Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Optimization design and experimental investigation of piezoelectric energy T

harvesting devices for pavement
⁎ ⁎
Chaohui Wanga, , Jianxiong Zhaoa, Qiang Lib,a, , Yanwei Lic
a
School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China
b
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
c
HeBei Provincial Communications Planning and Design Institute, Shijiazhuang 050011, China

H I GH L IG H T S

• AOptimal
energy harvesting device with a group of piezoelectric transducers is designed.
• Device material
device dimensions for light and heavy traffic loading are identified.
• The 15 cm × 15 configurations are optimized by mechanic-electric responses test.
• cm device achieves output power of 50.41 mW with the loading of 4 kΩ.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study designs a compression-based pavement energy harvesting device with a group of piezoelectric
Piezoelectric transducers and investigates the selection of the component materials based on four technical device require-
Energy-harvesting ments for enhanced the electric energy output of power-generation pavements. The external dimensions of the
Piezoelectric device proposed devices are optimized based on vehicle wheelpath distribution, tire trace patterns, and vehicle roller
Energy output
compaction conditions. The array pattern of the piezoelectric device is designed based on the driving char-
Pavement engineering
acteristics. Various device material configurations are examined using different cover plates, rubber pad
thicknesses, protective pads, and transducer specifications for optimal mechanic-electric response character-
istics. A 150 mm × 150 mm type device is tested as an example and its electrical output performance is eval-
uated under typical road loading environments. Subsequently, a comparative analysis of various disclosed
piezoelectric harvesting device technology were conducted and further research plan was developed. The se-
lected modified polypropylene or aluminum plate, steel plate, modified polypropylene bar, and fiber heat in-
sulation plate are suitable for the device which meets the application demands. The optimum device dimensions
under light and heavy traffic conditions are 100 mm × 100 mm and 150 mm × 150 mm, respectively. The op-
timum configuration of the device includes a modified polypropylene upper cover plate, 1 mm rubber pad, ball-
type protective pad, and eight laminated transducers. In addition, parallel connection of stacked transducers is
more suitable for energy collection and reuse from traffic-induced pavement vibrations. Under the loading of
0.7 MPa and 15 Hz, the 150 mm × 150 mm device with nine parallel transducers achieves a maximum output
power of 50.41 mW, and the corresponding optimum loading is 4 kΩ. Under the loading of 0.2 MPa and 10 Hz,
the device achieves a maximum output power of 2.92 mW, and the corresponding optimum load is 10 kΩ. The
performance of piezoelectric device designed in this paper excels that of many other available devices.

1. Introduction New environmental energy-harvesting technologies can convert various

environmental energy sources that exist in nature, such as solar [1–3],
With increasingly prominent environmental issues, such as energy wind [4–6], thermal [7,8], vibration [9–11], and ocean [12], into
shortages and pollution, the development and utilization of clean and electrical energy by means of energy-convertible materials, structures,
renewable energy have been receiving significant community attention. or systems. Through these methods, energy utilization is realized

