Effective Communicative English - Class Notes

Vels University

LLB / BA LLB

Unit- 1

GRAMMAR

Grammar is the way we arrange words to make proper sentences. Word level grammar covers verbs
and tenses, nouns, adverbs etc. Sentence level grammar covers phrases, clauses, reported speech etc.

Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a
language; but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest that somebody
created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like
that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences.
No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is
simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.

Many people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar.
Children start to speak before they even know the word "grammar".

Phrases

Phrases are group of words, without both a subject and a verb, functioning as a single part of speech.

Some examples of phrases include:

 after the meal (prepositional phrase)
 the nice neighbor (noun phrase)
 were waiting for the movie (verb phrase)
 None of these examples contains a subject doing an action (subject-verb). Therefore, each
example is merely a group of words called a phrase.
 A phrase will always be more than one word.

Phrases Vs.Clauses: a Hierarchy of word units

When a group of words contains a subject doing an action (subject-verb), it becomes a clause.
Phrases can be added to sentences to make them more complex.
Concepts can begin with a single word and develop into a compound sentence.
Example:
 meal (word)
 after the meal (phrase)
 that mom prepared (clause)
 After the meal that mom prepared I felt full. (sentence)
 After the meal that mom prepared, I felt full because I ate too much. (complex sentence)
 After the meal that mom prepared I felt full, but my brother was still hungry. (compound
sentence)

Types of Phrases
Noun phrase: Noun phrases consist of a noun and its modifiers.
 the nice neighbor
 a soft, comfortable bed
Verb phrase: Verb phrases consist of a verb and its modifiers.

 were waiting for the movie

 felt a prick on his arm
Adverbial phrase: Adverbial phrases are phrases that act as adverbs. They modify verbs, adverbs,
or adjectives.
 around the block (modifying where)
 after the meal (modifying when)
 in silence (modifying how)
Gerund phrase: Gerund phrases are essentially noun phrases that begin with a gerund.
 running through the woods
 jumping like a kangaroo
Infinitive phrase: Infinitive phrases begin with a verb infinitive and include any modifiers. Infinitive
phrases function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
 to run out of food
 to visit to the countryside
Appositive phrase: An appositive is essentially a noun phrase but one that renames another noun in
the sentence.
 The tree, a tall redwood, was beautiful.
 The curtains were made of lace, a beautiful and delicate fabric.
Participle phrase: A participle phrase begins with a present (-ing) or past (-ed) participle. A participle
phrase includes the participle and its modifiers. Participle phrases function as adjectives.
 The girls giggling and playing in the park never seemed to tire.
 Fatigued and dehydrated in the desert the men traveled on.
Prepositional phrase: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that includes a preposition and a
noun. A prepositional phrase will function as either an adjective or an adverb.
 before church
 under the stairs
Absolute phrase: An absolute phrase includes a noun and a participle and any modifiers.
 the flag flying at half-mast
 her hair streaked with sunlight

Clauses

Clause Definition: A clause consists of a subject and a verb and is the smallest grammatical unit that
expresses a thought.
What is a Clause in a Sentence?
What is a clause? In its simplest form, a clause in grammar is a subject plus a verb. The subject is the
entity “doing” the action of the sentence and the verb is the action that subject completes. A clause
creates a complete thought (an idea or a statement that can stand alone).
A complete thought is also called a main clause or independent clause (IC).

Examples of clauses:
 Subject + verb. = complete thought (IC)
 I eat. = complete thought (IC)
 Sharon speaks. = complete thought (IC)
A clause may include the verb predicate as well. But, it must include at least the subject and verb to
be considered a clause.
Examples of clauses:
 Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)
 I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)
 Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)
It should be noted, too, that a clause in a sentence is different from a phrase in that it must contain a
subject and a verb.
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone in a sentence. It contains a subject and a
verb in its smallest form. A clause may also include modifiers and a verb predicate. It is a complete
thought and the smallest unit of grammar that is syntactically accurate.
Example of Independent Clauses:
 Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)
 I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)
 Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)
In writing, words and modifiers can be rearranged in independent clauses to create interest.

Example of Independent Clauses:

 I eat bananas in the kitchen.
 In the kitchen, I eat.
Here, “I eat” is the subject and verb. An object (“bananas”) and a prepositional phrase (“in the
kitchen”) have been added to the clause to make it more specific. The entire sentence is an
independent clause because it is a complete thought statement.

Dependent clause: Dependent clauses contain a subject and verb. However, they cannot stand alone
as an independent thought. They must be joined with an independent clause to be grammatically
correct.
Example of Dependent Clause:
 Every night before I go to bed, I eat bananas.
This example contains the IC, “I eat bananas.” However, a dependent clause now opens the sentence.
While the dependent clause contains a subject and a verb (“I go”), the dependent clause itself cannot
stand alone a complete thought.

Example of Dependent Clause:

 Every night before I go to bed
This is not a complete thought and therefore not a sentence in English. Every night before I go to
bed…what happens? This idea must be joined with an independent clause to be grammatically
correct.

Other Clauses:
Noun Clause: A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as a noun in the sentence. A noun
clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
Example of Noun Clause:
 I remember what you said yesterday.
Here, the underlined portion is the independent clause that can stand alone. The italicized words,
“what you said yesterday,” serve as a dependent noun clause.

The noun clause is acting as the object of the sentence. In the noun clause “you said” is a subject plus
a verb. This creates the clause (a subject plus a verb). However, “what you said yesterday” cannot
stand alone and therefore must be paired with an independent clause.

Examples:
 I thought what she wore was so chic.
 Whomever you confide in is a person you can trust.

Adjective clause: An adjective clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an adjective in the
sentence. An adjective clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone
as a complete thought.
An adjective clause will always begin with one of the following words:
Relative Pronouns List:
 that
 where
 who
 whom
 which
Relative Adverbs List:
 when
 where
 why
Example of Adjective Clause:
 The boy who you saw at the store committed a robbery.
The adjective clause is acting as an adjective in this sentence. The adjective clause describes the boy.
It contains a subject and a verb, “you saw.” However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
“Who you saw at the robbery” is not a complete statement.

Examples:
 The store that the boy robbed is on the corner.
 The corner of the street where my family lives is surrounded by investigators.

Adverbial clause: An adverbial clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an adverb in the
sentence. An adverbial clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone
as a complete thought.
Example of Adverbial Clause:
 You will continue driving north until you see a stop sign.
The adverbial clause is acting as an adverb in this sentence. The adverbial clause modifies how you
will drive. The adverbial clause contains a subject and verb, “you will continue.” However, it cannot
stand alone as a complete thought. “Until you see a stop sign” is not a complete statement.

Additional adverbial clause examples:

 After the movie ended, we ate ice cream.
 Beth visits her grandfather whenever she is in town.

Sentences:

A sentence is the largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a
period, question mark, or exclamation point. The word "sentence" is from the Latin for "to feel." The
adjective form of the word is "sentential." The sentence is traditionally (and inadequately) defined as a
word or group of words that expresses a complete idea and that includes a subject and a verb.
Types of Sentence Structures

The four basic sentence structures are the:

1. Simple: A sentence with only one independent clause.

2. Compound: Two (or more) simple sentences joined by a conjunction or an appropriate mark
of punctuation.

3. Complex: A sentence that contains an independent clause (or main clause) and at least
one dependent clause.

4. Compound-complex: A sentence with two or more independent clauses and at least

one dependent clause.
 Functional Types of Sentences
 Declarative: "Clothes make the man. Naked people have little or no influence on
society." (Mark Twain)
 Interrogative: "But what is the difference between literature and journalism? Journalism is
unreadable and literature is not read." (Oscar Wilde)

 Imperative: "Be careful about reading health books. You may die of a misprint." (Mark
Twain)

 Exclamatory: "To die for an idea; it is unquestionably noble. But how much nobler it would
be if men died for ideas that were true!" (H. L. Mencken)

Punctuation

Punctuation (formerly sometimes called pointing) is the use of spacing, conventional signs and
certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of written text whether
read silently or aloud.[1] Another description is, "It is the practice action or system of inserting points
or other small marks into texts in order to aid interpretation; division of text into sentences, clauses,
etc., by means of such marks."[2

Correct any errors in commas and semicolons in the following sentences.

