth
• appear to have a more restricted ability to produce
different cell types and to self-renew.
 Pluripotent Stem Cells –
more potential to become any type of
cell
 Multipotent stem cells

• Multipotent
stem cells –
limited in what
the cells can
become
 Adult Stem Cells
An undifferentiated cells found among
specialized or differentiated cells in a
tissue or organ after birth

• Skin
• Fat Cells
• Bone marrow
• Brain
• Many other organs
& tissues
 Umbilical cord stem cells

• Also Known as Wharton’s Jelly

• Adult stem cells of infant origin
• Less invasive than bone marrow
• Greater compatibility
• Less expensive
EVOLUTION
Charles Darwin
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Evolution, or change over time, is the process
by which modern organisms have descended
from ancient organisms.

• A scientific theory is a well-supported testable

explanation of phenomena that have occurred
in the natural world.
 Galápagos Finches
• Darwin’s finches from the Galápagos Islands
– arranged to show evolutionary relationships

– Notice
Berry
Insect eaters eater that beak
Seed Cactus shape
eaters eaters
– varies
dependin
Insect eaters
g on diet
Lamarck
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

• Tendency toward Perfection(Giraffe necks)

• Use and Disuse (bird’s using forearms)

• Inheritance of Acquired Traits

• Are you still paying Attention?
 Lamarck’s Giraffes
• According to Lamarck’s theory of inheritance
of acquired characteristics
– ancestral
short-necked
giraffes
– stretched
their necks
– to reach
leaves high on
trees.
– Their offspring
were born
– with longer
necks
 Population Growth
• Thomas Malthus-19th
century English
economist
• If population grew
(more Babies born
than die)
– Insufficient living
space
– Food runs out
– Darwin applied this
theory to animals
Natural Selection & Artificial Selection
• Natural variation--differences among
individuals of a species

• Artificial selection- nature provides the

variation among different organisms, and
humans select those variations they find
useful.
 Natural Selection
• Plant and animal breeders
– practice artificial selection by selecting those traits
they deem desirable and then breed plants and
animals with those traits there by bringing about a
great amount of change
• Observing artificial selection gave Darwin the
idea that a process of selection among variant
types in nature could also bring about change
• Thomas Malthus’ essay on population
– suggested that competition for resources
– and high infant mortality limited population size
 Darwin and Wallace

• Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

– read Malthus’ book
– and came to the same conclusion,
• that a natural process
– was selecting only a few individuals for survival
• Darwin’s and Wallace’s idea
– called natural selection
– was presented simultaneously in 1859
 Natural Selection—Main Points
• Organisms in all populations
– possess heritable variations such as size, speed,
agility, visual acuity, digestive enzymes, color, and
so forth
• Some variations are more favorable than
others
– some have a competitive edge in acquiring
resources and/or avoiding predators
• Not all young survive to reproductive maturity
– Those with favorable variations are more likely to
survive and pass on their favorable variations
 Naturally Selected Giraffes
• According to the Darwin-Wallace theory
– of natural selection, giraffe’s long neck evolved

– because
ancestors
with longer
necks
– had an
advantage
– and
reproduced
more often
 “Survival of the Fittest”
• In colloquial usage,
– natural selection is sometimes expressed as
– “survival of the fittest”
• This is misleading because
– natural selection is not simply a matter of survival
– but involves differential rates
– of survival and reproduction
 Modern View of Evolution
• During the 1930s and 1940s,
paleontologists, population biologists, geneticists,
and others developed ideas that merged to form a
modern synthesis or neo-Darwinian view of
evolution
• They incorporated chromosome theory of
inheritance into evolutionary thinking
• They saw changes in genes (mutations) as one
source of variation
 Mutations
• Mutations result in a change in hereditary
information
• Mutations that take place in sex cells are
inheritable,whether they are chromosomal
mutations
• affecting a large segment of a chromosomeor point
mutations
• individual changes in particular genes
• Mutations are random with respect to fitness
– they may be beneficial, neutral, or harmful
 What Causes Mutations?

• Some mutations are induced by mutagens

– agents that bring about higher mutations rates
such as
• some chemicals
• ultraviolet radiation
• X-rays
• extreme temperature changes
• Some mutations are spontaneous
– occurring without any known mutagen
 Styles of Evolution
• Divergent evolution occurs
– when an ancestral species
– gives rise to diverse descendants
– adapted to various aspects of the environment
• Divergent evolution leads to descendants
– that differ markedly from their ancestors
• Convergent evolution involves the
development
– of similar characteristics
– in distantly related organisms
• Parallel evolution involves the development
– of similar characteristics
– in closely related organisms
 Divergent Evolution

• Divergent evolution of a variety

– of placental mammals from a common ancestor
• Divergence accounts for descendants
– that differ from their ancestors and from one another
 Convergent Evolution
• Convergent evolution takes place
– when distantly related organisms give rise to
species
– that resemble
one another
– because they
adapt
– in comparable
ways
 Parallel Evolution

• Parallel evolution
– involves the independent
origin
– of similar features in related
organisms
 Microevolution and Macroevolution
• Microevolution is any change in the
– the genetic make-up of a species, and
– involves changes within a species
• Macroevolution involves changes
– such as the origin of a new species
– or changes at even higher levels
– For example, the origin of birds from reptiles
• The cumulative effects of microevolution
– are responsible for macroevolution
 “Living Fossils”
• Several organisms have shown
– little or no change for long periods
• If these still exist as living organisms today
– they are sometimes called living fossils
• For example:
– horseshoe crabs
– Latimaria (fish)
– Gingko trees
• Some of these are generalized and can live
under a wide variety of enviroinments
 A Living Fossil
• Latimeria
– belongs to a group of fish
– once thought to have gone extinct
– at the end of the Mesozoic Era
A specimen was caught
off the coast of East Africa in 1938
 A Second Living Fossil
• Ginkgos
– have changed very
little
– for millions of
years
 Mass Extinction

• The mass extinction of dinosaurs

– and other animals at the end of Mesozoic Era
– is well known,
• but the greatest mass extinction
– occurred at the end of the Paleozoic Era
– when more than 90% of all species died out
 Structures with Similarities
• Homologous structures
– are basically similar structures
– that have been modified for different functions
– They indicate derivation from a common ancestor.
• Analogous structures are structures
– with similarities unrelated
– to evolutionary relationships
– that serve the same function
– but are quite dissimilar
– in both structure and development
 Homologous Structures
• Forelimbs of humans, whales, dogs, and birds
– are superficially dissimilar,
– yet all are made up of the same bones,
– have similar
arrangement
– of muscles,
nerves and
blood
vessels,
– are similarly
arranged with respect to other structures,
– have similar pattern of embryonic development
 Analogous Structures

• Wings of insects, birds and bats

– serve the same function but differ considerably
– in structure and embryological development
• Are any of these wings • Yes, bird and
– both analogous and homologous?
bat wings
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Introduction
• The digestive system is
used for breaking down
food into nutrients
which then pass into
the circulatory system
and are taken to where
they are needed in the
body.
 Introduction

 There are four stages to

food processing:
1. Ingestion: taking in food
2. Digestion: breaking
down food into
nutrients
3. Absorption: taking in
nutrients by cells
4. Egestion: removing any
leftover wastes
 The Human Digestive System
• Begins when food
enters the mouth.
• It is physically broken
down by the teeth.
• It is begun to be
chemically broken down
by amylase, an enzyme
in saliva that breaks
down carbohydrates.
Dental formulae
 The Human Digestive System

• The tongue moves the

food around until it
forms a ball called a
bolus.
• The bolus is passed to
the pharynx (throat)
and the epiglottis
makes sure the bolus
passes into the
oesophagus and not
down the windpipe!
 The Human Digestive System
• The bolus passes down
the oesophagus by
peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is a wave of
muscular contractions
that push the bolus
down towards the
stomach.
 The Human Digestive System
• To enter the stomach,
the bolus must pass
through the lower
oesophageal sphincter,
a tight muscle that
keeps stomach acid out
of the esophagus.
 The Human Digestive System
• The stomach has folds
called rugae and is a big
muscular pouch which
churns the bolus
(Physical Digestion) and
mixes it with gastric
juice, a mixture of
stomach acid, mucus
and enzymes.
 The Human Digestive System
 The acid kills off any
invading bacteria or
viruses.
 The enzymes help break
down proteins and
lipids. Chemical
Digestion.
 The mucus protects the
lining of the stomach
from being eaten away
by the acid.
 The Human Digestive System
 The stomach does do
some absorption too.
 Some medicines (i.e.
aspirin), water and
alcohol are all absorbed
through the stomach.
 The digested bolus is
now called chyme and it
leaves the stomach by
passing through the
pyloric sphincter.
 The Human Digestive System
• Chyme is now in the
small intestine.
• The majority of
absorption occurs here.
• The liver and pancreas
help the small intestine
to maximize absorption.
• The small intestine is
broken down into three
parts:
 LIVER
• Largest gland in the body (1.5 Kg)
• Under the diaphragm, within the rib
cage in the upper right quadrant of the
abdomen
 GALLBLADDER

• Thin-walled green
muscular sac
• On the inferior surface of
the liver
• Stores bile that is not
immediately needed for
digestion
• When the muscular wall of
LIVER

the gallbladder contracts

bile is expelled into the bile GALL
duct BLADDER
 BILE
• BILE – bile salts, bile
pigments, cholesterol,
neutral fats, phospholipids
and electrolytes

• Liver produces 0.5-1 L of

bile daily
LIVER
• Bile salts emulsify fats

GALL
BLADDER
 Functions
• Metabolic
Synthesis
Breakdown
Other functions – storage of vitamin A,D,B12,F…
• Excretion of waste products from bloodstream
into bile
• Vascular – storage of blood
 Synthesis
• Protein metabolism
 Synthesis of amino acids
• Carbohydrate metabolism
 Gluconeogenesis
 Glycogenolysis
 Glycogenesis
• Lipid metabolism
 Cholesterol synthesis
 Lipogenesis
• Production of coagulation factors I, II, V, VII, IX, X and XI,
and protein C, protein S and antithrombin
• Main site of red blood cell production
• Produces insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a polypeptide
protein – anabolic effects
• Production of trombopoetin
 Breakdown
• Breaks down insulin and other hormones
• Breaks down hemoglobin
• Breaks down or modifies toxic substances
(methyla on) → some mes results in
toxication
• Converts ammonia to urea
 Other functions
• Produces albumin, the major osmolar
component of blood serum
• Synthesizes angiotensinogen, the hormone
responsible for raising blood pressure when
activated by renin (enzyme released when the
kidney senses low blood pressure)
Pancreas
Pancreatic Hormones, Insulin and Glucagon,
Regulate Metabolism
Production of Pancreatic Hormones by Three Cell Types

 Alpha cells produce glucagon.