⁎
Corresponding authors at: School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China (C. Wang): School of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064,
China and School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA (Q. Li).
E-mail addresses: wchh0205@chd.edu.cn (C. Wang), qiang_li2018@163.com (Q. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.07.036
Received 24 March 2018; Received in revised form 9 June 2018; Accepted 9 July 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
C. Wang et al.
without producing pollution. Piezoelectric vibration energy-harvesting
technology is extensively used in vibration energy harvesting because
of its high electrical conversion coefficient and no external power
supply being required, among other factors. Vibration energy can easily
be obtained in our surroundings; for example, from different types of
mechanical equipment, buildings, roads, railways, and biological
system movements [13], of which vibrations in road structures may be
the most significant. Furthermore, with increased global motor vehicle
ownership and highway mileage, road vibration energy will continue to
grow. If this technology and road engineering can be combined to
create a safe, clean, and reliable intelligent road piezoelectric power
generation system, transformation and upgrading of energy structures
may be effectively promoted, thereby alleviating the energy and en-
vironmental problems that have long plagued human development.
The concept of converting vibration energy into electrical energy
was first proposed by Williams and Yates in 1996 [14]. Since then,
research into the electrical conversion of vibrating micro-energy has
become important. At present, piezoelectric power generation tech-
nology for pavements includes two methods: piezoelectric material
composite power generation pavement technology and transducer-
embedded pavement piezoelectric power generation technology. The
former is used in road paving to harvest vibration energy by com-
pounding pavement and piezoelectric materials. The California State
Government used piezoelectric material in road power generation to
convert their state highway into smart highway [15]. Guo et al. de-
signed an energy-harvesting pavement system consisting of two con-
ductive asphalt layers and one piezoelectric material layer and verified
its feasibility [16]. Tan et al. prepared piezoelectric asphalt composites
by compounding piezoelectric material and asphalt, and achieved an
output voltage of up to 7.2 V [17]. Wang et al. compounded piezo-
electric, conductive, electrode, and pavement materials in order to
prepare d31 and d33, two forms of piezoelectric asphalt concrete, with
an output voltage of up to 2.4 V [18]. The latter technology refers to the
asphalt pavement being embedded with piezoelectric transducers in
order to harvest and convert road mechanical energy. Numerous road
experts and scholars have carried out relevant research in this area.
Najini and Cafiso et al. optimized piezoelectric material and used finite
elements to compare the energy outputs of different transducers in the
road environment [19,20]. Collin et al. systematically analyzed the
feasibility of road energy harvesting and constructed an LED traffic
signal guidance lamp based on piezoelectric cantilever beam transdu-
cers [21]. Jung et al. demonstrated a piezoelectric energy-harvesting
module based on polyvinylidene fluoride, which exhibited in-
stantaneous output power of up to 200 mW across 40 kΩ [22]. Wang
et al. proposed a compact piezoelectric vibration energy harvester and
adjusted the resonant frequency using multiple nonlinear techniques
[23]. Huang et al. tested the energy output effect of stacked piezo-
electric transducers under different conditions by simulating the typical
road load, and the power output could reach 0.46 mW [24]. Wang et al.
explored the feasibility of transducer-embedded piezoelectric power
generation pavement, preliminarily studied the single piezoelectric
element buried directly into the pavement and tested the energy output
effect of a single piezoelectric element in a typical surface layer struc-
ture. A maximum voltage of 14 V and an effective output power of
0.44 mW were obtained [25], which lays the foundation for the re-
search team’s subsequent integration of piezoelectric transducers and
the development of piezoelectric devices.
In summary, many countries have actively carried out research on
developing pavement piezoelectric power generation technology. In
particular, piezoelectric material composite power generation pave-
ment technology demonstrates to have better material integrity and
convenient laying process. However, its major disadvantages include
complex material preparation, difficult polarization, low energy output
and lacking of continuous energy supply for real-world applications.
Comparing with piezoelectric material composite power generation
pavement technology, the transducer-embedded pavement
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Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30
piezoelectric power generation technology can obtain higher and more
controllable power output. Therefore, modern pavement piezoelectric
power generation technology is mainly based on transducer-embedded
pavement piezoelectric power generation technology. It is convenient
to install the piezoelectric transducer directly into the pavement
structure. However, it is facing several problems such as damaging of
piezoelectric transducer unit, low reuse rate and unsatisfactory energy
output. In order to improve the survival rate, reuse rate, and power
output level of transducer units, research has been shifted to the de-
velopment of piezoelectric devices for pavement piezoelectric power
generation technology. Piezoelectric devices that have been publicized
at the present stage usually depend on laboratory simulation analysis
during the design process. Some piezoelectric devices have considerable
energy output effects, but lack of considering environmental factors
such as road coupling, waterproof, temperature insulation, durability,
and array patterns. Its practicality needs to be improved.
In order to overcome the barriers of practical application of piezo-
electric power generation pavement, this study designs the corre-
sponding piezoelectric power-generation device and selects the mate-
rials based on four technical device requirements. The array pattern of
the piezoelectric device is designed based on the driving characteristics.
The device power response is used as the evaluation index for opti-
mizing the detailed material configuration and confirming the trans-
ducer connection mode through rolling and loading tests. The electrical
output of the 150 mm × 150 mm-type device is evaluated under typical
road loading environments. It is anticipated this research can lay the
foundation for gradual application of piezoelectric devices in urban
roads, highways, service areas, toll stations and warning windows.
2. Design device
A transducer that is directly embedded in the pavement structure
will face numerous problems, such as structural damage and difficulty
in ensuring power-generation performance. Therefore, a carrier device
should be developed in combination with road traffic characteristics in
order to meet the application requirements of power generation pave-
ments.
2.1. Fundamentals of piezoelectric devices
Piezoelectric device relies on the piezoelectric effect of the piezo-
electric transducer for mechanic-electric conversion. At this stage, the
three common types of mechanic-electric conversion modes of piezo-
electric transducers are: d31, d33, and d15. In d31 mode the electrical
energy generated by the transducers mainly comes from horizontal
compressive stress, while in d33 mode the electrical energy mainly
comes from vertical compressive stress. In d15 mode it requires the
transducers to obtain the effect of shear stress to generate electrical
energy [26], however, it is difficult to obtain the shear stress effect in
the road environment. Therefore, the d15 mode is rarely used piezo-
electric transduction for pavements. Compared with d31, the d33 mode
has a higher piezoelectric coefficient [27]. Under the same conditions,
the d33 mode can obtain a larger energy output and the force require-
ments are more in line with the road environment. Therefore, this paper
mainly uses the d33 mode stacked piezoelectric transducers.
When piezoelectric device loaded with the piezoelectric transducers
is embedded in pavement structures, vehicle loading is realized to the
convert of mechanical energy into electric energy. according to various
theoretical calculation methods for different connection modes. The
theoretical calculation formula of transducers in series is shown as
follows [28].
d33 Fm ωnhR
Uos =
T 2 2
nh2 + ω2A2 (ε33 )R (1)
C. Wang et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of device structure.
2 2 2 2 2
d33 Fm ω n h R
Pos = T 2 2
2|n2h2 + ω2A2 (ε33 )R| (2)
The theoretical calculation formula of transducers in parallel is
shown as follows.
d33 Fm ωnhR
Uop =
T 2 2 2
h2 + ω2A2 (ε33 )nR
(3)
2 2 2 2 2
d33 Fm ω n h R
Pop = T 2 2 2
2|h2 + ω2A2 (ε33 )nR| (4)
where Uos-output voltage in series, Pos-output power in series, Uop-
output voltage in parallel, Pop-output power in parallel, d33-piezo-
electric coefficient, Fm-acting load, w-acting frequency, n-the number of
transducers in parallel or in series. h-transducers thickness. A-transdu-
T
cers area. ε33 -dielectric constant. R-load resistance.
Based on the equations, the energy output of the device is not only
related to the index of units, but also the series and parallel connection,
the acting load, the acting frequency and the load resistance. Therefore,
this paper aims to consider from these factors, and investigate the im-
pact of series and parallel connection of units, load, frequency and load
resistance on the power output of the device.
2.2. Technical requirements
The piezoelectric power-generation device achieves mechanic-
electric conversion by being embedded in the pavement structure. In
order to optimize the device power-generation effect, four technical
requirements are proposed based on comprehensive consideration of
the transducer performance and the practical application environment.
(1) Provide a favorable power-conversion environment for transducers
In order to improve power-conversion efficiency, the device should
be capable of maximizing road surface stress accumulation. Meanwhile,
the transducers exhibit the characteristics of a high axial uniform load
bearing capacity and a weak bearing capacity of concentrated load,
shear stress, and tensile stress. Therefore, in the device design, the
vehicle load should be uniformly transmitted to the transducers in the
axial direction in order to avoid damage.
(2) Guarantee the road service life and exhibit strong work durability
The device is buried directly inside the road surface, which can
easily damage the pavement structure. Therefore, the coupling between
the device and pavement structure must be handled effectively in order
to protect the road. Furthermore, the device should take into account its
own structural strength, temperature insulation, waterproofing, and
work durability. A high-temperature asphalt mixture may cause pie-
zoelectric ceramic loss of power-generation performance, and water
will result in transmission line short-circuiting, electric leakage, and
even damage to the transducers.
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Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30
(3) Fix and protect the internal transducer and wiring
The number of transducers determines the energy output of device;
however, a higher number of transducers is more likely to result in
mutual friction and collision damage, affecting the energy output sta-
bility. Moreover, as each transducer has two output lines, a higher
number of transducers will lead to more complicated wire connections.
Meanwhile, a harsh construction environment may cause damage to the
transmission lines. Therefore, the device should be able to fix and
protect the transducers and transmission lines effectively.
(4) Provide easy construction and recyclability
In order to achieve efficient device paving, the device should fa-
cilitate easy construction operations, by means of optimal device di-
mensions, weight, and so on. Although transducers are expensive at this
stage, the device is integrated with numerous transducers; therefore,
the device should offer maintainability so that if a power-generation
pavement is damaged, the device can be recycled.
2.3. Device design
The device is designed based on the four technical requirements.
The device structure is illustrated in Fig. 1. It is mainly composed of a
rigid bearing shell, protection pad, transducer and its carrier substrate,
and other components.
(1) Rigid bearing shell
The rigid bearing shell is composed of an upper cover plate, bottom
plate, sidewall, and other components. It is used to prevent the trans-
ducer from damage caused by construction, traffic load impact, and
water intrusion. Furthermore, it may enhance the energy output by
gathering the load stress and transferring it to the internal transducer
array. Rough processing of the rigid shell surface can effectively en-
hance its adhesion to the pavement material.
(2) Protection pad
The protection pad can ensure that the vehicle load is uniformly
transmitted to the top of the transducer along the axial direction and
prevent the stress concentration from damaging the transducer. At
present, the structures that can be used for guiding force transmission
are spherical and flexible hinges [29]. Spherical hinges exhibit excellent
force transmission performance, and their production costs are rela-
tively low; therefore, two types of protective pads based on the sphe-
rical hinge structure are designed in this study and they are illustrated
in Fig. 2.
(3) Stacked transducer carrier substrate
The carrier substrate is processed with a hole, line slot, and circuit-
C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of protective pad.