1. One witness, the president of the bank, was in her office at the time of the robbery, she could
not possibly have seen the perpetrator.
2. The Barnett and Rivera courts specify that for a search warrant to be valid, the warrant must
particularly describe what is to be searched.
3. The court reasoned that because the affidavit did not name Rivera by name or description, a
magistrate would be unable to conclude that police had probable cause to search Rivera or his vehicle.
4. The search of the vehicle was unconstitutional; and the court should suppress the resulting
evidence.
5. The warrant lacked sufficient particularity and the exception to the warrant requirement does
not apply.
6. When the defendant tried to leave the driveway the police stopped him and handcuffed him.
7. Therefore the toy gun should be excluded.
8. The Fourth Amendment guides the reasonableness of searches and seizures; and any search
conducted outside of this guideline is unreasonable per se unless it falls within certain exceptions.
9. During the ride Mr. Garcia heard Jacob scream “Help Grandpa”! and felt Jacob clutch his
shirt.
10. The plaintiff’s perception must be of a sudden, traumatic injury-producing event.
Active Voice and Passive Voice

Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is
straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not a do-er. It
is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the sentence.
Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important (or not known)
who does the action.

 The window is broken. (It is not known who broke the window, or it is not important to know
who broke the window.)
  The class has been canceled. (The focus is on the class being canceled. It is not important to
know who canceled it.)

 The passive voice is often used. (The focus is on the passive voice. It is not important to
explain who the writer is.)

Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in some cases, you
need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also, passive voice can be considered more
polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.

 That building was built in 1990.

 The car was invented about a hundred years ago.

 I was told that Mary moved to a different country.

 Your business is appreciated.

 She was elected to city council.

 It was rumored that the company would lay off a few people soon.

 It is recommended that the billing process be shortened.

You can easily rewrite an active sentence to a passive sentence. The object in the active sentence
becomes a subject in the passive sentence. The verb is changed to a “be” verb + past participle. The
subject of the active sentence follows by or is omitted.

 Sam wrote a letter to Jamie.

 A letter was written to Jamie by Sam.

 The government built a new bridge.

 A new bridge was built by the government.

 I recommend that you apply for this position.

 It is recommended that you apply for this position.

Choose the sentences written incorrectly in the passive voice.

1)I was eaten an ice cream.

2)The song was sung by a singer.
3)I was deceived by the TV program.
4)The concert was finished at 12 p.m.
5)He was written a novel.
6)The tennis match was aired on TV.
7)He was treated kindly.
8)I have been managed a company since 2004.
Identify each clause as “AV” for active voice or “PV” for passive voice.
1. The complaint was filed by Jane Doe.
2. The deposition was taken by Attorney Smith.
3. The deposition of Dr. Jones was taken by Attorney Smith for the purpose of introducing the
deposition into evidence.
4. The verdict on the murder case was given by the judge.
5. It was determined by the court that the evidence was inadmissible.

Direct & Indirect Speech

Direct Speech: the message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in his own actual words without
any change.
Indirect Speech: the message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in our own words.
Example on Process of Conversion from Direct to Indirect Speech
a) Direct: Radha said, “I am very busy now.”
b) Indirect: Radha said that she was very busy then.
1. All inverted commas or quotation marks are omitted and the sentence ends with a full stop.
2. Conjunction ‘that’ is added before the indirect statement.
3. The pronoun ‘I’ is changed to ‘she’. (The Pronoun is changed in Person)
4. The verb ‘am’ is changed to ‘was’. (Present Tense is changed to Past)
5. The adverb ‘now’ is changed to ‘then’.

Tip 1: Conversion Rules as per the Reporting Verb

When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all Present tenses of the direct are changed
into the corresponding Past Tenses.
a) Direct: He said, “I am unwell.”
b) Indirect: He said (that) he was unwell.
If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future Tense, the tenses of the Direct Speech do not change.
a) Direct: He says/will say, “I am unwell.”
b) Indirect: He says/will say he is unwell.
The Tense in Indirect Speech is NOT CHANGED if the words within the quotation marks talk of a
universal truth or habitual action.
a) Direct: They said, “We cannot live without water.”
b) Indirect: They said that we cannot live without water.

Tip 2: Conversion Rules of Present Tense in Direct Speech

Simple Present Changes to Simple Past

a) Direct: "I am happy", she said.
b) Indirect: She said that she was happy.
Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous
a) Direct: "I am reading a book", he explained.
b) Indirect: He explained that he was reading a book.
Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: She said, "He has finished his food“.
b) Indirect: She said that he had finished his food.
Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect
a) Direct: "I have been to Gujarat", he told me.
b) Indirect: He told me that he had been to Gujarat.

Tip 3: Conversion Rules of Past & Future Tense

Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect

a) Direct: He said, “Ira arrived on Monday."
b) Indirect: He said that Ira had arrived on Monday.
Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous
a) Direct: "We were living in Goa", they told me.
b) Indirect: They told me that they had been living in Goa.
Future Changes to Present Conditional
a) Direct: He said, "I will be in Kolkata tomorrow."
b) Indirect: He said that he would be in Kolkata the next day.
Future Continuous Changes to Conditional Continuous
a) Direct: She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday.”
b) Indirect: She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

Tip 4: Changes in Modals

CAN changes into COULD

a) Direct: He said, "I can swim."
b) Indirect: He said that he could swim.
MAY changes into MIGHT
a) Direct: He said, "I may buy a house.”
b) Indirect: He said that he might buy a house.
MUST changes into HAD TO/WOULD HAVE TO
a) Direct: He said, "I must work hard.”
b) Indirect: He said that he had to work hard.
Modals that DO NOT Change: Would, Could, Might, Should, Ought to.
a) Direct: He said, "I should face the challenge.”
b) Indirect: He said that he should face the challenge.
Tip 5: Conversion of Interrogative
Reporting Verb like ‘said/ said to’ changes to asked, enquired or demanded
a) Direct: He said to me, “What are you doing?”
b) Indirect: He asked me what I was doing.
If sentence begins with auxiliary verb, the joining clause should be if or whether.
a) Direct: He said, “Will you come for the meeting?”
b) Indirect: He asked them whether they would come for the meeting.
If sentence begins with ‘wh’ questions then no conjunction is used as the "question-word" itself act as
joining clause.
a) Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the girl.
b) Indirect: The girl enquired where I lived.

Tip 6: Command, Request, Exclamation, Wish

Commands and Requests

Indirect Speech is introduced by some verbs like ordered, requested, advised and suggested.
Forbid(s)/ forbade is used for the negative sentences. The imperative mood is changed into the
Infinitive.
a) Direct: Rafique said to Ahmed, “Go away.”
b) Indirect: Rafique ordered Ahmed to go away.
c) Direct: He said to her, “Please wait.”
d) Indirect: He requested her to wait.
Exclamations and Wishes
Indirect Speech is introduced by some words like grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud. Exclamatory
sentence changes into assertive sentence and Interjections are removed.
a) Direct: He said, “Alas! I am undone.”
b) Indirect: He exclaimed sadly that he was broke.

Tip 7: Change of Pronouns

The first person of the reported speech changes according to the subject of reporting speech.
a) Direct: She said, “I am in ninth class.”
b) Indirect: She says that she was in ninth class.
The second person of reported speech changes according to the object of reporting speech.
a) Direct: He says to them, "You have completed your job.”
b) Indirect: He tells them that they have completed their job.
The third person of the reported speech doesn't change.
a) Direct: He says, "She is in tenth class.”
b) Indirect: He says that she is in tenth class.

Tip 8: Change of Place and Time

Words expressing nearness in time or place in Direct Speech are generally changed into words
expressing distance in Indirect Speech.
Now -- then
Here -- there
Ago -- before
Thus -- so
Today -- that day
Tomorrow -- the next day
This -- that
Yesterday -- the day before
These -- those
Hither-- thither
Come -- go
Hence -- thence
Next week/month -- following week/month
a) Direct: She said, “My father came yesterday.”
b) Indirect: She said that her father had come the day before.
c) Direct: She says/will say, “My father came yesterday.”
Indirect: She says/will say that her father had come yesterday. (Here the reporting verb ‘says’ is in
the present tense OR ‘will say’ is in future tense; hence the time expression ‘yesterday’ won’t change.)

Tip 9: Punctuation

The words that are actually spoken should be enclosed in quotes and begin with a capital letter
Example: He said, “You are right.”
Comma, full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark must be present at the end of reported
sentences and are placed inside the closing inverted comma or commas.
Example: He asked, “Can I come with you?”
If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, comma is used to introduce the
piece of speech, placed before the first inverted comma.
Example: She shouted, “Stop talking!”
Example: “Thinking back,” she said, “he didn't expect to win.” (Comma is used to separate the
two reported speech and no capital letter to begin the second sentence).

Tip 10: Conversion of Indirect to Direct Speech

1. Use the reporting verb, "say" or "said to" in its correct tense.
2. Remove the conjunctions "that, to, if or whether etc" wherever necessary.
3. Insert quotation marks, question mark, exclamation and full stop, as per the mood of the sentence.
4. Put a comma before the statement.
5. Write the first word of the statement with capital letter.
6. Change the past tense into present tense wherever the reporting verb is in the past tense.
7. Convert the past perfect either into past tense or present perfect as found necessary.
Example
a) Indirect: He asked whether he is coming.
b) Direct: He said to him, “Are you coming?”