 Beta cells produce insulin.
 Delta cells produce somatostatin.
Pancreatic Hormones, Insulin and Glucagon,
Regulate Metabolism

Metabolism is controlled by insulin and glucagon

Roles of Insulin

 Acts on tissues (especially liver, skeletal muscle,

adipose) to increase uptake of glucose and amino
acids.
- without insulin, most tissues do not take in
glucose and amino acids well (except brain).

 Increases glycogen production (glucose storage) in

the liver and muscle.

 Stimulates lipid synthesis from free fatty acids and

triglycerides in adipose tissue.

 Also stimulates potassium uptake by cells (role in

potassium homeostasis).
 Treatment in Diabetes

• Change in lifestyle:
– Increase exercise:
– Weight reduction.
– Increased fiber in diet.
– Reduce saturated fat.
 The Human Digestive System
1. Duodenum
• Bile, produced in the
liver but stored in the
gall bladder, enters
through the bile duct.
It breaks down fats.
• The pancreas secretes
pancreatic juice to
reduce the acidity of
the chyme.
 The Human Digestive System
2. Jejunum
• The jejunum is where
the majority of
absorption takes place.
• It has tiny fingerlike
projections called villi
lining it, which
increase the surface
area for absorbing
nutrients.
 The Human Digestive System

• Each villi itself has tiny fingerlike projections called

microvilli, which further increase the surface area
for absorption.
 The Human Digestive System
3. Ileum
• The last portion of the
small intestine is the
ileum, which has fewer
villi and basically
compacts the leftovers
to pass through the
caecum into the large
intestine.
 The Human Digestive System
• The large intestine (or
colon) is used to absorb
water from the waste
material leftover and to
produce vitamin K and
some B vitamins using
the helpful bacteria that
live here.
 The Human Digestive System
• All leftover waste is
compacted and stored
at the end of the large
intestine called the
rectum.
• When full, the anal
sphincter loosens and
the waste, called feces,
passes out of the body
through the anus.
 Digestion and Homeostasis
• The endocrine, nervous,
digestive and circulatory
systems all work
together to control
digestion.
• Before we eat, smelling
food releases saliva in
our mouths and gastrin
in our stomachs which
prepares the body for a
snack. The Hormone Gastrin
 Digestion and Homeostasis
 A large meal activates
receptors that churn the
stomach and empty it.
 If the meal was high in
fat, digestion is slowed,
allowing time for the fat
to be broken down.
 Hence why we feel fuller
after eating a high fat
meal.
Vitamins & Minerals
 Vitamin Facts
• Vitamins are essential organic nutrients,
required in small amounts.
• They cannot be synthesized by the body. Must
be obtained by outside sources like diet,
rumen bacteria & sun.
• Required for growth, maintenance,
reproduction and lactation.
 Classes of Vitamins

Fat Soluble Vitamins: Water Soluble Vitamins:

stored in tissues not stored in tissues, must
have constant supply
Examples
A Examples
D B, B1, B2, B6 & B12
E Niacin
K Folic Acid
C
Function, Deficiency Signs & Sources
Vitamin A(xerophthol)

Function: development healthy skin and nerve tissue.

Aids in building up resistance to infection. Functions in
eyesight and bone formation. ALL ANIMALS require a
source of Vitamin A. It is important in the ration of
pregnant females.

Deficiency signs: retarded growth in the young, the

development of a peculiar condition around the eyes
known as Xerophthalmia , night blindness ( nyctolopia )
and reproductive disorders.

Sources: whole milk, carotene, animal body oils (cod

fish and tuna), legume forages and can be synthetically
produced.
Vitamin E (tocopheral)
Function: normal reproduction.

Deficiency signs: poor growth, "crazy chick" disease,

Muscular Dystrophy, "white muscle" disease in
ruminants and swine and "stiff lamb" disease (affects
the nerves and muscles).

Sources: synthetic for poultry and swine, cereal grains

and wheat germ oil, green forages, protein
concentrates, oil seeds (peanut and soybean oil).

Vitamin E rapidly destroyed in rancid or spoiled fats.

That is why these may cause white muscle disease.
Utilization of Vitamin E is dependent on adequate
selenium.
Vitamin D(calciferal)

Function: is essential for the proper utilization of

calcium and phosphorus to produce normal, healthy
bones.

Deficiency signs: retarded growth, misshapen bones

(rickets), osteoporosis in adults and Tetany in infants

Sources: Whole milk, sun-cured hays, forage crops,

fish liver oils, irradiated yeast.
Vitamin K(Anthaemorhagic)

Function: necessary for the maintenance of normal

blood coagulation.

Deficiency signs: blood loses its power to clot or the

time needed for clotting is longer and serious
hemorrhages can result from slight wounds or bruises.

Sources: green leafy forages, fish meal, liver,

soybeans, rumen and intestinal synthesis, and the
synthetic compounds.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Function: has an effect on the metabolism of calcium in

the body (Not required in rations of farm animals.).

Deficiency signs: none demonstrated in livestock.

Human deficiency: scurvy (swollen and painful joints
and bleeding gums) and brittleness of bones.

Sources: citrus fruits, tomatoes, leafy vegetables and

potatoes.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

Function: required for the normal metabolism of

carbohydrates.

Deficiency signs: loss of appetite, muscular weakness,

severe nervous disorders, general weakness and wasting
(BeriBeri).

Sources: raw, whole grains and especially their seed

coats and embryos; fresh green forage; and yeast, milk
and rumen synthesis.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Function: necessary for normal embryo development,

important in the metabolism of amino acids and
carbohydrates.

Deficiency signs: poor reproduction characterized by

small litters and deformed young (cleft palate and club-
footedness) curly toe paralysis in chicks, digestive
disturbances, general weakness and eye abnormalities.

Sources: milk and dairy by-products, yeast, green

forages, well cured hay (especially alfalfa), whole grains,
wheat bran and synthetic riboflavin rumen synthesis.
 Mineral Facts
• Essential inorganic nutrients, required in small
amounts.
• As many as 20 minerals may be required!
• Required for growth, maintenance,
reproduction and lactation.
The Macrominerals
• Calcium Ca
• Phosphorous P
• Potassium K
• Sulfur S
• Sodium Na
• Chlorine Cl
• Magnesium Mg
Calcium (Ca)

Function: major component of bones and teeth and

essential in blood coagulation, nerve and muscle
function and milk and egg production.

Deficiency signs: retarded growth, deformed bones in

young animals (rickets), and soft shelled eggs and
osteoporosis in older animals.

Sources: milk, oyster shells and limestone.

Sodium chloride

Considered together because of a close biochemical

relationship and are provided as common salt (NaCl)

Function: required for the formation and retention,

concentration and pH of body fluids, such as protoplasm,
blood. Important in the formation of digestive juices and
functions in nerve and muscle activity.

Deficiency signs: poor condition and depressed appetite.

Most farm produced feeds are deficient in these two
minerals.

Sources: salt supplements and injectable products.

Phosphorus (P)

Function: essential for the formation of bones, teeth,

and body fluids. Required for metabolism, cell
respiration and normal reproduction.

Deficiency signs: similar to calcium deficiency, lack

of appetite, poor reproduction and unthrifty
appearance.

Sources: dicalcium phosphate, bone meal,

Potassium (K)

Function: retention and formation of body fluids, pH

concentration of body fluid and rumen digestion.

Deficiency signs: nonspecific and unlikely under most

conditions but may have decreased feed consumption
and efficiency.

Sources: coconut water

Manganese (Mn)

Function: Fetal development, udder development, milk

production and skeleton development.

Deficiency signs: Abortions, reduced fertility, deformed

young and poor growth.

Sources: Most use trace mineralized salt.

I Cu FeSe Mn Mozn!
What’s that supposed to mean?

The Microminerals
Iodine (I)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Selenium (Se)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybedenum (Mo)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)

Function: should be present in animal tissues for iron

to be properly utilized, hemoglobin formation and
synthesis of keratin for fair and wool growth.

Deficiency signs: lack of muscle coordination and

anemia.

Sources: copper salts.

Iron (Fe):

Function: essential for the function of every organ and

tissue of the body (Hemoglobin).