mounting slot. The hole can reduce transducer wear and damage and effective rigidity, strength, insulation, and heat resistance. Therefore,
realize stable energy output. The line slot can cause the transmission cylindrical modified polypropylene with the same diameter as the
line to be orderly and prevent extrusion damage to the line, which is transducer is selected as the protective pad material. The technical
beneficial to the rapid diagnosis and maintenance of device damage. parameters of protection pad material are listed in Table 2.
The circuit-mounting slot is used to reset the rectifier unit or energy
acquisition circuit, and preprocess the stacked transducer output cur- (3) Substrate material
rent.
Furthermore, the design plan includes providing vibration space for The carrier substrate realizes the fixing and protection of the
transducers by adding elastomer, and the corresponding waterproofing transducer and transmission line through processing. Therefore, the
and high-temperature device treatment is carried out in order to cope substrate material must be processed conveniently with a high struc-
with the complex construction and working environment. tural strength and effective fatigue resistance. Moreover, in order to
protect the transducer from depolarization at high temperatures, the
2.4. Material selection carrier substrate should offer strong high-temperature insulation per-
formance. Thus, a fiber insulation plate is selected as the substrate
The material of each device component should ensure effective material. The technical parameters of substrate material are listed in
power-generation performance, as well as provide mechanical strength, Table 3.
waterproofing, high-temperature insulation, and corrosion resistance.
(4) Elastomer and insulation materials
(1) Shell material
Elastomer is used to provide vibration and deformation space for the
The rigid shell is composed of an upper cover plate, bottom plate, transducer and should offer high elasticity and durability. A rubber pad
and sidewalls. The upper cover plate is used to gather road stress and is selected as the elastomer material. In order to achieve economical
transmit it to the internal transducer array, the bottom plate plays a and adaptable goals, a silicon rubber film is added beneath the pro-
supporting role, and the sidewalls are mainly used for space isolation. tective pad to provide heat insulation.
Therefore, the upper cover must incorporate hard materials that can be
processed quickly, with high flatness, strong force-transmitting perfor- 3. Device dimension
mance and high durability. The technical requirements of the sidewall
material are relatively low, and the materials should be the same as The device size and layout methods will significantly affect the
those of the upper cover plate. The bottom plate should adopt material transducer energy output effect, construction convenience, cost, and
with high rigidity and strength. Moreover, in order improve the device road performance. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm the transverse
convenience, the material should meet lightweight requirements as a and longitudinal dimensions as well as array pattern of the device
whole. Thus, an aluminum or a modified polypropylene plate is selected further, based on the road traffic characteristics.
as the cover material, while steel is selected as the bottom plate ma-
terial. The technical parameters of shell material are listed in Table 1.
3.1. Optimization based on vehicle wheelpath distribution
(2) Protection pad
While a vehicle is traveling, it does not focus on a fixed position in
the road cross-section. However, the phenomenon of vehicle wheelpath
The protection pads are set for protecting the transducer and
lateral concentration easily appears in the road cross section through
transmitting force evenly. The protection pad material should offer
the constraint guidance of traffic signs. Sub-lanes or single lanes will
gather nearly 90% of the vehicle wheelpath between 0.5 m and 1.5 m
Table 1
Technical parameters of shell material.
and 2.25 m–3.25 m from the edge of the road. Moreover, nearly 60% of
the vehicle wheelpath is gathered between 0.75 m and 1.25 m and
Material name Elastic Tensile Poisson's ratio Density/g cm−3 2.5 m–3 m from the edge of the road. Therefore, the majority of the
modulus/ strength/
GPa MPa
vehicle wheelpath is distributed over two 0.5-m-wide pavement lines
that are symmetrical to the road centerline. That is, approximately 27%
Aluminum plate 71 460 0.35 2.78 of the road width bears almost 60% of the vehicle load [30]. It is dif-
Modified 1.6 90 0.39 0.9 ficult to pave transducers throughout the entire road under the con-
polypropylene
straints of construction and cost. In order to collect as much as energy
plate
Steel plate 203 415 0.3 7.85 from dynamic loading from tires as possible, the device should be set
within the range of two wheelpaths, with a width of 0.5 m. Therefore,