Tenses

Tenses play a crucial role in the English language. It denotes the time an action takes place, whether

sometime in the past, in the present or will take some time in the future.

Past Present Future

Simple Played (verb+ed) Plays (verb+s) will/shall play (will/shall+verb)

Perfect had played (had+past has/have played (has/have+past will/shall have

participle) participle) played(will/shall+past participle)

Continuous was/were is/am/are will/shall be playing(will/shall

playing(was/were+verb+ing playing(is/am/are+verb+ing) be+verb+ing)

Perfect had been playing (had has/have been playing(has/have will/shall have been

Continuous been+verb+ing) been+verb+ing) playing(will/shall have

been+verb+ing)

From a general view of tenses, this module will go on to discuss each tense in detail with examples.

The table below gives a glimpse of the way tenses are

used using the verb 'play'

PAST TENSE
i. Simple Past Tense-
Indicates an action took place before the present moment and that has no real connection with the
present time.
For example, "He danced in the function." (The action took place in the past, is finished and is
completely unrelated to the present)
"He flew to London yesterday."
Note
a.the verb 'flew' is an irregular verb which does not take 'ed' in the past tense like regular verbs.
b. the form of Simple Past Tense is - verb + ed
ii. Past Perfect Tense-
Indicates an action in the past that had been completed before another time or event in the past.
For example, "He had exercised before it started to rain."
"He had slept before I came back from the market."
Note
a. The form of Past Perfect Tense is- had + verb (past participle form or the 3rd form of the verb)

Read More : Understanding of Articles will improve your language skills

iii. Past Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action going on at some time in the past or an action in the past that is longer in duration
than another action in the past.
For example, "It was getting darker."
"The light went out while theywere reading."
Note
a. The form of Past Continuous Tense is- was/were + verb + ing
iv. Past Perfect Continuous Tense-

Indicates an action in the past that took place before another time or event in the past and continued
during the second event/time point in the past.
For example, "At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months."
"He had been exercising when I called."
Note
a. The form of Past Perfect Continuous Tense is- had + been + verb + ing

PRESENT TENSE
i. Simple Present Tense-
Indicates an action that is generally true or habitual. That is, it took place in the past , continue to take
place in the present, and will take place in the future. This tense is used to denote
-a habitual action- for instance, "He walk to school."
-general truths- for instance, "The sun rises in the east", "Honesty is the best policy."
-a future event that is part of a fixed timetable- for instance, "The match starts at 9 o' clock."
Note
a. The form of Simple Present Tense is- verb (infinitive without 'to' and agreeable with the subject)

ii. Present Perfect Tense-

Indicates an action that has been completed sometime before the present moment, with a result that
affects the present situation.
For example, "He has finished the work."
"He has slept."
Note
a. The form of Present Perfect Tense is- has/have + verb (past participle form or 3rd form of the verb)

Read More : Easy Reading Comprehension Passages

iii. Present Continuous Tense-
Indicates an action that is taking place at the moment of speaking.
For example, "She is walking."
"I am studying."
Note
a. the form of Present Continuous Tense is- is/am/are + verb + ing

iv. Present Perfect Continuous Tense-

Indicates an action that started in the past and is continuing at the present time.
For example, "He has been sleeping for an hour."
Note
a. The form of Present Perfect Continuous Tense is- has/have + been + verb + ing

Read More : What is Future Tense?Get Examples and Practice Exercise

FUTURE TENSE
i. Simple Future Tense-
Indicates an action that will take place after the present time and that has no real connection with the
present time.
For example, "She will visit her ailing grandmother soon."
"He will walk home."
Note
a. the form of Simple Future Tense is- will/shall + verb

ii. Future Perfect Tense-

Indicates an action in the future that will have been completed before another time or event in the
future.
For example, "By the time we arrive, he will have studied."

Note
a. The form of Future Perfect Tense is- will/shall have + verb(past participle form or 3rd form of the
verb)

iii. Future Continuous Tense-

Indicates an action in the future that is longer in duration than another action in the future.
For example, "He will be walking when it starts to rain."
Note
a. The form of Future Continuous Tense is-will/shall be + verb + ing

iv. Future Perfect Continuous Tense-

Indicates an action in the future that will have been continuing until another time or event in the
future.
For example, "He will have been exercising an hour at 2:00."
Note
a. The form of Future Perfect Continuous Tense is- will/shall have been + verb + ing

Q1. Choose the correct verb from those in brackets:

a. The earth _____ round the sun. (move, moves, moved)

b. My friends _____ the film yesterday. (see, saw, have seen)

c. It started to rain while we _____ tennis. (are playing, had played, were playing)

d. I _____ English for five years. (have been studying, study, am studying)

e. The train _____ before we reach the station. (arrives, will have arrived, had arrived)
f. Don't disturb me. I _____ my work. (do, did, am doing)

g. Fortune _____ the brave. (is favouring, will favour, favours)

h. I _____ the letter before you arrived. (had written, wrote, will write)

UNIT II

Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read a text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression”. Fluency is
“reading with appropriate accuracy and rate, but also with good and meaningful phrasing and
expression” (Rasinski, Padak, McKeon, Wilfong, Friedauer, Heim, 2005).

There are three components to fluency:

1. accuracy

2. automaticity

3. prosody

Accuracy involves reading words correctly. Students who have excessive miscues when they read do
not read with accuracy. Those who read with automaticity recognize words automatically, without
having to decode or process them. Proficiency in accuracy and automaticity leads to an increased
reading rate, but speed alone does not encompass fluency in its entirety. A third factor of fluency is
prosody. Prosodic reading includes the use of intonation, phrasing, and expression while reading.
When reading orally, prosody provides a clue to the reader’s comprehension of text. So, a fluent
reader reads with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody.

Why is fluency important?

Fluency is integral to the reading process. It enables students to increase their level of
comprehension, expand their vocabulary, and complete reading tasks more expediently. Middle
school and high school fluent readers are more proficient at complex literacy processes that require a
deep level of comprehension, such as critical literacy activities.

Students who are not fluent readers may have difficulty decoding words, recognizing words, and
distinguishing meaningful chunks in text. In essence, they are often not able to derive meaning from
the text because their focus is on deciphering the words, rather than the message conveyed by the text.

Although the overarching goal of fluency is understanding and not speed, the rate of reading is a
significant part of fluency. Slow readers have to spend more time and expend more cognitive energy
to read text than fluent readers. Because reading large quantities of complex text is required at the
middle and high school levels, reading can become an overwhelming task for students who are not
fluent readers.

Types of fluency[edit]
There are four commonly discussed types of fluency: reading fluency, oral fluency, oral-reading
fluency, and written or compositional fluency. These types of fluency are interrelated, but do not
necessarily develop in tandem or linearly. One may develop fluency in certain type(s) and be less
fluent or nonfluent in others.[5]
In the sense of proficiency, "fluency" encompasses a number of related but separable skills:


Reading fluency refers to the link between the recognition of words while reading
and reading comprehension,[4][11] which manifests itself in the speed and accuracy that one is able
to read text.[4] Research on reading fluency aligns concepts of accuracy, automaticity,
and prosody.[11] To achieve reading fluency, readers must have knowledge of the content of the
language as well as the vocabulary being used. Interventions designed to help children learn to
read fluently generally include some form of repeated reading, but this process may differ for
children with learning disabilities, who may struggle with reading fluency.[5]

Oral fluency or speaking fluency is a measurement both of production and reception
of speech, as a fluent speaker must be able to understand and respond to others in
conversation. Spoken language is typically characterized by seemingly non-fluent qualities (e.g.,
fragmentation, pauses, false starts, hesitation, repetition) because of ‘task stress.’ How orally
fluent one is can therefore be understood in terms of perception, and whether these qualities of
speech can be perceived as expected and natural (i.e., fluent) or unusual and problematic (i.e.,
non-fluent).[4]

Oral reading fluency is sometimes distinguished from oral fluency. Oral reading fluency
refers to the ability to read words accurately and quickly while using good vocal expression and
phrasing.[11] Oral reading fluency is often linked to Schreiber’s Theory of Prosody, which places
importance on the tone, rhythm, and expressiveness of speech.[12]

Written or compositional fluency can be measured in a variety of ways. Researchers have
measured by length of the composition (especially under timed conditions), words produced per
minute, sentence length, or words per clause. Ratio measures (e.g., words per clause, words per
sentence, and words per error-free sentence) have historically been most valid and reliable. [5]

What are the causes of reading dysfluency?

Reading for understanding is disrupted by anything that impedes the mapping of print to language.
The most common causes of reading dysfluency are word recognition difficulties, when students
stumble on particular words or lack word recognition automaticity.