Deficiency signs: seldom occurs in older animals,

nutritional anemia, labored breathing and pale eyelids,
ears and nose.

Sources: copper or trace mineral salts.

Cobalt (Co)

Function: required as a nutrient for the microorganisms

in ruminants and thereby aids in rumen synthesis of
Vitamin B12. Because swine cannot manufacture B12
from cobalt, the diets are supplemental with vitamin B12
instead . necessary for formation of RBC

Deficiency signs: lack of appetite, loss of weight, rough

hair coat, anemia,
Sources: legumes and salt containing cobalt.
Magnesium (Mg)

Function: similar to calcium and phosphorus. Protein

metabolism needs mg

Deficiency signs: Animals are irritable, their heart beat

is irregular and there is severe kidney damage.

Sources: mineral supplements and ordinary feeds.

 Which nutrient deficiencies
does have?
Bleeding gums &
Night blindness?
Scurvy?
A
C

Lameness?
Blood won’t clot?
D&E
K

Childless/
Poor posture? reproductive
Ca & P dysfunction?
B2 & A
 Vocabulary Review

Nutrients : chemical substances in food that are used by the body to produce energy
and tissues.
Vitamins: essential organic nutrients, required in small amounts, that cannot be
synthesized by the body. Required for growth , maintenance, reproduction and
lactation.
Vitamin deficiency: decline in health due to the lack of a vitamin in a ration.
 Vocabulary Review
Fat soluble vitamin: a vitamin that can be stored and accumulated in the liver and
other fatty tissues.
Water soluble vitamin: a vitamin that cannot be stored in the tissues. Must be
provided regularly as deficiencies can develop in a short time.
Minerals: essential inorganic compounds, required in small amounts. Required for
growth, maintenance, reproduction and lactation.
Macrominerals: required in large amounts.
Microminerals required in small amounts.
The Circulatory System
 The Closed Circulatory System
•Humans have a closed circulatory system, typical of
all vertebrates, in which blood is confined to vessels
and is distinct from the interstitial fluid.

–The heart pumps blood into large vessels

that branch into smaller ones leading into the organs.

–Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the blood

and the interstitial fluid bathing the cells.
 The Cardiovascular System
•Three Major Elements –
Heart, Blood Vessels, & Blood
–1. The Heart- cardiac muscle
tissue
–highly interconnected cells
–four chambers
•Right atrium
•Right ventricle
•Left atrium
•Left ventricle
 Circuits
•Pulmonary circuit
–The blood pathway between
the right side of the heart, to
the lungs, and back to the left
side of the heart.

•Systemic circuit
–The pathway between the
left and right sides of the
heart.
 The Cardiovascular System
2. Blood Vessels -A network of tubes

–Arteriesarterioles move away from the heart

•Elastic Fibers
•Circular Smooth Muscle

–Capillaries – where gas exchange takes place.

•One cell thick
•Serves the Respiratory System

–VeinsVenules moves towards the heart

•Skeletal Muscles contract to force blood back from legs
•When they break - varicose veins form
 The Cardiovascular System
3. The Blood

A. Plasma

Liquid portion of the blood.

Contains clotting factors,
hormones, antibodies, dissolved
gases, nutrients and waste
 The Cardiovascular System
•The Blood

B. Erythrocytes - Red Blood

Cells

–Carry hemoglobin and

oxygen. Do not have a
nucleus and live only about
120 days.

–Can not repair themselves.

 The Cardiovascular System
•The Blood

C. Leukocytes – White Blood

cells

–Fight infection and are formed in

the bone marrow

–Five types – neutrophils,

lymphocytes, eosinophils,
basophils, and monocytes.
 The Cardiovascular System
The Blood

•D. Thrombocytes – Platelets.

–These are cell fragment that are

formed in the bone marrow from
magakaryocytes.

–Clot Blood by sticking together

– via protein fibers called fibrin.
 Disorders of the Circulatory System
• Anemia - lack of iron in the blood, low RBC count

• Leukemia - white blood cells proliferate wildly, causing anemia

• Hemophilia - bleeder’s disease, due to lack of fibrinogen in

thrombocytes

• Heart Murmur - abnormal heart beat, caused by valve problems

• Heart attack - blood vessels around the heart become blocked ,

also called myocardial infarction
 Functions of the Heart
• Generating blood pressure
• Routing blood
– Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
• Ensuring one-way blood flow
– Heart valves ensure one-way flow
• Regulating blood supply
– Changes in contraction rate and force match blood
delivery to changing metabolic needs
 Heart Wall

• Three layers of tissue

– Epicardium: This serous membrane of smooth
outer surface of heart
– Myocardium: Middle layer composed of
cardiac muscle cell and responsibility for heart
contracting
– Endocardium: Smooth inner surface of heart
chambers
 External
•Four chambers
–2 atria
–2 ventricles
•Auricles
•Major veins
–Superior vena cava
–Pulmonary veins
•Major arteries
–Aorta
–Pulmonary trunk
Systemic and Pulmonary
Circulation
 Cardiac Cycle
• Heart has two pumps that work together, right
and left half
• Repetitive contraction (systole) and relaxation
(diastole) of heart chambers
• Blood moves through circulatory system from
areas of higher to lower pressure.
– Contraction of heart produces the pressure
 Heart Homeostasis
• Effect of blood pressure
– Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure
• Effect of pH, carbon dioxide, oxygen
– Chemoreceptors monitor
• Effect of extracellular ion concentration
– Increase or decrease in extracellular K+ decreases heart rate
• Effect of body temperature
– Heart rate increases when body temperature increases, heart rate
decreases when body temperature decreases
 What makes up our blood?
• RED BLOOD CELLS (Erythrocytes) – The most abundant
cells in our blood; they are produced in the bone marrow and
contain a protein called hemoglobin that carries oxygen to our
cells.
• WHITE BLOOD CELLS (Leukocytes) – They are part of the
immune system and destroy infectious agents called
pathogens.
• PLASMA – This is the yellowish liquid portion of blood that
contains electrolytes, nutrients and vitamins, hormones,
clotting factors, and proteins such as antibodies to fight
infection.
• PLATELETS (Thrombocytes) – The clotting factors that are
carried in the plasma; they clot together in a process called
coagulation to seal a wound and prevent a loss of blood.
 Blood Facts
The average adult has about FIVE liters of blood inside of
their body, which makes up 7-8% of their body weight.
Blood is living tissue (connective tissue) that carries
oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body, and carries
carbon dioxide and other waste products back to the lungs,
kidneys and liver for disposal. It also fights against
infection and helps heal wounds, so we can stay healthy.
There are about one billion red blood cells in two to three
drops of blood. For every 600 red blood cells, there are
about 40 platelets and one white cell.
Blood is BASIC BUFFER with pH = 7.4
 Genetics of Blood Types
• Your blood type is established before you are BORN,
by specific GENES inherited from your parents.

• You inherit one gene from your MOTHER and one

from your FATHER.

• These genes determine your blood type by causing

proteins called AGGLUTINOGENS to exist on the
surface of all of your red blood cells.
 What are blood types?
Blood Types
There are 3 alleles or genes for blood AA or AO = Type A
type: A, B, & O. Since we have 2 genes, BB or BO = Type B
there are 6 possible combinations. OO = Type O
AB = Type AB
 Blood Transfusions
A blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is given to a patient through an
intravenous (IV) line in one of the blood vessels. Blood transfusions are done to replace
blood lost during surgery or a serious injury. A transfusion also may be done if a person’s
body can't make blood properly because of an illness.

Who can give you blood? Universal Donor

People with TYPE O blood are called

Universal Donors, because they can give
blood to any blood type.

People with TYPE AB blood are called

Universal Recipients, because they can
receive any blood type.

Rh +  Can receive + or -
Rh -  Can only receive -
Universal Recipient
 Rh Factors
• Scientists sometimes study Rhesus monkeys
to learn more about the human anatomy
because there are certain similarities between
the two species. While studying Rhesus
monkeys, a certain blood protein was
discovered. This protein is also present in the
blood of some people. Other people, however,
do not have the protein.
• The presence of the protein, or lack of it, is
referred to as the Rh (for Rhesus) factor. A+ A-
• If your blood does contain the protein, your
blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+). If your
B+ B-
blood does not contain the protein, your blood AB+ AB-
is said to be Rh negative (Rh-). O+ O-
 Blood Evidence
• Blood samples – Can be analyzed to determine blood
type and DNA, which can be matched to possible
suspects.

• Blood droplets – Can be analyzed to give clues to the

location of a crime, movement of a victim, and type of
weapon.