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C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Table 2
Technical parameters of protection pad material.
Material name Elastic modulus/GPa Tensile strength/MPa Poisson's ratio Temperature resistance/°C Volume resistance Ω/cm

Modified polypropylene 1.6 90 0.39 120 1015

the initial limit of the maximum transverse size of the device is 500 mm. Table 4
Calculate results of tire transverse grounding width.
Type Car Truck
3.2. Optimization based on tire trace pattern
Mini car Medium car Large car Light Medium Heavy
As the initial form of pavement structure stress development, tire truck truck truck
trace is relatively reliable and easy to determine. Therefore, the device
Minimum 109 144 165 133 160 177
dimensions are optimized based on the tire trace pattern. In the tradi-
transverse
tional road mechanics calculation model, the tire trace pattern is round; grounding
however, tire trace patterns of actual vehicle loads are generally rec- width/
tangular [31]. In order to make full use of the pavement stress caused mm
Maximum 157 191 217 194 216 258.4
by traffic load, the device shape is determined as rectangular, and the
transverse
device dimensions are optimized in both the transverse and long- grounding
itudinal directions of the tire trace pattern. width/
mm
(1) Device transverse dimension optimization

Traffic load characteristics vary across different traffic environ- Table 5

ments, and light and heavy transport exhibit significant differences in Grounding parameters of the typical vehicle tires.
grounding characteristics. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize the Vehicle type Tire type Tire Load/kN Grounding dimension
device dimensions for two different application environments. The tire pressure/
MPa Grounding Grounding
transverse grounding width is approximately equal to the tire tread
width/mm Length/mm
width, and the tire tread width is 0.7–0.85 times the section width [32].
Therefore, the tire transverse grounding width can be calculated ac- Car 205/55R16 0.25 3 165 104
cording to the car classification standards and tire type. The calculate 4 165 124
results of tire transverse grounding width are listed in Table 4. 5 165 142

The transverse grounding width of car tires is within the range of
110–220 mm, whereas that of truck tires is 130–260 mm. Considering
that heavy transport is mainly composed of medium- and heavy-duty
trucks, the width of the truck tires transverse grounding is set at
160–250 mm. Light transport is mainly composed of mini and medium
cars; thus, the width of the car tires transverse grounding is set at
110–190 mm. Therefore, when the device transverse dimension is less
than or within those two intervals, it is considered to be matched to the
tire grounding characteristics. However, as the power-generation de-
vice dimensions should enable it to take into account most of the traffic
load, it should be at the lower limit.
(2) Device longitudinal dimension optimization
The longitudinal grounding tire ground length is mainly affected by
the load and tire pressure, where the load is positively correlated to the
longitudinal tire ground length and the tire pressure is negatively cor-
related [33]. In this study, the commonly used 205 car tires and
11.00–20 truck tires are taken as examples to optimize the device
longitudinal dimension. The grounding parameters of the typical ve-
hicle tires are listed in Table 5.
The above table indicates that, under the common tire pressure, the
longitudinal grounding tire ground length is 104–142 mm with an in-
crease in car weight. The quality of cars with 205 tires is 1.4–1.7 t (staff
at 65 kg/person), consistent with the load of 400 kg, and at this point,
the longitudinal grounding tire length is 124 mm. According to dif-
ferent vehicle loads, the longitudinal grounding length of truck tires is
Truck 11.00–20 0.81 25 195 200
37.5 195 262
50 195 311
200–300 mm. Considering the traffic load utilization, the longitudinal
device dimension for light transport should be less than or equal to
130–260 mm, whereas for heavy transport it should be less than or
equal to 200–300 mm. Meanwhile, the maximum transverse device
dimension may be further constrained by the grounding tire width, as
shown in Table 5: the transverse grounding width of car tires is
165 mm, while that of truck tires is 195 mm.
In summary, the transverse and longitudinal device dimensions for
light transport are less than or equal to 110–165 mm and 100–120 mm,
respectively, whereas those for heavy transport are less than or equal to
160–195 mm and 200–300 mm, respectively.
3.3. Array and dimension optimization based on vehicle roller compaction
conditions
The device array pattern in the pavement structure determines the
energy output effect of the power-generation pavement. If the device is
paved continuously within the pavement structure in the longitudinal
direction, continuous piezoelectric energy output of can be realized.
However, in practice, it is impossible to pave the device in such a
manner, because of cost and construction restrictions. In order to rea-
lize efficient output of the power-generation pavement energy, it is

Table 3
Technical parameters of substrate material.
Material name Elastic modulus/MPa Temperature resistance/°C Thermal conductivity/W/m K Density/g cm−3

Fiber insulation plate 215 230 0.24 1.8

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C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Fig. 3. Array pattern of the device.