Comprehension difficulties also disrupt fluency. For example, when readers encounter unfamiliar
vocabulary, they may misinterpret the usage or meaning of a word, lose the thread of a sentence, or
fail to identify the contextual significance of other words in the passage.

Ways to improve reading fluency

1.Read aloud to children to provide a model of fluent reading.

It’s common for primary teachers to read aloud to their students. But as students get older, the
treasured Read Aloud becomes something we do “if we have time.”

A regular read aloud period is a must in any elementary classroom. No matter their age or ability,
children need a frequent model of fluent reading. N

2. Do paired reading.

To do paired reading, put students in pairs and have them read to each other. Pair more fluent readers
with less fluent readers, but be careful not to make the ability gap too great. Children can take turns
reading by sentence, paragraph, or page.

In a one-on-one situation, the adult and child can take turns reading.
3. Echo reading.

With echo reading, the teacher displays an enlarged text so that students can follow along. This might
be a Big Book or a text displayed on an interactive white board. The teachers often points to words as
she reads a sentence or short paragraph. Then she points to the words again as students echo her
reading.

4.Repeated reading.

Echo reading and choral reading are both forms of repeated reading. Repeated reading is also
something that students can do individually.

Oral Fluency
What is oral fluency?
Oral fluency is defined as the ability to read with accuracy, speed, and appropriate expression 1. While
the word “fluency” also applies to silent reading, oral fluency is a more obvious indicator of reading
pace and comprehension.
Fluency not only reflects students’ decoding skills, but also builds confidence and helps them develop
a love of learning and literacy. Think about it: the more effortless reading becomes for a student, the
more enjoyable and interesting it will be.
Oral fluency is a term in the teaching of reading that refers to how smoothly and quickly a reader can
read connected material aloud. Oral fluency also includes how much expression the reader has in
reading the passage. This measure of pitch, stress, and timing is also called prosody.
Assessing oral fluency can provide information about a child's reading level, but is not a sufficient
measurement of reading comprehension.

Decoding
Early readers begin with decoding written material using previous information acquired about the
sounds of letters and letter combinations. Sight words learned by consistent repetition and recognition
also play a part in the initial stages of reading for comprehension. Sight words are words that appear
with regularity in early reading materials. Some examples include the, see, and we.
Unfortunately, neither decoding ability nor oral fluency alone constitute the ability to read rapidly and
with comprehension and recall of written information. Oral fluency contributes to reading
comprehension, but is not the complete picture.

There are three main components of oral fluency that indicate and affect the child’s level of
reading comprehension:

1. Accuracy
Words with complex syllabic structure, more letters, and less frequency in text tend to challenge
students more—and can result in less accuracy and/or comprehension.

2. Expression
Also known as prosody, a student’s expressiveness is yet another indicator of how well a text is being
understood. A student who reads with appropriate inflection and tone demonstrates an understanding
of the text or narrative.

3. Speed
The speed at which a child reads aloud is another indicator of how well a child understands the text.
Slow reading and frequent pauses signal that the student is having a difficult time decoding and/or
comprehending the text.
 Each component must be addressed to comprehensively evaluate a student’s level of oral
fluency. Therefore, the following signs might indicate a fluency struggle:

 Slow reading

 Reading without expression

 Stumbling on words often

 Subvocalizing (mouth movement when reading silently)

 Failure to meet words-per-minute benchmark

 Difficulty explaining what was read

Why oral fluency matters

How significant a role does oral fluency play when it comes to reading comprehension? A
study2 conducted by Florida State University and the Florida Center for Reading Research found that
growth rate in oral fluency was the greatest predictor in a child’s ability to develop reading
comprehension skills. The study also examined other skills that educators might focus on, including
letter-naming, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and nonsense word reading fluency skills.
However, findings indicated that oral fluency was the most important skill contributing to reading
comprehension development and growth.

Additionally, a 2015 study3 of primary school children in third and sixth grade found that children
who made inappropriate pauses, mistakes in content, and inconsistencies in pitch—all indications of
an oral fluency struggle—were less skilled in reading comprehension.

Oral fluency solutions

It is now clear that oral fluency plays a significant role in how well children understand what they
read. If you notice that your child or student struggles with oral fluency, there are many strategies and
resources at your disposal. A few ways teachers and reading coaches can build oral fluency skills
include:

 Modeling: Teachers demonstrate appropriate phrasing, rhythm, and sound

 Choral Reading: Reading aloud along with a student

 Guided Oral Reading: Repetitive reading with guidance from a teacher or coach

 Sustained Silent Reading (SSR): Reading alone quietly

 Vocabulary Development: Learning and decoding words and deriving meaning

 Audio Read-Along Books: Students follow along as they listen to books on tape
 Writing Fluency
Fluency is an essential component in writing ability and development. Writing Fluency refers to a
student’s ability to write with a natural flow and rhythm. Fluent writers use grade-appropriate word
patterns, vocabulary and content.

Writing fluency is the natural flow and organization of a written work. Fluent pieces of writing are
easier and more enjoyable to read, as the words are organized in a logical fashion and the overall
message of the piece is easier to understand. Teachers can help students in improving their overall
fluency by engaging them in a variety of writing improvement activities.

UNIT III- PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

LSRW SKILLS:

What is LSRW?

L-S-R-W is the four skills of language learning, a set of four capabilities that allow an individual to
comprehend and produce spoken language for proper and effective interpersonal communication. These
skills are Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. In the context of first-language acquisition, the
four skills are most often acquired in the order of listening first, then speaking, then possibly reading and
writing.

Why LSRW is necessary for students?

English is the dominant business language and it has become almost a necessity for people to speak
English if they are to enter a global workforce or Higher education.

Mainly, in present market placement patterns are changed with the latest trends by including
writing assessments like Image skill and Email writing. To crack the latest placement students must be
perfect in reading and writing assessments.

Currently, Students who are very good in technical are lagging in communication. As communication
plays very important role in workforce and higher education, students must be perfect in communication.

This LSRW skills platform provides a complete assistance for the students to get perfect in four skills of
Language learning.

How to develop LSRW Skills?

Why are the four skills useful?

In-order to become a well-rounded communicator one needs to be proficient in each of the

four language skills. These four skills give learners opportunities to create contexts in which
to use the language for exchange of real information, evidence of their own ability (proof of
learning) and, most important, confidence. Listening and reading are the receptive
skills because learners do not need to produce language, they receive and understand it.
These skills are sometimes known as passive skills. The productive skills are speaking and
writing because learners are applying these skills in a need to produce language. They are
also known as active skills.

Listening

Listening is a receptive language skill which learners usually find the most difficult. This
often is because they feel under unnecessary pressure to understand every word. The listener
has to get oriented to the listening portion and be all ears. The listener is also required to be
attentive. Anticipation is a skill to be nurtured in Listening. In everyday life, the situation,
the speaker, and visual clues all help us to decode oral messages. In due course of listening,
be in a lookout for the sign post words. Thirdly one should be able to concentrate on
understanding the message thoroughly. Listening Skills could be enhanced by focusing on
making the students listen to the sounds of that particular language. This would help them
with the right pronunciation of words. To equip students with training in listening, one can
think about comprehending speeches of people of different backgrounds and regions. This
intensive listening will ultimately help a student to understand more on the accents to be used
and the exact pronunciation of words.

Speaking

Language is a tool for communication. We communicate with others, to express our ideas,
and to know others’ ideas as well. We must take into account that the level of language input
(listening) must be higher than the level of language production. In primary schools elocution
and recitation are main sources to master the sounds, rhythms, and intonation of the English
language through simple reproduction. The manifestations of the language in games and pair
work activities are encouraging source to learn to speak the language. This assists the learners
to begin to manipulate the language by presenting them with a certain amount of choice,
albeit within a fairly controlled situation. This skill could be improved by understanding para-
linguistic attributes such as voice quality, volume and tone, voice modulation, articulation,
pronunciation etc. This could also be further enhanced with the help of debates and
discussions.

Reading

Reading is a learning skill. It helps you improve all parts of the English language –
vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and writing. It helps to develop language intuition in the
corrected form. Then the brain imitates them, producing similar sentences to express the
desired meaning. Using skimming or scanning technique to read quickly is highly effective.
While reading underlining of key words is a must. Reading Skills help the students grasp the
content and draw conclusions. The students should also make it a point to familiarize
themselves with the jargons and new words by making reading a habit be it reading
newspapers, articles, books, magazines etc

Writing

Writing provides a learner with physical evidence of his achievements and he can measure
his improvement. It helps to consolidate their grasp of vocabulary and structure, and
complements the other language skills. It helps to understand the text and write compositions.
It can foster the learner’s ability to summarize and to use the language freely. To write
flawless language one should excel in the Writing Skills with the help of various methods.
Importance should be given to composition and creative writing. One should also focus on
coherence and cohesiveness when it comes to writing a language.