• Blood spatter – Can be analyzed to determine

patterns that give investigators clues to how a crime
might have happened.
Blood Antigens Antibodies Can give Can receive
Group blood to blood from

AB

O
Blood Antigens Antibodies Can give Can receive
Group blood to blood from

AB A and B None AB AB, A, B, O

A A B A and AB A and O

B B A B and AB B and O

O None A and B AB, A, B, O O

Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory system

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs –
alveoli
 Function of the Respiratory System
 Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the blood and external
environment
 Exchange of gasses takes place within the
lungs in the alveoli(only site of gas exchange,
other structures passageways
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and
humidify the incoming air
 Shares responsibility with cardiovascular
system
Upper Respiratory Tract
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

 Olfactory receptors are located in the

mucosa on the superior surface
 The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa
 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles
Larynx (Voice Box)

 Routes air and food into proper

channels
 Plays a role in speech
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis)
Structures of the Larynx

 Vocal cords (vocal folds)

 Vibrate with expelled air to create sound
(speech)
 Glottis – opening between vocal cords
Trachea (Windpipe)

 Connects larynx with bronchi

 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage
Primary Bronchi

 Formed by division of the trachea

 Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches
Lungs

 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity

 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior
portion)
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Left lung – two lobes
 Right lung – three lobes
Bronchioles

 Smallest
branches of
the bronchi
Bronchioles

 All but the smallest

branches have
reinforcing cartilage
Bronchioles

 Terminal
bronchioles end
in alveoli
Respiratory Membrane
(Air--Blood Barrier)
(Air

 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining

alveolar walls
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external
surfaces of alveoli
Respiratory Membrane
(Air--Blood Barrier)
(Air
Gas Exchange

 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane

by diffusion
 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Macrophages add protection
Events of Respiration

 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and

out of the lungs
 External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
Events of Respiration

 Respiratory gas transport – transport of

oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
 Internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries
Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)

 Two phases
 Inspiration – flow of air into lung
 Expiration – air leaving lung
Inspiration

 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles

contract
 The size of the thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to
an increase in intrapulmonary volume
Exhalation

 Largely a passive process which depends

on natural lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage
External Respiration

 Oxygen movement into the blood

 The alveoli always has more oxygen than
the blood
 Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the
area of lower concentration
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
External Respiration

 Carbon dioxide movement out of the

blood
 Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in
the alveoli
 Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor
Gas Transport in the Blood

 Oxygen transport in the blood

 Inside red blood cells attached to
hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
 A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma
Gas Transport in the Blood

 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

 Most is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
 A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen
Internal Respiration
Neural Regulation of Respiration
 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal
nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla
 The pons appears to smooth out respiratory
rate
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
 Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often
due to extra oxygen needs
Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors
 Carbon dioxide levels
 Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the
main regulatory chemical for respiration
 Increased carbon dioxide increases
respiration
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on
the medulla oblongata
Chronic Bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely inflamed
 Mucus production increases
 Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
 Risk of lung infection increases
 Pneumonia is common
 Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early
Asthma

 Chronic inflamed hypersensitive

bronchiole passages
 Response to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
Aging Effects

 Elasticity of lungs decreases

 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
 More risks of respiratory tract infection
Respiratory Rate Changes
Throughout Life
 Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
 Infants – 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
 Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per
minute
 Rate often increases somewhat with old
age
Nervous System
 Nervous system
 One of the two main communication systems in the
body
 Coordinates all the activities of the body carrying
messages from one cell to the next
 Enables the body to respond and adapt to changes
that occur inside and outside the body
 Basic structural unit is the NEURON or nerve cell
 The Nervous System
Each neuron
consists of:
The cell body.
Dendrites.
The axon.
 Neurons
Cell body consists of nucleus
Dendrites consist of nerve fibers that carry
impulses toward the cell body
Axon is a single nerve fiber that carries
impulses away from the cell body
Myelin sheath covers the axon (fat covering) that
insulates and maintains the axon
Nodes of Ranvier are areas where no myelin is
present
The axon of one neuron lies next to the
dendrites of another neuron
The spaces between them are called synapses
Impulses coming from one axon “jump” the
synapse to get to the dendrite of another
neuron which carry it in the right direction
Special chemicals, neurotransmitters, found at
the end of each neuron allow impulses to pass
from one neuron to another so impulses can
follow many different routes
 Nerve fibers
Nerves are a combination of many nerve
fibers found in the brain and spinal cord
3 types:
Afferent – sensory nerves
Nerves carry messages from body to the brain and
spinal cord
Efferent – motor nerves
carries messages from the brain and spinal cord to the
body
Associative - interneurons
Carries impulses from the sensory neuron to the motor
neuron
 3 Divisions
Central nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves
Autonomic nervous system
Controls involuntary body functions
Autonomic nervous system
Includes peripheral nerves and ganglia (group of cell
bodies outside the CNS that carry impulses to
involuntary muscles and glands)
 Central nervous system
BRAIN – mass of nerve tissue protected by
membranes and skull
Cerebrum
Largest and highest section
Has convolutions (folds) that separates the lobes
4 lobes:
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Temporal
 Occipital
 Frontal lobe

Links all components of behaviors

Impulse control
Injury here may cause lose of function on one
side of the body
Speech may become halted or disorganized
Personality changes can occur
Social rules are disregarded
Sustained attention and “insight” are affected
 Temporal lobe

 Perceives and recognizes verbal material

 Most commonly injured
 Causes misunderstandings in what is said
 Emotional changes such as unexplained panic or
tearfulness can occur
 Left temporal lobe involved in production of
speech, naming and verbal memory
 Right temporal lobe involves musical ability,
foreign language, visual memory and
comprehension of the environment
 Parietal lobe
 Construction of language
 Recall of long term memories may be mixed up in
time and sequencing
 Easily lost or confused about left/right
 Difficulty recognizing and naming what they see
 May affect ability to read, write or perform
calculations
 Conscious sensation and voluntary movement is
affected
 Injury to front part of the lobe may cause loss of
body sensation
 Occipital lobe

Injury usually results in blindness to part or all

of the visual field
People may experience “blind spots” or
“holes”
May misperceive pictures they see
Recognition of colors may be distorted
Cerebellum
Below cerebrum
Responsible for
muscle coordination,
balance and posture,
muscle tone
Diencephalon
Section between the cerebrum and midbrain
Contains 2 structures
Thalamus – acts as a relay center and directs sensory
impulses to the cerebrum
Hypothalamus – regulates and control the autonomic
nervous system, temperature, appetite, water balance,
sleep, etc. Also involved in emotions such as fear,
anger, pleasure, pain and affection
Midbrain
Below the cerebrum and top of the brain stem
Responsible for conducting impulses between
brain parts and certain eye and auditory reflexes
Pons
Below the midbrain and in the brain stem
Responsible for conducting messages to other
parts of the brain, chewing, tasting, saliva
production and assists with breathing
Medulla oblongata
Lowest part of the brain stem
Connects with the spinal cord and is responsible
for breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, coughing
and blood pressure
Functional Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex
 Spinal cord
 Continues down from the medulla
oblongata
 Ends at the first or second lumbar
vertebrae
 Surrounded and protected by vertebrae
 Responsible for many reflex actions and
carrying afferent and efferent nerves
 Meninges
 3 membranes that cover and protect the
brain and spinal cord
Dura mater – outer layer
Arachnoid membrane – middle, delicate layer
Pia mater – attached to the brain and contains
blood vessels that nourish the nerve tissue
The brain has 4 ventricles
(hollow spaces that connect
with each other and the
space under the arachnoid
membrane)
Filled with fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid
Circulates continuously
Serves as shock absorber to
protect brain and spinal cord
Carries nutrients to parts of
the CNS and helps remove
waste products
 Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems
Somatic nervous system
12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Spinal nerves carry messages to and from the
spinal cord and are mixed nerves (both
afferent and efferent)
 Autonomic Nervous System
Branch of peripheral nervous system
Maintains balance in the involuntary functions
of the body and allows the body to react in
times of emergency
2 divisions:
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Work together to maintain homeostasis
In times of emergency the sympathetic
nervous system prepares the body to act
Increased heart rate
Increased respirations
Increased blood pressure
Decreased digestion
After the emergency, the parasympathetic
nervous system counteracts actions of the
sympathetic nervous system
Decreased heart rate
Decreased respirations, etc.
 Diseases/disorders
 Traumatic disorders – caused by injury:
 Concussion.
 Brain contusion.
 Congenital disorders – present at birth:
 Spina bifida.
 Hydrocephalus.
 Cerebral palsy.
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA).
 Encephalitis.
 Epilepsy.
 Meningitis.
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Neuralgia.
 Paralysis.
 Parkinson’s disease.
 Dementia.
 Alzheimer’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease
 Chronic, progressive degeneration
of brain cells usually in people
over 50 y.o.
 Tremors, stiffness, muscular
rigidity, forward leaning position,
shuffling gait, mood swings, etc.
 Treatment is supportive and
symptomatic
 Dementia
General term defining a loss in at least two
areas of complex behavior such as language,
memory, visual/spatial abilities or judgment
Does not mean that everyone that is forgetful
has dementia
 Alzheimer’s disease

 Progressive disease where initial symptom is usually a

problem with remembering recently learning information
 Nerve endings in the cortex of the brain degenerate and block
signals
 Cause is unknown and has 3 stages:
 1st stage lasts 2-4 years and involves short-term memory loss, anxiety
and poor judgment
 2nd stage lasts 2-10 years and increases memory loss, difficulty
recognizing people, motor problems, loss of social skills
 3rd stage lasts 1-3 years and includes inability to recognize self, weight
loss, seizures, mood swings, and aphasia (loss of speech).
Excretory System
 Overview of Excretory System
• The excretory system is responsible for maintaining body
homeostasis by controlling fluid balances, and removal of
waste products.

• When cells break down proteins they create nitrogenous

waste called Urea; the excretory system removes this waste
and other wastes created as a byproduct of digestion.

Urinary System
1. After the blood gets pumped to the kidney, water and other solutes are filtered
through the nephrons.
2. Then the filtered waste and excess water reconvenes as Urine in the Ureter.
3. After traveling through the Ureter it is stored in the Bladder.
4. When the Bladder is full it is then expelled by the Urethra.
Major Organs Involved
 Purpose of Major Organs
Kidney - Filters water and all solutes except proteins from blood;
reclaims water and solutes as the body requires. Excretes the
remainder, as urine.