necessary to determine the device array pattern and optimize its long- Table 7
itudinal dimension based on vehicle roller compaction conditions. Longitudinal dimensions design of the device.
Light traffic Heavy traffic
(1) Design of device array pattern
Number (n) Longitudinal Spacing Number (n) Longitudinal Spacing
In this study, the device array pattern is designed as illustrated in dimension (l)/mm dimension (l)/mm
(x)/mm (x)/mm
Fig. 3, based on the road traffic characteristics. Under this laying mode,
one of the two vehicle axles can be always rolled onto the device in 1 760 1008 1 1067 1467
order to ensure continuous piezoelectric energy output and improve the 2 406 654 2 560 960
convenience of the device paving. 3 254 502 3 343 743
4 171 419 4 222 622
At vehicle travel 1, when the front car wheel has just finished rolling
5 117 365 5 145 545
over device B, the rear wheel is about to roll over device D. At vehicle 6 80 328 6 92 492
travel 2, when the front car wheel is about to roll over device A, the rear 7 53 301 7 53 453
wheel has just finished rolling over device D. It is assumed that n de-
vices exist between the front and rear wheels when rolling over a de-
vice. Equations can be established based on the relationship between The vehicle wheelbase y and longitudinal ground length a (Table 6)
the two vehicle travels, and the results are as follows. are substituted into formula (6), and the calculation results are dis-
played in Table 7.
⎧ y = (n + 1) l + nx −a The device longitudinal dimension and spacing decrease sharply as
⎨
⎩ y = nl + (n + 1) x + a (5) the number of devices increases, with the longitudinal dimension de-
creasing more rapidly. When the number of devices is 7, the long-
Based on this equations l and x can be expressed as follows.
itudinal device dimension is 53 mm. At present, the diameter of trans-
y ducers for roads is 30 mm [34]. Considering that the embedded
l= +a
2n + 1 (6) transducer space is at least 50 mm, the upper limit of the number of
y device intervals is determined as 7, whereas the lower limit of the
x= −a horizontal device dimension is 50 mm. Dimensions design of the device
2n + 1 (7)
for light transport and heavy transport are shown in Fig. 4.
where x is longitudinal dimension of the device, l is distance between The dimension spacing enclosed by the bold black frame (Fig. 4) is
adjacent device, y is vehicle wheelpath, a is longitudinal grounding an optional range that satisfies most vehicle loads, and the dimension
length of the vehicle tire, b is transverse grounding width of the vehicle spacing of the shaded section can satisfy the optional range of all ve-
tire. hicle loads. The light transport device horizontal dimensions can be
arbitrarily combined within the range of 50–110 mm, while the long-
(2) Further device dimension optimization itudinal dimensions can be arbitrarily combined within the range of
50–100 mm. The heavy transport device horizontal dimensions can be
Taking a car and heavy truck as representative models, and para- arbitrarily combined within the range of 50–160 mm, whereas the
meters of the common car and heavy truck is listed as Table 6, the longitudinal dimensions can be arbitrarily combined within the range
device dimensions are designed for light and heavy transport. of 50–200 mm. Therefore, on the basis of ensuring that the device can
take into consideration all vehicle loads, and accounting for factors
Table 6 such as the layout of transducers within the device, construction con-
Parameters of the car and truck. venience, and manufacturing costs, the longitudinal and horizontal
Types Car Truck device dimensions for light and heavy transport are determined as
100 mm × 100 mm and 150 mm × 150 mm, respectively.
Single wheel load F 4 kN 25 kN
Wheelbase y 2651 mm 3800 mm
Tire pressure p 0.25 MPa 0.81 MPa
Tire ground width b 165 mm 195 mm
Tire ground length a 124 mm 200 mm

23
C. Wang et al.
(a) Device dimension of light transport
Fig. 4. Dimension optional range of the device.
4. Device material configuration optimization based on mechanic-
electric response
As the device power output varies with different component mate-
rials, it is necessary to clarify the optimal device component config-
uration. The device integrated with four transducers is taken as an
example, and the device mechanic-electric response under different
material cover plate, rubber pad thickness, protective pad, and trans-
ducer specifications are tested respectively. This provides a reference
for the device component configuration optimization (see Fig. 5).
4.1. Different cover plate materials
Both a hard aluminum alloy and modified polypropylene plate can
meet the device requirements for flatness, force transmission perfor-
mance, and upper cover plate durability; thus, these two materials need
to be compared further. In this study, the device mechanic-electric re-
sponse effect under different cover plates was measured with the use of
a rutting instrument to compare the two materials.
Because the rutting instrument rubber wheel width is 50 mm and
the device width is 100 mm, the device full section loading cannot be
realized directly. Therefore, in order to fully test the mechanic-electric
response of each transducer, the device is divided into three parts by
width, as illustrated in Fig. 6. Three roller compacting scheme types are
used to test the following: (1) intermediate roller compacting, so that
when the rubber tire travels, it can be compacted to four transducers
simultaneously; (2) upper half surface roller compacting, whereby
Fig. 5. Material selection.
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Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30
(b) Device dimension of heavy transport
when the rubber tire travels, the two transducers in the upper half are
rolled in turn; and (3) lower half surface roller compacting, whereby
when the rubber tire travels, the two transducers in the lower half are
rolled in turn. The test data are recorded in Table 8.
Analysis of Table 8 demonstrates that there is little difference in the
mechanic-electric response between the aluminum and modified poly-
propylene cover plate. The No. 4 transducer exhibits the maximum
output voltage difference when half of the surface is rolled; however,
the difference is only 0.2 V, and does not affect the device output vol-
tage. Therefore, it is considered that the mechanic-electric responses of
the aluminum and modified polypropylene cover plates are the same
under the same thickness. Considering that the modified polypropylene
has a lower density and superior heat-resistant and insulating proper-
ties, this plate is selected as the upper cover plate of the device.
4.2. Different rubber pad thicknesses
A greater rubber pad thickness results in increased space for vi-
brational deformation of the transducer, which is beneficial to its me-
chanic-electric conversion. However, with increased rubber pad thick-
ness, its own elastic deformation consumes more mechanical energy,
which leads to a decrease in the final electric energy output. Therefore,
different rubber pad thicknesses are compared in order to select the
optimum thickness. The same experimental method as that for the
cover plate material is used for comparison and selection, where the
technique of rolling from the middle is used in the test. The results of
the experiment are displayed in Table 9.
Following addition of the rubber pad, the voltage output of each
transducer inside the device is correspondingly increased. With in-
creased rubber pad thickness, the electrical output is firstly increased
and then decreased. The output voltage of transducer achieves a max-
imum at a rubber pad thickness of 1.5 mm. However, when the rubber
pad thickness is increased to 2 mm, the transducer voltage output is
decreased, which is in accordance with the theoretical expectation. The
average voltage output differs by only 0.1 V when comparing the
1.5 mm and 1 mm thicknesses. In order to minimize device deforma-
tion, the rubber pad thickness is determined to be 1 mm.
4.3. Different protective pads
The device power output varies with different protective pads.
Therefore, the mechanic-electric device responses are measured with a
ball-type and truncated cone-type protective pad, respectively. When
the transducer is rolled at different positions, the average output vol-
tage value of each transducer is recorded in Fig. 7.
Under the same rolling conditions, the mechanic-electric conversion
performance of the ball-type protective pad is more prominent, and it is
C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Fig. 6. Roller compacting types of the device.