Written Communication

Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to
communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-
to-face or telephone conversations.

You might be called upon to write a report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant application
or press release within a volunteering role; or you may fancy communicating your ideas
online via a blog. And, of course, a well written CV or résumé with no spelling or
grammatical mistakes is essential if you want a new job.

Generating ideas for your topic

Once you have an idea of your audience and your constraints, you’re ready to get an idea of
your essay’s topic. Generating ideas, what ancient Greek rhetoricians called “invention,” is
the least methodical and most creative step in writing an essay. There are infinite ways to
generate ideas, but no sure-fire way to generate a good one. As such, I can give you some
helpful tips and techniques, but here more than anywhere else, you will need to find what
works for you.

Tips for generating ideas for your topic

 Don’t feel you need to work logically. Good ideas often have strange origins. An
apple fell on Isaac Newton’s head, and this gave us the idea of gravity. Mary Shelley
had a dream, and this gave us her famous literary classic, Frankenstein. It does not at
all matter how you get your idea; what matters is that you somehow find a good one.
 Work from general to specific. Your first good idea does not have to (and usually
will not) take the form of a good thesis statement. Find a topic before you find an
argument. Think about your argument in general terms before you try to make it
precise.
 Maintain momentum and don’t be critical. Being critical can hinder your
creativity. If you think too much about the flaws in your ideas, you will lose
momentum. Creative momentum is important, though; the first ten in a string of
related ideas might be garbage, but the eleventh could be pure gold. You never reach
the eleventh if you shut down your thought process at the second.
 Let ideas go. Don’t get too attached to the first appealing idea you find. The idea
could work out very well for you, but it just as well might be a dud once you give it
some critical thought. Also, thinking about a new idea does not mean abandoning an
old one. You can easily come back to any idea.
 Critique ideas when you find a few appealing. You will have to select only one idea
to pursue, eventually, so when you have a few that might work, try to rule out all but
one. If you find they’re all bad, start searching for more.
  Find an idea you will enjoy writing about. A bored writer makes reading a bore. Try
to find either a topic that interests you or a way to integrate your interests with your
topic. In the worst case scenario, pick the least boring topic of all of the boring topics
you’re faced with.
 Keep a notepad close. Good ideas will cross your mind when you least expect it.
When they do, make sure that you can hold onto them. Many people come up with
their best ideas just before falling asleep; you might find it useful to keep a notepad by
your bed.

Common strategies for generating ideas for your topic

 Talk it out. Discussing ideas with a friend or colleague often helps you find new
avenues to approach the ideas you have and lets you find ideas you’ve not yet
considered.
 Brainstorm. Write down as many ideas as you can and make point form notes on
them as you go. When you feel you’ve written down the obvious things that relate to
an idea, move on to a new one, or explore a related idea in more depth.
 Free write. This strategy is similar to brainstorming, but its faster and less reflective.
Give yourself a broad topic to write about. Then, on a pad of paper or a word
processor, write continuously for two or three minutes. Don’t stop, not even for a
moment. Write down anything that comes to mind, no matter how nonsensical it
seems, but try to keep the writing somehow related to the topic you began with. If you
need to, time yourself to make sure you write for a few minutes straight. When you’ve
finished, read through what you’ve written and identify any useful ideas that have
come out of the exercise.

Resources for Writers: The Writing Process

Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising,
and editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to
return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.

Prewriting

1. Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes
thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information
(e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).

2. Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that
occurs throughout the writing process.

Drafting
1. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you
concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect
your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting
your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or
implications.

2. Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.

3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think
about the topic.

Revising

1. Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your
readers’ needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support
will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these
particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can
understand Y?

2. At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as
possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.

Editing

1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do
before printing your document is to spell check it.

2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.

Non-Verbal Communication
Definition: The Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying meaning without
the use of words either written or spoken. In other words, any communication made between
two or more persons through the use of facial expressions, hand movements, body language,
postures, and gestures is called as non-verbal communication.

The Non-Verbal Communication, unlike the verbal communication, helps in establishing and
maintaining the interpersonal relationships while the verbals only help in communicating the
external events. People use non-verbals to express emotions and interpersonal attitudes,
conduct rituals such as greetings and bring forward one’s personality.
The non-verbal communication in the form of signals, expressions add meaning over the
verbals and help people to communicate more efficiently. It supplements whatever is said in
words, such as people nod to acknowledge and move their hands to give directions.

The non-verbal communication defines the distance between the communicators and helps
them to exchange their emotional state of mind. Also, it regulates the flow of communication,
for example, an individual can give signals to convey that he had finished speaking or else he
wants to speak.

Sometimes, the non-verbals acts as a barrier to communicating effectively as the recipient

could not understand what the sender is trying to say and may interpret it wrongly.

Types of Nonverbal Communication

 Eye contact.
 Facial expressions.
 Gestures.
 Posture and body orientation.
 Body Language.
 Space and Distance.
 Proximity.
 Para-linguistic.
 Humor.
 Touch.
 Silence.
 Personal Appearance.
 Symbol.
 Visual Communication.

Eye contact
Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the
flow of communication. And it signals interest in others.
Furthermore,
Eye contact with audiences increases the speaker’s credibility. Teachers who make eye
contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and
credibility.
Facial expressions
The face is an important communicator. It is commonly said that face is the index of the
mind.
It expresses the type of emotions or feelings such as joy, love, interest, sorrow, anger,
annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, hatred surprise, and uncertainty.
 Facial expressions are indicated through the mouth (open, wide or closed), eyelids (raised or
lowered), nose (wrinkled or relaxed), cheeks (drawn up or back) and the forehead (lowered or
raised).
Within the facial area, eyes are especially effective for indicating attention and interest.
However, interpretations of facial expressions differ from culture to culture.
Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:
 Happiness.
 Friendliness.
 Warmth.
 Liking.
 Affiliation.

Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and
approachable.
Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more.
Gestures
If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and un-animated.
A lively and animated teaching style captures students attention, makes the material more
interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment.
Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate
that you are listening.
Gestures are movements of the arms, legs, hands, and head.7 Some authors opine that gesture
is the deliberate body movement as because they express specific and intentional meaning.
For example;
a wave of the hand has a specific meaning-“hello” or “good-bye”; a forefinger and a thumb
touching to form a circle have the meaning -“ok”.
Alike facial expressions, interpretations of some gestures also differ across cultures.
For example, in Europe, raising thumb is used to convey that someone has done something
excellent while in Bangladesh the same gesture means something idiotic.
Posture and body orientation
You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit.
Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you
are approachable, receptive and friendly.
Furthermore,
Interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other.
Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it
communicates disinterest to your class.
Body Language
Body language is another widely recognized form of non-verbal communication. Body
movements can convey meanings and message. Body language may take two forms of
unconscious movements and consciously controlled movements.
For example;
When a person is bored, he may gaze around the room rather than look at the speaker or he
may shift positions frequently.
When a person is nervous, he may bite his nails or mash hair. These are usually made
unconsciously. On the other hand, leaning forward toward the speaker to express interest is
the case of conscious body movements.
 Space and Distance
Space and distance are significant non-verbal tools in the case of organizational
communication.
A spacious and well-decorated room indicates a person’s position in the organization
hierarchy and external people gets a message about his importance and authority only by
visiting his room.
Distance is another communication tool, which expresses the degree of intimacy and
individual acceptance.
Proximity
Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students.
You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students’ space. Some of these
are:
 Rocking
 Leg swinging
 Tapping
 Gaze aversion

Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too
much distance.
To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students.
Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities
for students to speak.
Para-linguistic
This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:
 Tone
 Pitch
 Rhythm
 Timbre
 Loudness
 Inflection