Ureter - Channel for urine to flow from kidney to urinary bladder.

Urinary Bladder - Stretchable container for temporarily storing

urine.

Urethra - Channel for urine to flow from the urinary bladder to

the body surface.
label the parts
on a model
1. Renal Vein
2. Renal Artery
3. Renal Calyx
4. Medullary Pyramid
5. Renal Cortex
12. Renal Column
13. Renal Papillae
14. Renal Pelvis
15. Ureter
 Relation to Homeostasis

• The kidney removes water, vitamins, and minerals when they

are in excess within the bloodstream, but reclaims them
when they are too scarce. In this sense, the kidney is a major
organ for homeostasis because it maintains an equilibrium.
 Purpose of Nephron
• Millions of nephrons located inside of each kidneys
• Responsible for filtration and purification of blood
• Creates urine
 Glomular Filtration
• Pressure of heart contractions
filters blood by forcing water,
ions and solutes from glomular
capillaries into Bowman's
capsule

• Leaves behind blood cells and

proteins

• First step in urine formation

• Osmosis and active filtration

• Substances that passes

through become filtrate
 Tubular Reabsorption
• Variety of substances (water, ions, and selected solutes) leak
out of the nephron, diffuse through interstitial fluid, and then
enter a peritubular capillary

• Occurs along a nephron's tubular parts

• Returns most of filtrate back to blood

• Water is transported via osmosis

o High to low concentration

• Passive and active transportation (tubule → capillary)

 Tubular Secretion
• Transporters move urea, H+, and K+, (wastes) from the
capillaries into the nephron for excretion1

• Continues along nephron's tubular parts

• Active transportation (capillary → tubule)
formation of urine
Reproductive System
 Complementary structures in males and
females
• Gonads- gamete formation and sex hormone
secretion
• Ducts for storage and transport
• Accessory glands- support for gametes
• Supporting structures
– Delivery and fertilization of gametes
– Embryonic and fetal development
Features of male reproductive system
• Scrotum- sac keep testes external to body
• Septum divides scrotum into two sacs
• Dartos helps maintain position and internal
temperature
• Testes descend into scrotum through inguinal
canals during development
 Structure and function of the testis
(plural: testes)
• Divided into lobules
• Seminiferous tubules are
tightly packed within
them
• Cells within tubules:
– Spermatogenic cells
– Sertoli cells regulate sprem
formation
• Leydig (interstitial) cells
secrete testosterone
 Sperm
• Sperm formation
takes 8-10 weeks (but
300M are formed
every day)
• Adapted for
“swimming” to an
oocyte
 Transport of sperm from the testis
• Lumen of seminiferous
tubule
• Rete testis
• Efferent ducts
• Ductus epididymis
• Ductus deferens
• Ejaculatory ducts
• Urethra
– Prostatic (prostate)
– Membranous (muscles)
– Spongy (corpus
spongiosum)
 Accessory glands in males
• Seminal vesicles-alkalinity,
sugar, coagulants
• Prostate- citric acid,
enzymes; PSA (breaks
down clot)
• Bulbourethral glands-
neutralize acidity of
urethra
• Semen contains these
secretions and sperm
Structure of the uterine (fallopian) tubes

Ciliated cells
help move ovum
Fertilization usually
occurs in ampulla
 Features of the uterus
• Muscularity is
prominent
• Perimetrium is part of
peritoneum
• Myometrium- three
layers of smooth muscle
• Endometrium- highly
vascularized; secretory
 Mammary glands
• Modified sweat glands
that produce milk
• Lactiferous ducts are
located in nipple
• Milk production
controlled by prolactin;
milk ejection by oxytocin
Female reproductive cycle
Endocrine System
• Hormones- chemical
messengers carried by
blood-
– May stimulate other glands
– Regulate growth,
development, metabolism,
sex processes
• Major Glands of the Endocrine system
• Pituitary
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal.
• Pancreas
• Ovaries
• Testes
 Pituitary gland
• Master gland of body
• Located in the depression of sphenoid bone
• Produces many hormones that affect other glands
– thyroid stimulating hormone
– Somatotropin- growth hormone
– Lutenizing (LH)- causes ovulation
– ICSH- causes testes to secrete testosterone
– Melanocyte stimulating- distribution of melanin in skin
– ADH- antidiuretic hormone
• Giantism- oversecretion
of somatotropin before
puberty

• Dwarfism-
undersecretion of
somatotropin. Cause:
tumor, injury, infection,
genetics

• Diabetes insipidus-
decreased ADH
• Thyroid- produces
hormones that control
metabolism and
calcium in blood.
• Thyroid gland must
have any source of
iodine

– goiter- not enough

iodine
– hyperthyroidism
– hypothyroidism
• Adrenal glands
• Located just above the
kidney
• Secretes many
hormones
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• Many steroid
hormones, inc estrogen
and androgens.
• Pancreas-
• pancreatic juices into
the intestine
• secretes insulin, a
hormone that
transports glucose into
cells.
• Also secretes glucagon-
increases glucose in
bloodstream
• Insulin was the first hormone identified (late
1920's) which won the doctor and medical
student who discovered it the Nobel Prize
(Banting and Best)

• 1982 - Human Insulin - First ever approved

genetically engineered human therapeutic by
Genentech
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system and immunity

A circulatory system for fluids

returns fluid to the blood

removes antigens from the body

exposes antigens to the immune system

How is fluid moved?

Contraction of skeletal muscles against

lymphatic vessels
Smooth muscle contraction
Valves in lymphatic vessels
Breathing

Obstruction of system leads to edema

Lymph nodes

Grouped together at various parts of the body

Filtration

“Immune surveillance”
immune cells are concentrated there
(as is antigen)
Lymphocytes develop in lymph nodes (after
they are formed in the bone marrow)

T cells develop in the thymus and then enter

the circulation

Macrophages and dendritic cells “present”

antigen in the lymph nodes

What are the major organs/tissues of the

lymphatic system?
How do the cells get there?
Thymus

T cell development: cells migrate from bone

marrow and differentiate into T cells

T helper cells

Cytotoxic T cells

Thymus gets progressively smaller (and less

active) through life
Spleen

Filters blood, while lymph nodes filter lymph

White pulp- concentration of lymphocytes

(around arteries)

Red pulp- red cells are filtered too

Macrophages are plentiful throughout

Cells of inflammation

Neutrophils- leave blood and enter site of

injury- kill and phagocytose microbes

Macrophages- also phagocytes

Mast cells- release inflammatory substances

Complement proteins- contribute to

inflammation

Lymphocytes may be activated, too

What about specific immunity?

Arises when barriers (first line of defense)

and inflammation (second line) do not
control the infection

Is directed against specific antigens

What is an antigen?
What do antibodies do? (five classes)

Ig (immunoglobulin) G- active in blood against

bacteria and viruses
helps activate complement
helps phagocytes eliminate antigens

most common antibody in the blood

IgM- reacts with certain antigens, usually on

first exposure

IgA- most common in mucosa

IgD and IgE are rare in blood

IgE is involved in allergic reactions

sticks to mast cells, which release
inflammatory substances

IgD is usually found on B cells (not released)

may be involved in B cell activation
When the body is exposed to an antigen for the
first time, antibody production is slow and
at low levels. Usually IgM

If exposed to the same antigen again, the

antibody response is much more rapid
and intense (IgG)

(Most antibody in the blood stream is IgG)

Immune system protects against infection,
but also against other antigens

Blood group antigens

Tissue antigens (i.e., graft rejection)

For successful organ graft, immune system

must be suppressed

Transplanted tissue must be cleared of immune

cells, too
Summary

The lymphatic system helps maintain homeostasis

of fluids, and also helps remove antigen from
the body

The immune system consists of barriers (physical

and chemical) and specific and nonspecific
mechanisms to eliminate antigen

“Immune cells” are blood cells. Some circulate in

the blood and can then migrate into tissues
at site of injury. These include neutrophils
and macrophages.
All blood cells arise in the bone marrow.
B lymphocytes initially develop in the bone
marrow and then migrate to lymphoid
tissues (esp. lymph nodes and spleen)
T lymphocytes develop in the thymus.

B cells produce antibodies, which interact with

antigen to help eliminate it.