Table 8
Test data for mechanic-electric responses of the device of different plate types.
Piezoelectric transducer No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

Output voltage (V) Intermediate roller compacting Aluminum plate 6.8 4.8 4.0 6.0
Modified polypropylene plate 6.9 5.0 3.9 6.1
Δ (Polypropylene-Aluminum) 0.1 0.2 −0.1 0.1

Output voltage (V) Upper half surface roller compacting Aluminum plate 10.8 9.2 – –
Modified polypropylene plate 10.7 9.4 – –
Δ (Polypropylene-Aluminum) −0.1 0.2 – –
Lower half surface roller compacting Aluminum plate – – 8.8 10.4
Modified polypropylene plate – – 8.9 10.2
Δ (Polypropylene-Aluminum) – – 0.1 -0.2

Table 9 4.4. Different transducer specifications

Test data for mechanic-electric responses of the device of different rubber pad
thickness. With the modified polypropylene cover plate, 1 mm rubber pad and
Piezoelectric transducer No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Average ball-type protection pad as the internal configuration of the piezo-
value electric power device, the mechanic-electric responses of six, eight, and
10 transducer layers were measured. As illustrated in Fig. 8, the
Output voltage Without rubber 6.9 5.0 3.9 6.1 5.55
transducer is rolled at different positions and the average output vol-
(V) pad
0.5 mm rubber 7.2 5.4 4.4 6.4 5.85 tage value of each transducer is recorded.
pad Under the same load conditions, the transducer voltage output de-
1 mm rubber 7.6 5.8 5.2 6.8 6.35 creases with an increase of the number of stacked transducer layers.
pad The transducer output voltage is approximately the same with six or
1.5 mm rubber 7.6 6.0 5.2 7.0 6.45
pad
eight stacked layers; however, the transducer output voltage with 10
2 mm rubber 7.4 5.8 5.0 6.6 6.2 stacked layers exhibits a significant decrease. For example, when rolling
pad the transducer in the middle, the average voltage output of the trans-
ducer with six stacked layers is 7.65 V (U6 = 7.56 V), that with eight
stacked layers is 6.75 V (U8 = 6.75 V), and that with 10 stacked layers
more obvious under half-rolling conditions. The reason for this phe- is only 2.3 V (U10 = 2.3 V). Through the actual measurements, the ca-
nomenon is that, under half-rolling conditions, the ball-type protective pacitance value of the transducer with six stacked layers is 137 nF
pad can gather the device surface load more easily than the truncated (C6 = 137 nF), while that with eight stacked layers is 193 nF
cone-type protective pad. Therefore, in this study, the ball-type pro- (C8 = 193 nF). Substituting these values into the formula:
tective pad is selected for the device.

Q= CU (8)

Fig. 7. Output voltage average value of the transducer with different protective pads.