For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice.
One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive
these instructors as boring and dull.
Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers
who have not learned to modulate their voices.
Humor
Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college
classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student.
You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It
fosters a friendly environment that facilitates learning.
Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it’s
not the only crucial element.
Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal
skills.
Touch
Touch is a widely used form of non-verbal communication tool.
By touching, one can express a wide range of emotions. However, the accepted modes of
touch vary depending on the gender, age, relative status, intimacy and cultural background of
the persons.
For example, in the context of our culture, when one touches you from the back of the
examination hall, your understanding is that he wants to know something.
Silence
Silence is a powerful tool for communication. It may have a positive or negative meaning.
In a classroom, silence indicates that students are listening carefully and attentively. In the
same way, through silence one can communicate his lack of interest or a failure to
understand.
For example, silence often indicates that a person receiving instruction does not understand
the action required or sometimes silence indicates consent.
Personal Appearance
Appearance is also an important non-verbal communication tool. Appearance includes dress,
hair, jewelry, makeup, belt buckles and so on.
Appearance indicates the degree of importance or interest a person conveys to an occasion.
By means of uniform, we can identify a student, a doctor, a lawyer, a police officer, etc.
In an organization, one’s dress is keenly observed to see whether it conforms to accepted
standards of appearance. As an example, workers may wear different clothes when they are
on strike than they do when they are working.
Symbol
A symbol is something which represents an idea, a physical entity or a process but is distinct
from it. The purpose of a symbol is to communicate meaning.
For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for “stop”.
On a map, a picture of a tent might represent a campsite. Numerals are symbols for numbers.
Personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose symbolizes love and
compassion.
Importance of Nonverbal Communication
Some important points expressing the importance, necessity, advantages or functions of non-
verbal communication are discussed below:
Well Expression of the Speaker’s Attitude
Various non-verbal cues of the speaker like physical movements, facial expression, a way of
expression, etc. play an important role in expressing the inner meaning of the messages in
face-to-face conversation and interview.
For example, the facial expression of the speaker indicates his attitude, determination depth
of knowledge, etc.
Providing Information Regarding the Sender of The Written Message
The format, neatness, language and the appearance of the envelope used in a written message
send a non-verbal message regarding the writer’s tests, choice, level of education, etc.
Expressing the Attitude of the Listener and Receiver
Sometimes the appearance of the listeners and receivers conveys their attitudes, feelings, and
thoughts regarding the messages they have read or heard.
Gaining Knowledge about a Class of People

Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, jewelry, cosmetics, and stature of people convey impressions regarding
their occupation, age, nationality, social or economic level, job status, etc.
For example; students, policemen, nurses, etc. can easily be identified through their dresses.
Gaining Knowledge about the Status of a Person

Non-verbal cues also help to determine the relative status of persons working in an organization. For
example, room size, location, furnishings, decorations, lightings, etc. indicate the position of a person
in the organization.
Communicating Common Message to All People

In some cases, non-verbal cues can effectively express many true messages more accurately than
those of any other method of communication.
For example; use of red, yellow and green lights and use of various signs in controlling vehicles on
the roads.
Communicating with the Handicapped People

Non- verbal cues of communication greatly help in communicating with the handicapped people.
For example; the language of communication with the deaf depends on the movements of the hands,
fingers, and eyeball.
Conveying Message to the Illiterate People

Communication with illiterate people through written media is impossible. There may also be some
situations that do not allow the use of oral media to communicate with them.
In such situations, non-verbal methods like pictures, colors, graphs, signs, and symbols are used as the
media of communication.
For example; to indicate danger we use red sign and to mean dangerous we use a skull placed between
two pieces of bone put in a crosswise fashion.
Quick Expression of Message

Non-verbal cues like sign and symbol can also communicate some messages very quickly than written
or oral media.
For example; when drivers of a running vehicle are to be communicated that the road ahead is narrow
or there is a turn in the road ahead, we generally use signs or symbols rather than using any written or
oral message.
Presenting Information Precisely

Sometimes quantitative information on any issue may require a lengthy written message. But this
quantitative information can be presented easily and precisely through tables, graphs, charts, etc.
Conclusion
To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on videotape. Then ask a colleague in
communications to suggest refinements.

UNIT IV- SPEAKING AND LISTENING SKILLS

Speaking Skills

Formal and Informal Conversation:

A conversation is essential for getting some specific information. Now, it depends on us how
easily conveying our thought for the better understanding of others realizing the major roles of a
speaker and listener in a conversation. Here, we are about to discuss the elements which are
required to establish a strong quality to continue a smooth conversation.
Hence, it’s absolutely perfect to understand the fields we need in order to improve our Formal and
Informal conversation:
A.Informal Conversation:
Informal Conversation, here, does not mean as casual or unethical communication, rather it is
words, phrases, and sentences which are formed to get humor and fun. Sometimes, it is formed to
express our anger, anxiety, and depression.
We have to realize that informal conversation occurs only while we are in the vicinity of our
known friends, relatives, and family members. Some specific parameters we concentrate to make
our informal conversation more active:
 1. Pace: Our pace of informal conversation depends on the situation we face. If some people
are arranging materials for a marriage occasion, the conversation, there, will be very
precise with some verbs and objects: “bring the table now”, “inform the groom’s family
and get confirmation”. It is needed just because the situation asks for random information
to be provided and taken. On the other hand, if two family members are speaking about
past nostalgic memories, they sometimes slow down to express their emotions to feel it
more wonderfully and sometimes, speak fast in one single attempt: “I still remember
(pause for a while) our last visit to Konarak”. Suddenly, in times, it becomes: “ha! ha! ha!
ha!, I believe you didn’t forget that you had fallen on sand headlong down( fast delivery
of words)”. Both the pace, slow and fast, are necessary to create an impact on our
audience.

1. Words and Sentences: As we have slightly discussed in the previous stanza, that the
words are not framed or follow the formal construction always but, it combines witty
comment to hit someone’s mind to accelerate the phases of fun, laughter, and other
emotions: “bring anything, but not your bike. It never stops on road” (here “it never stops
on road ironically means that the brakes system doesn’t work). The structure of the
sentences may sometimes end with on and a single word: “Can you tell me the date you
want to start working out early morning?” and as a reply, it comes as “31st of Feb” which
expresses the answer “never”.

A formal conversation is conducted at the places where the speaker and listener are engaged in a
serious accomplishment of the task. Board meeting, Interview room, client interaction, and other
professional gatherings, are the situation where one must continue professional construction of
sentences, words, and orientation of voice. We have to understand the specific segments in
improving our professional conversation.
1. Choice of Words and Courtesy: Greeting and polite words with smart behavior can
establish your image as a very professional person. Giving your listener or audience a
warm welcome starts the positive note of the conversation every time. It is obvious that
we converse with others with the hope of building a proper bond. Hence, the words to
help us to be strong informal conversation are:

Thanksgiving: I appreciate that… (complete the sentence), I agree that…, I personally applaud
you for…, I sincerely want to thank you for….
These words are not that much used when we speak to our friends and family. Because they know
our genuine behavior and kindness. If your brother asks you: “When will you come for dinner?”
you reply with the word “I won’t” without further explanation, if your boss asks you to join
dinner party you reply with “I would absolutely like to join you here tonight, but, unfortunately, I
am going for a movie I had planned long before with my family tonight. I am quite excited about
joining your next dinner party. Thank you for asking me, sir.”
1. Orientations of Voice and Limitation of Our Sentences: Once we attend an interview
session or client meeting we always want our audience to understand we say. Orienting
our voice with proper tone, articulation, intonation, and pace maintenance help us to
impress our listener in a more proactive conversation. A conversation gives the
opportunity to the listener to speak and the speaker to listen. You, certainly, should not
deviate this process to express our extrovert or introvert nature in extreme level that the
opponent doesn’t get the opportunity to speak or is compelled to speak for maximum time
as you are not speaking at all. Satisfaction prospers only from balanced delivery of words
and sentences.
 Ultimately, it can be conveyed that our understanding of words according to the situation can
create a wonderful communication or conversation. Focusing on these small but effective
elements will definitely bring success to us.

Conversation at Workplace
Everything we talk about involves one or more of four types of conversation. We use them
when we are socializing, talking about the weather, discussing the big game, or chatting about
an upcoming party. We use them when we are learning about the computer system, getting
assignments from the boss, or explaining how the travel policy works to a new employee.
Any time we are trying to motivate people, get them to be more productive, or help them
solve a problem, we are using one or more of these four conversations.

Each of the four conversations has a different purpose, and produces a different kind of result
or impact on the listener. Used at the right times, and in the right combinations or patterns,
these conversations can speed things up, add accountability, and reduce misunderstandings.

 Initiative Conversations share new ideas, goals, visions, and futures with people
who can participate in implementing and making them real
 Understanding Conversations build awareness and knowledge of a new or existing
idea in a way that helps people see how to participate in using or accomplishing it
 Performance Conversations are requests and promises that generate specific actions,
results, and agreements, and pave the way for accountability
 Closure Conversations support experiences of accomplishment, satisfaction, and
value; strengthen accountability; and give people an honest look at the successes and failures
encountered on the way to reaching a goal

Most of us want to be better at initiating things, getting people to understand our message,
promoting effective action, and completing things. Now you can develop mastery in using the
four conversations to produce results. Start by learning which conversations you are using,
whether you are using the best one(s) for your purposes, and how to include all the
components that will engage others in the ways you want.

Difficult Conversations

A difficult conversation is anything you find hard to talk about. Examples of potentially
difficult conversations include asking your boss for a raise, firing an employee, giving
someone a performance review, publicly asking critical questions about a popular issue,
giving a friend bad news, or calling someone to account for poor work. They can be
unsettling because we do not know how we, or the other person, will respond, and we may be
afraid of where the conversation could go. As a result, we may be unsure of ourselves and put
off the conversations or not have them at all.