Helper T cells regulate the immune response;

cytotoxic T cells kill virus-infected cells
and probably tumor cells. (They also are
responsible for transplant rejection.)
B and T cell response is antigen-specific and
has “memory” (second response is faster
and stronger than the first)

Immune system can be overly responsive to

antigens (hypersensitivity/allergy) or can
mistakenly be directed against self antigen
(autoimmunity)

Immune deficiencies leave people vulnerable

to infection
 Human Genome Project
• Sequenced almost all 3 billion DNA base pairs
(2003)
• Current work includes:
– ENCODE Project (ENCyclopedia Of DNA Elements) to
characterise functional elements in genome
• 20,000-25,000 genes (1.5% of genome)
• The bits in between (98.5% of genome)
– Characterise human DNA sequence variation
• Find and describe DNA sequence variation (International
HapMap Project)
• Find significance of sequence variation (e.g. contribution to
complex diseases)
 Classification of Infectious Disease
• By duration
– Acute – develops and runs its course quickly.
– Chronic – develops more slowly and is usually less severe, but may
persist for a long, indefinite period of time.
– Latent – characterized by periods of no symptoms between outbreaks
of illness.
• By location
– Local – confined to a specific area of the body.
– Systemic – a generalized illness that infects most of the body with
pathogens distributed widely in tissues.
• By timing
– Primary – initial infection in a previously healthy person.
– Secondary – infection that occurs in a person weakened by a primary
infection.
 Related Terms
• Endemic/Enzootic: The constant presence of a
disease or infectious agent within a given geographic
area.
• Epidemic/Epizootic: The occurrence in an area of a
disease or illness in excess of what may be expected
on the basis of past experience for a given
population (in the case of a new disease, such as
AIDS, any occurrence may be considered
"epidemic").
• Pandemic/Panzootic: A worldwide epidemic
affecting an exceptionally high proportion of the
global population.
 ECOLOGY

The study of living organisms in the natural environment

How they interact with one another
How the interact with their non living environment
 Ecosystem
Community + Abiotic environment, interacting
 Community
All the populations of the different species living and inter-acting
in the same ecosystem
7-spotted lady bird
(Adephagia
septempunctata)
Bean aphids
(Aphis fabae)
Red ant (Myrmica
rubra) and
Broom plant
(Cytisus scoparius)
 Species
A group of organisms that can breed to produce
fully fertile offspring

Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus

 Population
A group of organism of the
same species which live in
the same habitat at the same
time where they can freely
interbreed

The black-veined white butterfly

(Aporia crataegi) mating
 Biodiversity
The total number of
different species in an
ecosystem and their
relative abundance
 Habitat
The characteristics of the type of environment where an
organism normally lives.
(e.g. a stoney stream, a deciduous temperate woodland,
Bavarian beer mats)
 Energy and organisms
Autotrophs

Organisms which can synthesise their own complex,

energy rich, organic molecules from simple inorganic
molecules (e.g. green plants synthesis sugars from CO2 and
H2O)
 Heterotrophs
Organisms who must obtain complex, energy rich,
organic compounds form the bodies of other
organisms (dead or alive)
 Detritivores
Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead organic
matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice, millipedes)

Earth worm
(Lumbricus terrestris)
 Saprotrophs
Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive enzymes onto
dead organism matter and absorb the digested material. (e.g.
fungi, bacteria)

Chanterelle
(Cantherellus
cibarius)
 Feeding relationships
• Predators & prey
• Herbivory
• Parasite & host
• Mutualism
• Competition

Large blue butterfly

(Maculinea arion)
 The place of an organism in its
environment
Niche
An organism’s habitat + role + tolerance limits
to all limiting factors
THE COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

G.F. Gause (1934)

If two species, with the same niche, coexist in
the same ecosystem, then one will be excluded
from the community due to intense competition
 Niche
The niche of a species consists of:
• Its role in the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore,
producer etc)
• Its tolerance limits (e.g. soil pH, humidity)
• Its requirements for shelter, nesting sites etc
etc, all varying through time
Trophic Levels
Trophic levels
Food
Webs
Energy flow through ecosystems
• Biomass--total mass of all organisms in a food chain
• Transfer of biomass to higher trophic levels is not
very efficient
– Some organisms are never consumed
– Some parts of organisms aren’t consumed (teeth, bones,
bark, etc.)
• Ecological pyramid--shows the diminishing amount
of energy/biomass at higher levels
– Normally, about 10% of the energy available at one level is
passed to the next trophic level
– Smaller numbers of organisms at higher trophic levels
Energy transfer

Only about 10%

from each trophic
level moves to the
next level
Energy pyramid
Aquatic food pyramid
 Cycles of matter
• Matter cycles, energy doesn’t
• Water, nutrients, and elements cycle through
the ecosystem
• Understanding the cycles SHOULD influence
how we act
Water cycle
Water cycle
Carbon cycle
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen cycle
 Population growth
• Populations grow and are affected by limiting factors
• Allowance options for your parents?
• If nothing limits growth, exponential growth takes
place (J-shaped curve)
– Each subsequent generation is a multiple of the previous
generation
– No matter the rate of growth, the shape of the curve is the
same
– Doubling time= 70/rate of growth (%)
 Factors in growth
• Four factors affect growth rate:
– Birth rate (natality)
– Immigration
– Death rate (mortality)
– Emigration
• Age structures can indicate future growth
 Limiting factors
• When some factors are in short supply,
competition occurs
• Limiting factor--prevents exponential growth
from taking place
• Carrying capacity--number of individuals in a
population an area can support
• S-shaped growth occurs when as carrying
capacity is reached
Logistic (S-shaped) growth
 Limiting factors
• Density-dependent factors
– Disease
– Competition
– Predation
• Density-independent factors
– Natural disasters--weather, seasonal cycles, natural
disaster, human intervention
• Thomas Malthus--wrote about the idea of human
population control OOC
• Is there a limit to our population???
Biological magnification

• Biological
magnification--buildup
of pollutant in
organisms at higher
trophic levels
• DDT in eagles and other
birds
• Causes serious
problems for top-level
consumers, such as thin
shells in eagle eggs
Biological magnification
Biological magnification
Bio magnification of DDT
 Air pollution
• Pollution in the air:
– Natural--volcanic eruptions
– Human--cars, factories, aerosols
• Smog--haze of pollutants over big cities
• Pollutants cause respiratory irritations for humans
and a host of environmental problems
• Laws/regulations have helped reduce some
pollution, especially from factories
• ….but….the major contributor to air pollution…..car
exhaust! (do you really care about the
environment??)
 Acid rain
• Pollutants in the air mix with rain to create nitric and
sulfuric acid
• Normally, rain is pH 5-6 (from carbonic acid
formation)
• Acid rain in the eastern US can be pH 4.3 (10 times
more acidic!) other areas get pH of 2.3 (1000 times
more acidic!)
• Changes soil chemistry, and kills aquatic organisms
• Acid rain accelerates breakdown of metal and
limestone deposits
Acid Rain
Acid Rain
 Greenhouse effect
(global warming)

• Carbon dioxide and other gases (e.g. methane) in

atmosphere act as a blanket
• The suns energy normally enters the atmosphere
and a portion is radiated back into space
• The blanket holds in more energy than it should,
and the Earth warms up--global warming
– Climate change, ice caps could melt, etc.
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect
Ozone layer
• In the stratosphere (20-50 km above earth), there is a protective
“sunscreen” that filters UV radiation
– Made of O3
• Ozone can be thinned by chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) once used as:
– Propellents in aerosols
– Coolants in air conditioners, refrig/freezers
• CFC’s persist in atmosphere for years, so damage continues
• Ozone hole growing over Antarctica (south pole)
• Breakdown of ozone increases risk of skin cancers, cataracts, as well as
effects on plant life
 CONSERVATION
In situ:
• Conservation of species in their natural
habitat
• E.g. natural parks, nature reserves
Ex situ:
• Conserving species in isolation of their natural
habitat
• E.g. zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks
 In situ conservation
Setting up wild life reserves
is not just a matter of
building a fence around an
area and letting it grow
“wild”

Without grazing animals

heathlands which contain a
number of rare species will
revert to woodland
 The advantages of in situ conservation
• The species will have all the
resources that it is adapted
too
• The species will continue to
evolve in their environment
• The species have more space
• Bigger breeding populations
can be kept
• It is cheaper to keep an
organism in its natural habitat
 However there are problems
• It is difficult to control
illegal exploitation (e.g.
poaching)
• The environment may
need restoring and alien
species are difficult to
control
 Ex situ conservation
• Captive breeding of endangered species is a
last resort
• These species have already reached the point
where their populations would not recover in
the wild
• It works well for species that are easily bred
in captivity but more specialised animals are
difficult to keep (aye aye)
• Isolated in captivity they do not evolve with
their environment
 Zoos: The land of the living dead?
• They have a very small gene pool in which to mix their genes
• Inbreeding is a serious problem
• Zoos and parks try to solve this by exchanging specimens or
by artificial insemination where it is possible
• In vitro fertilisation and fostering by a closely related species
has even been tried
(Indian Guar – large species of cattle - cloned)
• Even if it is possible to restore a population in captivity the
natural habitat may have disappeared in the wild
• Species that rely on this much help are often considered to be
“the living dead”
 Botanical gardens
• Botanical gardens show the same problems as captive
breeding of animals
• Originally the role of botanical gardens was economic,
pharmaceutical and aesthetic
• There range of species collected was limited
• The distribution of botanical gardens reflects the distribution
of colonial powers
• Most are found in Europe and North America
• But plant diversity is greatest in the tropics
 Seed banks
• Seeds can be maintained for decades or even centuries if the
conditions are controlled
• <5% humidity and –20°C
• Not all species are suited to this treatment
• Seeds need to be regularly germinated to renew stock or the
seeds will eventually loose their viability
• Seed banks are at risk from power failure, natural disasters
and war
• Duplicate stocks can be maintained
• Seeds kept in seed banks do not evolve with changes in the
environment
BOTANY
 Basic Characteristics
• Organisms within Kingdom Plantae are
multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic and they
lack mobility.
• Plants produce food via photosynthesis and
have cell walls composed of cellulose.
• The history of life on earth and the success of
many organisms depends on the success of
plants.
Three Main Parts of Plants
• Roots penetrate the soil
and anchor the plant to
the ground.
• The roots absorb
minerals and water
from the soil to be used
in photosynthesis.
 Three Main Parts of Plants
• Leaves provide a large
surface area for the
absorption of sunlight.
• Photosynthesis occurs
inside the chloroplasts
of the cells of the
leaves
Three Main Parts of Plants
• Stems are composed of
rigid tissue that raise
and support the leaves.
• Stems also transport
substances from the
roots to leaves and
from the leaves to
roots.
 Classification of Plants
• Plants are divided into the four main groups
based on two major characteristics: presence
or absence of vascular tissue and seeds.
• Vascular tissue transport substances such as
water, minerals and sugars throughout the
plant.
• Seeds are structures that contain an embryo,
stored food and an outer coat.
Divisions of Kingdom Plantae
 Non-Vascular Plants

