PERPETUATION OF LIFE Gemmules are special structures that are found in sea
sponges. A parent sponge releases gemmules that
Lecture 2.4: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
All living things reproduce. Reproduction is the process
of generating offspring. There are two main types of
reproduction: sexual and asexual. Some organisms
reproduce by only one type of reproduction and
others can reproduce by both. This chapter looks at
the differences, advantages and disadvantages of
sexual and asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction
The type of reproduction where cells from only one
parent are used, is called asexual. Only genetically-
identical organisms are produced by this type of
reproduction. Evolutionary asexual reproduction
came before sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction in bacteria
Asexual reproduction is very common in
microorganisms. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission.
During binary fission, the cell divides into two
daughter cells that are similar in size and shape.
Asexual reproduction in plants
Asexual reproduction in plants is also called
vegetative reproduction. It usually involves only the
plant's vegetative structures like roots, stems and
leaves. For example, raspberries can produce a new
generation using their stems; potatoes, using their
roots; and geraniums can be grown from any piece of
a parent plant.
Sporulation
Some types of mold reproduce through sporulation.
They produce reproductive cells - spores - that are
stored in special spore cases until they are ready to be
released. After they are released they will develop
into new, individual organisms. Bread mold
reproduces by sporulation.
Asexual reproduction in animals
Some invertebrate animals (without a backbone)
reproduce by asexual reproduction. Animals can
reproduce asexually in the following ways:
Budding
During budding, a new organism starts growing from
the parent's body. At first it looks like a bud. This bud
later develops into a mature organism. Sometimes it
stays attached to the parent's body and sometimes it
breaks off. Hydras reproduce by budding.
later develop into mature sponges.
Regeneration
In the process of regeneration, detached pieces of the
parent's body can develop into a new organism if this
body part contains enough genetic information. Some
flat worms and starfish can reproduce by
regeneration.
Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction works well for organisms that
stay in one place. Because they do not move, it is
difficult for them to find a mating partner. Stable
environments are the best places for organisms that
reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction is also
much less time and energy consuming. Asexually-
produced generation does not have any genetic
variations. That means that these organisms will not
have any 'material' for adapting to environmental
changes. That is why many asexually-reproducing
organisms can reproduce sexually as well.
Sexual reproduction
During sexual reproduction, two gametes from both
parents fuse, forming a zygote. A zygote is also
referred to as a fertilized egg. All gametes are haploid
cells, meaning they have only one set of
chromosomes (1n). So, when gametes fuse, they form
a diploid organism: 1n+1n=2n.
Sexual reproduction in algae
The simplest form of sexual reproduction in algae is
conjugation, in which two similar organisms fuse,
exchange genetic material and then break apart.
Some multicellular green algae undergo a process
called alternation of generations. During this process,
generations of different types of organisms are
produced: haploid and diploid. Haploid generation
reproduces sexually. It is followed by diploid
generation that reproduces asexually.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
Flowers contain both male and female parts. The
female part is called the pistil, which consists of the
ovary, ovule, style and stigma at the tip. Inside the
ovary are the ovules. Each ovule contains an egg cell.
The male structure is called the stamen. It consists of
the filament and the pollen-producing anther. A new
seed is formed when an egg cell joins with a pollen
cell in the process of pollination. Pollination occurs
when pollen grains are carried from the anther of the
stamen to the stigma of the pistil.
Sexual reproduction in animals
Animal male gamete is called spermatozoan or sperm.
Sperm is a mobile cell that moves using its 'tail', called
flagellum. Female gamete is called an ovum. It does
not move and it is much larger than sperm.
Types of fertilization
There are two main types of fertilization.
1. Internal fertilization
During internal fertilization, eggs are fertilized inside
the female's body. Animals, like reptiles and birds, lay
eggs after fertilization. New offspring develop outside
the female's body. All eggs are covered by a
protective shell. Mammal females, except
monotremes, develop a new embryo inside their
body. This extra protection increases an organism's
chances of survival.
2. External fertilization
During external fertilization, the egg is fertilized
outside the female's body. Male and female gametes
are released into these species' surroundings where
they fuse, forming a zygote. This type of fertilization
usually occurs in water. Amphibians and fish are
examples of animals that reproduce in this way.
Hermaphrodites
Hermaphrodites are animals that have both female
and male reproductive organs.
Earthworms and leeches are hermaphrodites, but as
they produce eggs and sperm at different times, they
need a mate to reproduce. Flatworms are
hermaphrodites that can self-fertilize.
Parthenogenesis
In some animal species, eggs can develop without
fertilization in a process called parthenogenesis. Some
types of birds and bees can reproduce by
parthenogenesis.
Plants:
A plants life cycle starts with a seed. When it receives
the right amount of sunlight, water, and air, it will
begin to grow. The Seed sprouts, then grows into
roots, a stem, then develops leaves, flowers and more
seeds. The sprouted seed which grows down into the
soil is called root. The part which grows to the surface
of the soil is the stem. Later, leaves begin to form
from the stem, and that seed is then called a
‘seedling’ as it can produce and prepare food. Slowly
and steadily it develops as a plant, sheds seeds, and
the cycle continues.
Animals:
Animals that give birth to babies and feed them with
their milk are called mammals. Examples are humans,
cows, and dogs. Other animals lay eggs and hatch
them to reproduce new babies. Some insects lay eggs
and the young ones have to undergo the process of
metamorphosis.
Reproductive system of a flower
The flower is a plant which has an interesting
reproductive system. The flower is what we know as
angiosperm which means that they have seeds in a
closed ovary. The flower has many parts which make
it up including petals, sepals (small leaves under the
flower ) carpels (female reproductive organs) and the
stamens (male reproductive organs.)
The Carpels: (female reproductive organs)
Within a flower there can be many carpels. If there are
more than one carpel it is referred to as a pistil. In
each carpel is an ovary, which is similar to that of a
female human. In here are where the eggs are the
produced. A style is found on top of the ovaries and
looks like a long tube. The style is where the male
gametes come down to reach the ovaries. On top of
the style is the stigma. The stigma's function is to
receive the male pollen so the flower can undergo
fertilization.
The Stamens: (male reproductive organs)
A stamen is basically the male reproductive organs.
Within the stamen is an anther. An anther's function
is to create pollen. It also contains filaments.
Filaments hold the pollen in place making it easier for
the pollen to be taken with the wind. Within the
pollen is the male reproductive cells. This pollen finds
the stigma, goes down the style where it will find
and bind with the ovaries
Fertilization: course, pollen must fuse with the egg to
start fertilization, but how does this process actually
work? The process is known as pollination. This
process is helped by animals such as bees which carry
pollen from all kinds of different flowers. As they buzz
around the bees drop some of the pollen on the
stigma. Once the stigma feels the pollen, the its way
down these tubes and fuses with the eggs and then
the flower starts to pollinate and create a seed.
Types of Flowers:

There are many types of flowers all over the world

and not all of them have both of these reproductive
organs in them. Some flowers have only one and
therefore depend on other animals in order to
reproduce. These flowers are known as Imperfect
flowers. The flowers which have both of these organs
are known as perfect flowers.

The image on the side shows a labeled diagram of the

reproductive parts of the flower and briefly outlines
its functions.

Reproductive system of Animals

The reproductive system of animals depends on what

animal they are. Most animals have reproductive
systems similar to that of humans. Animals must pair
with a partner of the opposite sex in order to
reproduce. Quite opposite to the flower, animals have
either the male reproductive system or the female
reproductive system.