Interviews

Interview refers to a formal, in-depth conversation between two or more persons, wherein
exchange of information takes place, with a view of checking candidate’s acceptability for the
job.
 Objectives of Interview

 To evaluate applicant’s suitability.

 To gain additional information from the candidate.
 To provide general information about the company to the applicant.
 To create a good image of the company, among applicants.
It is an effective tool for selection. It is a two way communication between interviewer and
interviewee, wherein the former seeks information, by way of questions and the latter
provides the same, through his/her verbal responses. However, the information flows in both
directions. In this way, the hirer learns about the applicant and the applicant also get a chance
to know about the employer.

Types of Interview
1. Structured Interview: The interview in which preset standardised questions are used
by the interviewer, which are asked to all the candidates. It is also known as a patterned or
guided interview.
2. Unstructured Interview: The unstructured interview is one that does not follow any
formal rules and procedures. The discussion is free flowing, and questions are made up
during the interview.
3. Mixed Interview: It is a combination of structured and unstructured interview,
wherein a blend of predetermined and spontaneous questions are asked by the interviewer to
the job seeker. It follows a realistic approach which allows the employer to make a
comparison between answers and get in-depth insights too.
4. Behavioural Interview: It is concerned with a problem or a hypothetical situation,
put before the candidate with an expectation to solve. It aims at revealing the job seeker’s
ability to solve the problem presented.
5. Stress Interview: The employer commonly uses stress interview for those jobs which
are more stress prone. A number of harsh, rapid fire questions are put to the interviewee with
intent to upset him. It seeks to know, how the applicant will respond to pressure.
6. One to one Interview: The most common interview type, in which there are only two
participants – the interviewer (usually the representative of the company) and interviewee,
taking part in the face to face discussion, in order to transfer information.
7. Panel Interview: Panel interview is one, in which there is a panel of interviewers, i.e.
two or more interviewers, but limited to 15. All the members of the panel are different
representatives of the company.
8. Telephonic Interview: Telephonic interview is one that is conducted over telephone.
It is the most economical and less time consuming, which focuses on asking and answering
questions.
9. Video Interview: An interview, in which video conference is being employed, to
judge or evaluate the candidate. Due to its flexibility, rapidity and inexpensiveness, it is used
increasingly.
Halo Effect

Halo effect refers to cognitive bias, wherein the interviewer makes a judgement about the
applicant’s overall potential for the performance of the job, considering a single
characteristic, like the way he/she talks, sits, dresses, etc.

Interviews also have several shortcomings, such as lack of reliability, i.e. no two interviewers
give similar points to an applicant after the interview. Further, lack of validity and biases of
interviewers may also trouble interview.

Listening Comprehension Skills

Listening is the one skill that you use the most in everyday life. Listening comprehension is
the basis for your speaking, writing and reading skills. To train your listening skills, it is
important to listen actively, which means to actively pay attention to what you are listening
to. Make it a habit to listen to audio books, podcasts, news, songs, etc. and to watch videos
and films in the foreign language.
You should know that there are different types of listening:
 Listening for gist: you listen in order to understand the main idea of the text.
 Listening for specific information: you want to find out specific details, for example
key words.
 Listening for detailed understanding: you want to understand all the information
the text provides.

Suggestions for improving your listening skills

Before you listen

 Think about the topic of the text you are going to listen to. What do you already know
about it? What could possibly be the content of the text? Which words come to mind
that you already know? Which words would you want to look up?
 If you have to do a task on the listening text, check whether you have understood the
task correctly.
 Think about what type of text you are going to listen to. What do you know about this
type of text?
 Relax and make yourself ready to pay attention to the listening text.

While you are listening

 It is not necessary to understand every single word. Try to ignore those words that you
think are less important anyway.
 If there are words or issues that you don't understand, use your general knowledge as
well as the context to find out the meaning.
 If you still don't understand something, use a dictionary to look up the words or ask
someone else for help.
 Focus on key words and facts.
 Take notes to support your memory.
 Intonation and stress of the speakers can help you to understand what you hear.
  Try to think ahead. What might happen next? What might the speakers say, which
words might they use?
After listening
 Think about the text again. Have you understood the main points?
 Remember the speculations you made before you listened. Did they come true?
 Review your notes.
 Check whether you have completed your task correctly.
 Have you had any problems while listening? Do you have any problems now to
complete your task? Identify your problems and ask someone for help.
 Listen again to difficult passages.

Barriers to Listening and ways to overcome them

Effective communication is a valuable skill in the workplace, and listening properly is the
most important part of effective communication.

Poor listening skills definitely make a huge, negative impact on team morale and
productivity. This situation usually results in conflicts and misunderstandings among team
members, and it creates a negative environment.

Fortunately, listening skills can be learned. The first step is to identify the barriers to
listening. The second step is to consciously implement the tips provided here to overcome
those barriers.
Excessive Talking

Good conversational skills are an asset, and a person with these skills are more likely to
achieve professional success. However, talking more than necessary is a barrier to effective
communication. People hesitate to interact with a person who talks excessively without
listening to them. They may also get bored, and excessive talking may be perceived as
aggression.

ry these tips to overcome this habit:

 Think before you speak, and don’t speak if you have nothing important to contribute.
 Practice self-control. Allow the other person to speak.
 Avoid interrupting when the other person is speaking.
 Be aware of indulging in useless talk for the sake of talking.
 Be brief while conveying your thoughts.
 Observe your listener’s reactions while speaking.
 Prejudice

 Prejudice is a preconceived opinion of feeling, which is usually irrational. Prejudice is

very dangerous and has the potential to bring animosity into the team and to break
team spirit. The reason for a prejudice may be the speaker’s race, religion, age or
appearance. A prejudiced person will not make any effort to listen and understand.
  Overcoming prejudice while listening:

 Respect the other person for his or her knowledge and skills, irrespective of the
person’s background.
 Make conscious efforts to take charge of your thoughts.
 Consciously avoid taking an “I know what he or she is going to say” attitude while the
other person is speaking.
Distractions

The four main types of distractions are physical, mental, auditory and visual. Here’s how to
avoid this common barrier:

 Face the person who is speaking.

 Maintain eye contact while the other person is speaking.
 Ensure that you are comfortable.
 Switch off the cell phone.
Expecting Others to Share Your Personal Beliefs and Values

Everybody has their own personal beliefs and value systems, and it’s natural to want to apply
them to others around us. Learn to appreciate that others don’t have to share your beliefs. In
fact, their unique perspectives may shine light on problems and issues that you haven’t been
able to deal with before!

Misunderstanding

The inability to hear correctly is one of the many reasons for misunderstanding what a
speaker is trying to communicate. You may think that it’s impolite to ask the speaker to
clarify his words or intentions, but that’s not the case at all. Most people will appreciate the
fact that you are making a focused effort to really understand what they are trying to say.

Interrupting

Interrupting a conversation with improper body language or inappropriate words will have a
negative impact in effective communication. Here’s some tips to help you avoid this barrier to
effective listening:

 Listen without interrupting while the other person is speaking.

 If you seek to clarify something, use appropriate body language such as raising your
hand or ask politely for more details (like “I am sorry to interrupt you…”).
Faking Attention

The person who is faking attention is just “hearing” but not “listening.” There may be some
eye contact and the person may even be nodding, but the mind is elsewhere. The person may
be thinking about what to have for lunch or what to wear for the party that evening. Faking
attention is a habit for some people, but it conveys lack of respect and dishonesty.
Try these tips:

 Make it a habit to listen attentively. It is advisable to assume that the other person
knows something that you may not know.
 Avoid thinking about how to reply when the other person is speaking.
 This habit can be overcome by taking notes while the other person is speaking.
Bringing in Emotions

Emotions erect barriers to effective communication. A listener's senses are not likely to be
functioning at their optimum level when he or she is angry. Likewise, it is not possible to
understand or appreciate what the speaker is saying if the listener is excessively sad.

Tip: It is better to avoid conversations when you are angry or excessively sad.

Noise

Noise is any unwanted sound. It is a great impediment to clear communication. It is

impossible to listen in a noisy environment – it becomes a frustrating experience for both the
speaker and the listener.

 Try to avoid conversations in noisy surroundings.

 Eliminate the source of noise whenever possible. Turn off cell phones, radios and
television sets.

Fear

Fear is a great barrier to listening. People who are afraid during a conversation are not likely
to listen. They become defensive and tend to argue.