25
C. Wang et al.
Fig. 8. Output voltage average value of the transducer with different layers.
where Q is the quantity of electric charge, C is the capacitance, U is the
voltage. The results are as follows: Q6 = 137 nF × 7.65 V = 1048.05
nC < Q8 = 193 nF × 6.75 V = 1302.75 nC. It can be seen that the
production efficiency of the transducer with eight stacked layers is
superior.
In summary, based on the mechanic-electric response, the optimal
configuration for the device components is determined which includes
modified polypropylene upper cover plate, 1 mm rubber pad, ball-type
protective pad, and piezoelectric transducer with eight stacked layers.
The fabricated device is as shown in Fig. 9.
5. Device electrical output performance
The energy output effect of the device exhibits a significant differ-
ence with varying numbers and connection modes of transducers, road
load conditions, and load frequency. Therefore, it is necessary to study
the device electrical output performance by means of specific tests.
When a vehicle load acts on an asphalt pavement, the pressure is
generally between 0.2 MPa and 0.7 MPa, whereas the pavement struc-
ture vibration frequency is approximately 15 Hz [35]. Thus, the load
Fig. 9. The fabricated device.
26
Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30
range of the simulation tests is between 0.2 MPa and 0.7 MPa. In order
to simplify the device simulation load, the load frequencies are set as
5 Hz, 10 Hz, and 15 Hz.
5.1. Transducer connection modes
The electric energy output effect of different transducer connection
modes is studied by applying a standard axle load through the MTS
Landmark (MTS810) and measuring the transducer voltage outputs at
different frequencies, and in series and parallel connections (Fig. 10).
The results are illustrated in Fig. 11. The transducer energy output ef-
fects are evaluated by testing the output power of four transducers in
different connection modes under a standard axle load and frequency of
5 Hz by connecting different resistances. Fig. 12 illustrates the power
output of different connection modes related to load resistance.
As shown in Fig. 11, when connected in series, the voltage output at
different load frequencies is in accordance when the number of trans-
ducers remains the same, whereas the voltage output increases ex-
ponentially with an increase in the number of transducers. The voltage
output of a single transducer is approximately 20 V when the frequency
C. Wang et al.
Fig. 10. MTS simulation measure.
of a standard axle load is between 1 Hz and 5 Hz, whereas four trans-
ducers yield approximately 80 V, which is four times the value of a
single transducer. When connected in parallel, the voltage output for
different numbers of transducers with different loads and frequencies is
almost invariable, at approximately 20 V. The voltage output is more
stable when the transducers are connected in parallel than in series. As
illustrated in Fig. 12, when the frequency of a standard axle load is
5 Hz, the output power increases along with the increase in resistance
load for both connection modes, and the output power of transducers
connected in parallel is higher than that in series. When the resistance
load is 90 kΩ, the output power of four transducers in series is 0.46 mW,
while that of four transducers in parallel is up to 3.44 mW, which is
7.56 times more than in series. In summary, transducers connected in
parallel with a stable voltage output and higher output power is more
suitable for application; therefore, the transducers inside the device are
set in parallel.
5.2. Electrical output performance of 150 mm × 150 mm device
Under the limitations of the transducer, hole, and line slot sizes, the
150 mm × 150 mm-type device can only be laid with a maximum of
nine transducers. Therefore, the MTS loading test is only carried out for
determining the power generation effect of nine transducers connected
in parallel. In order to evaluate the power-generation capacity of the
device accurately, the output power of the transducers inside the device
under different conditions is tested.
(1) Device output power under different load conditions
(a) Transducers in series
Fig. 11. Relationship curves between output voltage and frequency with different transducer connection modes.
27
Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30
Different resistances are connected to the output end of each
transducer, and an oscilloscope is connected in parallel to both ends of
the resistor in order to record the output voltage at different resistances.
The output power of different loads is calculated by substituting the test
value into the formula P = I2R. The test resistance is 1/8 W metal film
resistance. The relationship between output power and load resistance
is tested under the conditions of 0.2 MPa and 10 Hz, 0.5 MPa and 10 Hz,
0.6 MPa and 10 Hz, and 0.7 MPa and 10 Hz. The results are illustrated
in Fig. 13.
As illustrated in Fig. 13, under the same frequency conditions, the
output power of nine transducers in parallel increases with an increased
load level. At a load level of 0.2 MPa, the maximum output power is
2.92 mW, and at a load level of 0.7 MPa, it is 27.38 mW. The device
power output is considerable, and these results indicate that the device
offers strong application prospects. Meanwhile, as the load resistance
increases, the power output firstly increases and then decreases. The
entire change process verifies the existence of an optimum load re-
sistance for maximizing the transducer power output. Therefore, the
transducers should operate at the optimal load in actual applications in
order to obtain a relatively strong power output. The optimum load for
four transducers in parallel is approximately 8 kΩ.
(2) Device output power under different frequencies
The output power of the nine transducers in parallel is measured at
frequencies of 5 Hz, 10 Hz, and 15 Hz, when the loading force of
0.7 MPa is maintained. The results are illustrated in Fig. 14.
As shown in Fig. 14, the output power of the nine transducers in
parallel increases with an increase in load frequency, and the peak
output power value shifts to the left. This condition implies that the
optimal load size gradually decreases; hence, a frequency increase can
effectively reduce the matching load resistance. The power output of
the nine transducers in parallel reaches 50.41 mW at 0.7 MPa and
15 Hz, and the corresponding optimal load is 4 kΩ, which is 4.36 times
the output power and 0.25 times the load resistance at 0.7 MPa and
5 Hz. The results indicate that the device is more suitable for high-
frequency driving environments.
(3) Device output power under different transducer numbers
Under the same load conditions of 0.7 MPa and 10 Hz, the device
power output with nine and four transducers in parallel was tested
respectively. The results are illustrated in Fig. 15.
As shown in Fig. 15, under the load condition of 0.7 MPa and 10 Hz,
the device power output device exhibits the same trend with nine and
four transducers in parallel. Under the same load conditions, the
maximum power output of the nine transducers in parallel reaches
(b) Transducers in parallel
C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Fig. 12. Relationship curves between output power and load resistance with different transducer connection modes.

Fig. 13. Relationship curves between output power and load resistance with different Loads.

27.38 mW and the corresponding optimal load is 8 kΩ, while the power
output of the four transducers in parallel reaches 51.2 mW and the
corresponding optimal load is 20 kΩ. Although the output power of the
four transducers in parallel is increased, the current intensity is 0.86
times that of the nine transducers in parallel. When piezoelectric energy
is collected, a large output current is important; therefore, at the same
load level, the number of transducers connected in parallel in the device
should be maximized in order to improve energy output.
5.3. Comparison of piezoelectric harvesting device technologies
This paper designs piezoelectric devices considering road coupling
and energy output from the perspectives of size, structure, and material
selection with superior performance. Its performance with the currently
disclosed piezoelectric devices are shown in Table 10.
As can be seen from Table 10, piezoelectric materials currently used
for road vibration energy collection are mostly inorganic material
piezoelectric ceramics. Organic piezoelectric materials have been lim-
ited in pavement applications because of its low energy conversion
efficiency, narrow application scope, and high price [40]. The disclosed
piezoelectric device shows a wide variation of energy output under
different loading conditions. The maximum output power of the pie-
zoelectric devices designed in this paper is 50.41 mW, which is much
greater than to other devices using piezoelectric ceramics as the me-
chanic-electric conversion unit. Considering the application require-
ments of energy output, waterproof, temperature insulation, road
coupling and durability of piezoelectric device, this paper optimizes the
modified polypropylene plates, fiber insulation boards, and stainless

Fig. 14. Relationship curves between output power and load resistance with different frequencies.