• Non-vascular land plants do not contain any

conducting tissues and are often referred to as
bryophytes. These plants are small, grow close to
the ground and include mosses and liverworts.
Seedless Vascular Plants
• Seedless vascular
plants contain vascular
tissues but do not
produce seeds.
• This group includes
horsetails, ferns and
club mosses.
 Seed Producing Vascular Plants
• Seeded vascular plants also contain extensive
vascular tissue and the majority of species in
the plant kingdom are in this group. They
have a seeds that contain an embryo, a
nutrient supply and a protective outer coat.
• Seeded vascular plants are divided into
angiosperms and gymnosperms.
Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperms are non-
flowering plants with
seeds that do not
develop within an
enclosed structure
Angiosperms
• Angiosperms are
flowering plants with
seeds that develop
inside a protective
structure.
 Sexual Reproduction
• Plants carry out sexual reproduction which means
the meeting of male and female gametes.
• Mosses and ferns rely on rain and dew to transport
the male gametes.
• Seed producing plants rely on wind and insects to
carry the male gametes to the female parts of plants.
• After fertilization the zygote develops in the seed
where it can remain dormant for long periods of time
and survive drought, freezing and even fire.
 Plant Structures
• Plants contain structures other than the three
main parts mentioned earlier and these
structures have very specific functions.
• Plant structures include rhizoids, xylem,
phloem, cuticle and stomata.
Rhizoids
• Rhizoids are small
hair-like structures
that transport
materials and anchor
the plant.
Xylem and Phloem
• Xylem are hollow tubes
made of dead cells that
transport water from roots
to leaves.
• Phloem are hollow tubes
made of living cells that
transport glucose made
during photosynthesis from
the leaves to the rest of the
plant.
Cuticle
• The cuticle is a waxy
covering on the
stems and leaves of
plants.
• The cuticle prevents
water loss in plants
Stomata
• Stoma are microscopic
openings or pores in leaves.
• The stoma are the pores
through which the exchange
of gases occurs in plants.
• Some water is also lost
through the stoma in a
process known as
transpiration.
Stem and Root Modifications
 What is a Stem?
• A stem:
– is generally considered to be the central axis of
the plant.
– supports the leaves and flowers of a plant.
– has nodes from which new shoots and
sometimes new roots can arise.
– is usually found above-ground, but can be
modified and found below-ground as well.
 Stem Modifications

• The following are stem modifications:

– Tubers
– Corms
– Bulbs
– Rhizomes
– Stolons
 Tubers

• A tuber is an
underground stem
that stores food.
• We know a potato is a
tuber because it has
nodes (eyes) which
produce new shoots.
A potato is a tuber
 Corms

• A corm is a swollen,
vertical stem with a
papery covering.
• Gladiolus and
Crocus are examples
of plants that form
corms.
Crocus corms
Corm Growth Cycle
Gladiolus corms with cormels
 Bulbs
• Bulbs come in 2 basic types:
– Tunicate bulbs; onions and tulips are examples.
– Scaly bulbs; tiger and asiatic lilies are examples.
 Tunicate Bulbs
• Tunicate bulbs have:
– A papery outer
covering called a tunic.
– A compressed,
modified stem with
nodes, called a basal
plate.
– Fleshy scales made of
modified leaf tissue.

A tunicate bulb
 Tunicate Bulbs

Fleshy Scales

Basal Plate

Onion is a tunicate bulb

 Tunicate Bulbs

• Tunicate bulbs form

“onion rings” when cut
in cross-section.

Onion bulb shown

in cross-section
 Scaly Bulbs
• The other type of true bulb is a scaly bulb.
Scaly bulbs:
– Lack a papery covering (tunic).
– Have a basal plate.
– Have fleshy scales made of leaf tissue.
– Do not form “onion rings” when cut in cross-
section.
 Scaly Bulbs

Lilium is a scaly bulb

 Rhizomes

• Rhizomes are:
– underground stems.
– horizontally-growing.
– produce shoots and
adventitious roots.

Iris rhizome
 Rhizomes

• Some plants, like

quack grass, produce
long, thin rhizomes.

Quack Grass
 Rhizomes

• Other plants, like

ginger, produce large,
thick rhizomes called
pachymorphs.

The pachymorph
rhizome of Ginger
 Stolons

• Stolons are:
– Above ground stems.
– Grow horizontally.
– Produce shoots and adventitious roots.
– Strawberry and Spider Plant are examples of
plants that produce stolons.
 Stolons

Wild Strawberry stolons

 Root Modifications
• There are 2 basic types of root
modifications:
– Fleshy Tap Roots
– Tuberous Roots
 Fleshy Tap Roots

• Carrots, beets, and

radishes are examples
of plants forming
fleshy tap roots.

Carrots
 Tuberous Roots

• Sweet potato is an
example of a tuberous
root.

A sweet potato is a tuberous root

 Tuberous Roots

• Dahlias are perennial

bedding plants that
form tuberous roots.

Dahlia
Leaf Modifications
 The Plant Body: Leaves
• FUNCTION OF LEAVES
– Leaves are the solar energy
and CO2 collectors of plants.
– In some plants, leaves have
become adapted for
specialized functions.
 EXTERNAL ANATOMY
• Leaves possess a blade or lamina, an edge called the
margin of the leaf, the veins (vascular bundles), a
petiole, and two appendages at the base of the
petiole called the stipules.
EXTERNAL ANATOMY
Phyllotaxy - Arrangement of leaves on a stem
 Leaf types - Simple, compound, peltate and perfoliate

• Simple leaf = undivided blade with a single

axillary bud at the base of its petiole.
• Compound leaf = blade divided into leaflets,
leaflets lack an axillary bud but each
compound leaf has a single bud at the base
of its petiole
– pinnately-compound leaves: leaflets in pairs
and attached along a central rachis; examples
include ash, walnut, pecan, and rose.
– palmately-compound leaves: leaflets attached
at the same point at the end of the petiole;
examples of plants with this leaf type include
buckeye, horse chestnut, hemp or marijuana,
and shamrock.
• Peltate leaves = petioles that are attached to
the middle of the blade; examples include
mayapple
• Perfoliate leaves = sessile leaves that
surround and are pierced by stems; examples
include yellow-wort and thoroughwort
Leaf types – Pinnately & Palmately Compound Leaves
 Venation = arrangement of veins in a leaf
• Netted-venation = one or a few prominent midveins from which
smaller minor veins branch into a meshed network; common to
dicots and some nonflowering plants.
– Pinnately-veined leaves = main vein called midrib with secondary veins
branching from it (e.g., elm).
– Palmately-veined leaves = veins radiate out of base of blade (e.g., maple).
• Parallel venation = characteristics of many monocots (e.g.,
grasses, cereal grains); veins are parallel to one another.
• Dichotomous venation = no midrib or large veins; rather
individual veins have a tendency to fork evenly from the base of
the the blade to the opposite margin, creating a fan-shaped leaf
(e.g., Gingko).
Venation Types

Netted or Reticulate
Venation
 Specialized or Modified Leaves
• Cotyledons: embryonic or "seed" leaves. First leaves produced by a germinating seed, often contain a
store of food (obtained from the endosperm) to help the seedling become established.
• Tendrils - blade of leaves or leaflets are reduced in size, allows plant to cling to other objects (e.g., sweet
pea and garden peas.
• Shade leaves = thinner, fewer hairs, larger to compensate for less light; often found in plants living in
shaded areas.
• Drought-resistant leaves = thick, sunken stomata, often reduced in size
– In American cacti and African euphorbs, leaves are often reduced such that they serve as spine to discourage
herbivory and reduce water loss; stems serve as the primary organ of photosynthesis.
– In pine trees, the leaves are adapted to living in a dry environment too. Water is locked up as ice during significant
portions of the year and therefore not available to the plant; pine leaves possess sunken stomata, thick cuticles,
needle-like leaves, and a hypodermis, which is an extra cells just underneath the epidermis.
• Prickles and thorns: epidermal outgrowths on stems and leaves (e.g., holly, rose, and raspberries;
Hypodermic trichomes on stinging nettles.
• Storage leaves succulent leaves retain water in large vacuoles.
• Reproductive leaves, (e.g., Kalanchöe plantlets arise on margins of leaves.
• Insect-trapping leaves: For example: pitcher plants, sundews venus flytraps, and bladderworts have
modified leaves for capturing insects; All these plants live under nutrient-poor conditions and digest insect
bodies to obtain nitrogen and other essential nutrients.
• Bracts: petal-like leaves.
• Window Leaves: plant is buried in soil with transparent part exposed to light. Being buried reduces loss of
war in arid environments.
• Flower pot leaves: Structure to catch water and debris for nutrient collection - fairy-elephant's feet.
Cotyledons or “seed leaves”
 Tendrils

Garden Pea
Leaves as Needles and Spines
Leaves as Colorful Bracts
Photosynthesis
 THE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as are
some bacteria and protists
– Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through
photosynthesis
– Sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the form of
chemical bonds

(c) Euglena (d) Cyanobacteria

(b) Kelp
(a) Mosses, ferns, and
flowering plants
Light Energy Harvested by Plants & Other
Photosynthetic Autotrophs

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

WHY ARE PLA
PLANTS
NTS GRE
GREEN?
EN?
Plant Cells
have Green
Chloroplasts

The thylakoid
membrane of the
chloroplast is
impregnated with
photosynthetic
pigments (i.e.,
chlorophylls,
carotenoids).
 THE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE COLOR NOT
ABSORBED

• Chloroplasts
absorb light Reflected
energy and Light light

convert it to
chemical energy

Absorbed
light

Transmitted Chloroplast
light
 AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Photosynthesis is the process by which

autotrophic organisms use light energy to make
sugar and oxygen gas from carbon dioxide and
water

Carbon Water Glucose Oxygen

dioxide gas
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• The light reactions
convert solar energy Light
Chloroplast
to chemical energy
– Produce ATP & NADPH NADP
ADP
+P
Calvin
• The Calvin cycle makes Light
reactions
cycle

sugar from carbon dioxide

– ATP generated by the light
reactions provides the energy for
sugar synthesis
– The NADPH produced by the light
reactions provides the electrons
for the reduction of carbon
dioxide to glucose
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Sunlight provides
ENERGY

CO2 + H2O produces

Glucose + Oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Steps of Photosynthesis
• Light hits reaction centers of chlorophyll,
found in chloroplasts
• Chlorophyll vibrates and causes water to
break apart.
• Oxygen is released into air
• Hydrogen remains in chloroplast attached
to NADPH
• “THE LIGHT REACTION”
 Steps of Photosynthesis

• The DARK Reactions= Calvin Cycle

• CO2 from atmosphere is joined to H from
water molecules (NADPH) to form glucose

• Glucose can be converted into other

molecules with yummy flavors!
 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
• In most plants, photosynthesis occurs primarily
in the leaves, in the chloroplasts
• A chloroplast contains:
– stroma, a fluid
– grana, stacks of thylakoids
• The thylakoids contain chlorophyll
– Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures light
for photosynthesis
• The location and structure of chloroplasts
Chloroplast
LEAF CROSS SECTION MESOPHYLL CELL
LEAF

Mesophyll

CHLOROPLAST Intermembrane space

Outer
membrane

Granum Inner
membrane
Grana Stroma Thylakoid
Stroma Thylakoid compartment
 Chloroplast Pigments
• Chloroplasts contain several pigments
– Chlorophyll a
– Chlorophyll b
– Carotenoids
– Xanthophyll
Chlorophyll a & b
•Chl a has a methyl
group

•Chl b has a carbonyl

group

Porphyrin ring
delocalized e-

Phytol tail
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
• Process for ATP generation associated with some
Photosynthetic Bacteria
• Reaction Center => 700 nm
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
• Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting water,
leaving O2 gas as a by-product
Primary
electron acceptor

Primary
electron acceptor

Photons

Energy for
synthesis of

PHOTOSYSTEM I

PHOTOSYSTEM II by chemiosmosis
 Plants produce O2 gas by splitting H2O

• The O2 liberated by photosynthesis is made from

the oxygen in water (H+ and e-)
 In the light reactions, electron transport
chains generate ATP, NADPH, & O2

• Two connected photosystems collect photons of

light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll
electrons
• The excited electrons are passed from the
primary electron acceptor to electron transport
chains
– Their energy ends up in ATP and NADPH
 Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis in the
light reactions
• The electron transport chains are arranged with
the photosystems in the thylakoid membranes
and pump H+ through that membrane
– The flow of H+ back through the membrane is
harnessed by ATP synthase to make ATP
– In the stroma, the H+ ions combine with NADP+ to
form NADPH
 How the Light Reactions Generate ATP and NADPH
Primary NADP
electron
acceptor
Energy
Primary to make
3
electron
acceptor 2

Light

Light

Primary
electron
acceptor

Reaction-
1 center NADPH-producing
chlorophyll photosystem

Water-splitting
photosystem
2 H + 1 / 2
 • The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in
photosynthesis

Thylakoid
compartment
(high H+) Light Light

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna
molecules

Stroma ELECTRON TRANSPORT

(low H+) CHAIN

PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE

 Summary—Light Dependent
Reactions

a. Overall input
light energy, H2O.
b. Overall output
ATP, NADPH, O2.
 Light Independent Reactions
aka Calvin Cycle
Carbon from CO2 is
converted to glucose

(ATP and NADPH

drive the reduction
of CO2 to C6H12O6.)
 Light Independent Reactions
aka Calvin Cycle
CO2 is added to the 5-C sugar RuBP by the enzyme
rubisco.
This unstable 6-C compound splits to two molecules of
PGA or 3-phosphoglyceric acid.

PGA is converted to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

(G3P), two of which bond to form glucose.

G3P is the 3-C sugar formed by three turns of the cycle.

 Summary—Light Independent
Reactions

a. Overall input
CO2, ATP, NADPH.
b. Overall output
glucose.
 Review: Photosynthesis uses light energy to
make food molecules

• A summary of
the chemical
Chloroplast

Light

processes of
photosynthesis Photosystem II
Electron
transport CALVIN
chains CYCLE Stroma
Photosystem I

Cellular
respiration
Cellulose
Starch
Other
LIGHT REACTIONS CALVIN CYCLE organic
compounds
 Types of Photosynthesis
C3

C4

CAM

Rubisco: the world’s busiest enzyme!

Fruits and Seeds
 From ovary to fruit
• The ovary of the flower contains the ovules.
• As fertilized ovules develop into seeds, the
ovary wall develops into the fruit.
• In science, the term “fruit” refers to a
mature ovary that contains seeds.
Fruit anatomy
 Types of fleshy fruits

Drupe Pome Pepo

(Peach) (Apple) (Cucumber)

Berry Aggregate Multiple

(Tomato) (Strawberry) (Pineapple)
Seed anatomy
Germination: monocot
Germination: dicot
Plant Hormones
 Plant Hormones
• Hormone = “to excite”
• 1) active in small amounts
• 2) produced in one part of plant &
transported to another for action
• 3) action is specific for that site
Each has a Multiplicity of Effects

• Depending on site of action

• Developmental stage of plant
• Concentration of hormone
 Auxins

– stimulate growth but too much inhibits growth

– functions:
– 1) root initiation, stem elongation
– 2) retard abscission (loss) of leaves & fruits
stimulates cell differentiation
– 4) apical dominance
Apical dominance
 Gibberellins

• discovered due to a fungus Giberella

which causes Japanese “foolish” rice
seedling disease
• induces flowering
• stimulates growth by increasing cell
size & numbers
“Foolish seedling disease” in rice
Effect of Gibberellin
Dwarf pea plant treated with gibberellin
 Cytokinins

• 1) induces cell division (cytokinesis)

• 2) affects root growth & differentiation
• 3) stimulates germination
• 4) delays senescence (aging); the
progression of irreversible change that
eventually leads to death
 Abscisic Acid

• 1) stimulates abscission
• 2) converts vegetative buds
(active) to dormant buds
• 3) inhibits growth
 Ethylene

• 1) promotes fruit ripening

• 2) stimulates production of
cellulase
 Photochromes

• Plant pigment
• Important in processes where light is
a critical factor, such as, flowering in
long day short night plants
Plant Movements due to growth

• Phototrophism – movement toward (positive)

or movement away from (negative) light
• Geotrophism – movement toward (positive) or
away from (negative) center of the earth
• Thigmotrophism – directional growth responding
to contact (tendrils)
Photoperiodic control of Flowering
Plant Movements not due to Growth

• Thigmonastic response – touch stimulus,

e.g. mimosa leaves
• Photonastic response – shamrock
• Sleep response – caused by change in
osmotic pressure
 Movement of materials

• Path from roots:

• 1) epidermis of root & root hair cells
• 2) roots absorb water, minerals, gases
• 3) stems conduct
– Xylem & phloem are vertical conductors
– Parenchyma of cortex, pith, rays are lateral
conductors
 Movement

• Root pressure –osmotic pressure & pressure

created by active absorption & secretion by root
cells; drives materials up xylem
• Transpiration – evaporation of water through leaf
stomata; cohesion of water molecules exerts a
pull on columns of water in xylem
• Guttation – release of water droplets at leaf tips;
occurs when too much water is absorbed by plant
& when humidity is high
• Translocation – movement of material from one
location to another
Guttation
 Fighting Back….
• Response to herbivory (animals eating plants):
• 1) physical barriers – thorns & spines
• 2) chemical defenses – distasteful or toxic compounds
• 3) chemical signaling – salivary enzyme from herbivore
triggers a pathway that produces a volatile attractant that
recruits a parasitoid wasp. The wasp lays eggs within the
caterpillar, and the larvae upon hatching destroy the
caterpillar by consuming its tissues. (Figure 39.22)
 Plant Communication

The Venus flytrap catches flies as a source of nitrogen.

Insects are attracted to the nectar in the trap, but when they trigger sensory “haris”
within the trap, they are captured…
What is the mechanism?
 Plant Hormones

Major plant hormones and their action:

Abscisic acid closing of stomata; seed dormancy

Auxins elongation of shoots and roots, gravotropism,

phototropism

Cytokinins promotion of sprouting of lateral buds

Ethylene ripening of fruit

Gibberellins germination of seeds and sprouting of buds;

elongation of stems; stimulation of flowering;
development of fruit