28
C. Wang et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 18–30

Fig. 15. Relationship curves between output power and load resistance with different number of transducers.

Table 10
Comparison of piezoelectric harvesting device technologies.
Device (Research institute) Device dimension Packaging material Loading conditions Maximum output
power

Research Institute of Highway
Ministry of Transport [36]
University of Science and
Technology Beijing [37]
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
[38]
University of Texas [39]
Korea University [22]
The Research Device
The device dimension is Φ30 cm × 8 cm, with 12 stacked Polyamide materials 8.9 Hz, 10 kN, 8 14 mW
piezoelectric ceramics transducers inside. devices
The device dimension is 30 cm × 30 cm × 8 cm, with 12 Polyamide materials 5 Hz, 35 kN, Single 20.25 mW
stacked piezoelectric ceramics transducers inside. device
The length and width of the device is 30 cm × 27 cm, height is Engineering plastic 303.4 kN, 8 devices 2.313 mW
not limited, with 12 stacked piezoelectric ceramics transducers
inside.
The device dimension is 23 cm × 23 cm × 3.5 cm, with 25 Not disclosed 10 Hz, 0.5–3.5 kN, 3.5 mW
stacked piezoelectric ceramics transducers inside. Single device
The device dimension is 15 cm × 15 cm × 9 cm, with 10 Anodized aluminum 1 Hz, 250 kN, Single 200 mW
Polyvinylidene fluoride transducers inside. Plates device
The device dimension is 15 cm × 15 cm × 3 cm, with 9 Modified polypropylene plate, 15 Hz, 15.75 kN, 50.41 mW
stacked piezoelectric ceramics transducers inside. Fiber insulation plate and Single device
Aluminum plate

steel with silicone membranes as the device packaging material.
The elastic modulus of the modified polypropylene plate is
1600 MPa, the elastic modulus of the polyamide material or general
engineering plastic is about 8000 MPa, the elastic modulus of the metal
material is relatively higher and the elastic modulus of the asphalt
concrete pavement material is generally about 1500 MPa [41]. In order
to ensure the synchronization of the deformation of the device and the
road surface, as well as reduce the damage to pavement caused by the
modulus difference, the modulus of the upper cover plate material of
the device should be approximate to the modulus of pavement material
as possible. Compared with other packaging materials, modified poly-
propylene has less adverse effects on pavements. The temperature re-
sistance of fiber insulation board can reach 230 °C, while that of general
engineering plastics and polyamide materials is 120 °C. The benefit of
using fiber insulation board as substrate material is obvious, and the
depolarization of piezoelectric transducers can be avoided more effec-
tively. The use of stainless steel with silicone membranes can not only
provide vibration space for piezoelectric transducers, but also enhance
waterproofing function. Therefore, compared with other device
packaging materials, the piezoelectric device packaging material in this
paper is more targeted and suitable for road environments. Further-
more, the height of the piezoelectric device designed in this paper is
about 3 cm, which ensures the efficient use of the internal vibration
energy of the pavement structure and thus reduces potential the da-
mage to pavement structures. To obtain equal amount of energy, the
number of transducers required for a piezoelectric device decreases and
the utilization rate of the transducers improves.
For further research plan, although the piezoelectric device de-
signed in this paper has shown good pavement applicability, it has not
been paved and the effect of piezoelectric device on pavement
smoothness and durability has not been evaluated in the field. In order
to ensure the long-term effectiveness of piezoelectric power generation
pavement, future research is needed to test and evaluate the long-term
effects such as the durability of the device, the long-term power gen-
eration effect and the negative impact on the pavement performance by
paving the test road with acceleration loading tester. A corresponding
evaluation index system will be constructed to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the power generation pavement, and the piezoelectric devices
will be gradually applied in urban roads, highways, service areas, toll
stations and warning windows.
6. Conclusion
(1) A piezoelectric energy harvesting device is designed, composed
mainly of a rigid bearing shell, protective pad, transducers, and
carrier substrate. Modified polypropylene and aluminum plates are
selected as shell materials, the protective pad is made up of cy-
lindrical modified polypropylene rods, a fiber heat insulation plate
is selected as the carrier substrate material, a rubber sheet is used as
elastomer, and the heat-insulating material is a silicone rubber film.
(2) Considering various traffic characteristics, transducer layout, con-
struction convenience, and production costs, the device dimensions
under different application environments are determined and array
pattern is designed based on the driving characteristics. Finally,
100 mm × 100 mm and 150 mm × 150 mm are identified as op-
timal device dimensions for light and heavy traffic loading, re-
spectively.
(3) The device electrical output is evaluated under different loading
combinations with optimized device material configurations, which
includes a modified polypropylene upper cover plate, 1 mm rubber

29
C. Wang et al.
pad, ball-type protective pad, and eight laminated transducers.
(4) The MTS loading test results demonstrate that parallel connection is
preferred for more efficient and stable electricity output. Traffic
loading and frequency, and number of transducers have positive
relationships with power outputs. The maximum power output of
the 150 mm × 150 mm device is 50.41 mW with the loading of
4 kΩ. The device with nine parallel transducers achieves maximum
energy harvests.
(5) Compared with the disclosed piezoelectric devices, the road ap-
plicability of the piezoelectric device proposed in this paper is more
prominent. For future research, the research team will test and
evaluate the long-term effects such as the durability of the device,
the long-term power generation effect and the negative impact on
the pavement performance through test roads with acceleration
loading tester. A corresponding evaluation index system will be
constructed to evaluate the performance of the power generation
pavement, and the piezoelectric devices will be gradually applied in
urban roads, highways, service areas, toll stations and warning
windows.
Acknowledgement
This paper describes research activities mainly requested and
sponsored by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (Program No. 300102218207, 300102218304) and
Shaanxi Province Innovation Support Program in 2017 (Program No.
2017KW-033). That sponsorship and interest are gratefully acknowl-
edged.
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