Tips to overcome fear:

 Be aware that fear can only worsen the situation. Listen to what the other person is
about to say without fear.
 Keeping calm will give you mental strength to face any situation.
 Taking a deep breath helps in overcoming fear.
Great leaders are good listeners. Effective listening is a valuable skill that helps team
members achieve their goals efficiently and improves productivity. This skill is necessary to
stay competitive in the current global scenario. Implementing the above mentioned tips will
definitely help in improving listening skills. It is possible with self examination and self
discipline.
 UNIT V – READING AND WRITING SKILLS

Reading skills is the ability of an individual to read, comprehend and interpret

written words on a page of an article or any other reading material. The possession of
a good reading skill will enable the individual to be able to assimilate a written work
within a short period while reading.

At a Glance
 Reading comprehension can be challenging for kids.
 Kids must master a number of key skills, like decoding, to fully understand what
they’re reading.
 There are ways to help struggling readers build these skills at home and at school.
Some people think of the act of reading as a straightforward task that’s easy to master. In
reality, it’s a complex process that draws on many different skills. Together, these skills lead
to the ultimate goal of reading: reading comprehension, or understanding what’s been read.

Reading comprehension can be challenging for kids for lots of reasons. Whatever the cause,
knowing the skills involved, and which ones your child struggles with, can help you get the
right support.
Here are six essential skills needed for reading comprehension, and tips on what can help
kids improve this skill.

1. Decoding

Decoding is a vital step in the reading process. Kids use this skill to sound out words they’ve
heard before but haven’t seen written out. The ability to do that is the foundation for other
reading skills.

Decoding relies on an early language skill called phonemic awareness. (This skill is part of an
even broader skill called phonological awareness.) Phonemic awareness lets kids hear
individual sounds in words (known as phonemes). It also allows them to “play” with sounds
at the word and syllable level.

Decoding also relies on connecting individual sounds to letters. For instance, to read the
word sun, kids must know that the letter s makes the /s/ sound. Grasping the connection
between a letter (or group of letters) and the sounds they typically make is an important step
toward “sounding out” words.

What can help: Most kids pick up the broad skill of phonological awareness naturally, by
being exposed to books, songs, and rhymes. But some kids don’t. In fact, one of the early
signs of reading difficulties is trouble with rhyming, counting syllables, or identifying the
first sound in a word.

The best way to help kids with these skills is through specific instruction and practice. Kids
have to be taught how to identify and work with sounds. You can also build phonological
awareness at home through activities like word games and reading to your child.

2. Fluency

To read fluently, kids need to instantly recognize words, including ones they can’t sound out.
Fluency speeds up the rate at which they can read and understand text. It’s also important
when kids encounter irregular words, like of and the, which can’t be sounded out.

Sounding out or decoding every word can take a lot of effort. Word recognition is the ability
to recognize whole words instantly by sight, without sounding them out.

When kids can read quickly and without making too many errors, they are “fluent” readers.

Fluent readers read smoothly at a good pace. They group words together to help with
meaning, and they use the proper tone in their voice when reading aloud. Reading fluency is
essential for good reading comprehension.

What can help: Word recognition can be a big obstacle for struggling readers. Average
readers need to see a word four to 14 times before it becomes a “sight word” they
automatically recognize. Kids with dyslexia, for instance, may need to see it up to 40 times.

Lots of kids struggle with reading fluency. As with other reading skills, kids need lots of
specific instruction and practice to improve word recognition.
The main way to help build this skill is through practice reading books. It’s important to pick
out books that are at the right level of difficulty for kids.

3. Vocabulary

To understand what you’re reading, you need to understand most of the words in the text.
Having a strong vocabulary is a key component of reading comprehension. Students can learn
vocabulary through instruction. But they typically learn the meaning of words through
everyday experience and also by reading.

What can help: The more words kids are exposed to, the richer their vocabulary becomes.
You can help build your child’s vocabulary by having frequent conversations on a variety of
topics. Try to include new words and ideas. Telling jokes and playing word games is a fun
way to build this skill.

Reading together every day also helps improve vocabulary. When reading aloud, stop at new
words and define them. But also encourage your child to read alone. Even without hearing a
definition of a new word, your child can use context to help figure it out.

Teachers can help, too. They can carefully choose interesting words to teach and then give
explicit instruction (instruction that is specialized and direct). They can engage students in
conversation. And they can make learning vocabulary fun by playing word games in class.

For more ideas, watch as an expert explains how to help struggling readers build their
vocabulary.

4. Sentence Construction and Cohesion

Understanding how sentences are built might seem like a writing skill. So might connecting
ideas within and between sentences, which is called cohesion. But these skills are important
for reading comprehension as well.

Knowing how ideas link up at the sentence level helps kids get meaning from passages and
entire texts. It also leads to something called coherence, or the ability to connect ideas to
other ideas in an overall piece of writing.

What can help: Explicit instruction can teach kids the basics of sentence construction. For
example, teachers can work with students on connecting two or more thoughts, through both
writing and reading.

5. Reasoning and Background Knowledge

Most readers relate what they’ve read to what they know. So it’s important for kids to have
background or prior knowledge about the world when they read. They also need to be able to
“read between the lines” and pull out meaning even when it’s not literally spelled out.

Take this example: A child is reading a story about a poor family in the 1930s. Having
knowledge about the Great Depression can provide insight into what’s happening in the story.
The child can use that background knowledge to make inferences and draw conclusions.
What can help: Your child can build knowledge through reading, conversations, movies and
TV shows, and art. Life experience and hands-on activities also build knowledge.

Expose your child to as much as possible, and talk about what you’ve learned from
experiences you’ve had together and separately. Help your child make connections between
new knowledge and existing knowledge. And ask open-ended questions that require thinking
and explanations.

You can also read a teacher tip on using animated videos to help your child make inferences.

6. Working Memory and Attention

These two skills are both part of a group of abilities known as executive function.
They’re different but closely related.

When kids read, attention allows them to take in information from the text. Working
memory allows them to hold on to that information and use it to gain meaning and build
knowledge from what they’re reading.

The ability to self-monitor while reading is also tied to that. Kids need to be able to recognize
when they don’t understand something. Then they need to stop, go back, and re-read to clear
up any confusion they may have.

What can help: There are many ways you can help improve your child’s working memory.
Skillbuilders don’t have to feel like work, either. There are a number of games and everyday
activities that can build working memory without kids even knowing it.

To help increase your child’s attention, look for reading material that’s interesting or
motivating. For example, some kids may like graphic novels. Encourage your child to stop
and re-read when something isn’t clear. And demonstrate how you “think aloud” when you
read to make sure what you’re reading makes sense.

More Ways to Help With Reading Comprehension

When kids struggle with one or more of these skills, they can have trouble fully
understanding what they read. Find out how to tell if your child has difficulty with reading
comprehension.

Learn about what can cause trouble with reading in kids. Keep in mind that having reading
difficulties doesn’t mean a child isn’t smart. But some kids need extra support and
encouragement to make progress.

The Five Essential Components of Reading

Reading is an astoundingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as

one singular act, our brains are actually engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously each
time we sit down with a book. There are five aspects to the process of reading: phonics,
phonemic awareness, vocabulary, reading comprehension and fluency. These five aspects
work together to create the reading experience. As children learn to read they must develop
skills in all five of these areas in order to become successful readers.

Phonics

Phonics is the connection between sounds and letter symbols. It is also the combination of
these sound-symbol connections to create words. Without phonics, words are simply a bunch
of squiggles and lines on a page. If you think about it, letters are arbitrary. There is nothing
innately bed-like about the written word “bed”. It is simply the collection of letters and
corresponding sounds that we agree constitute the word “bed”. Learning to make that
connection between the individual sounds that each letter represents and then putting those
together is essential to understanding what that funny squiggle means.

There are a number of ways that phonics can be taught because there is a variety of ways to
apply this aspect when reading. Each approach allows the reader to use phonics to read and
learn new words in a different way. Synthetic phonics builds words from the ground up. In
this approach readers are taught to first connect letters to their corresponding phonemes
(sound units) and then to blend those together to create a word. Analytic phonics, on the other
hand, approaches words from the top down. A word is identified as a whole unit and then its
letter-sound connections are parsed out. Analogy phonics uses familiar parts of words to
discover new words. Finally, phonics through spelling focuses on connecting sounds with
letters in writing. All of these approaches can be taught and used independently or in
combination to help young readers learn to identify new words.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is closely related to phonics because both involve the connection
between sounds and words. While phonics is the connection between sounds and letters,
phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are created from phonemes (small units
of sound in language). These may seem like the same thing, but there is a subtle difference in
the two. Phonics is used only in written language because it involves letters. Phonemes are
sounds only. While they can be represented using letters, they can also be simply the auditory
sounds of words. Phonemes are most often learned before a child begins to read because they
are centered on the sounds of language rather than written words.

Just like phonics, phonemic awareness can be taught and used in a number of ways. Phoneme
isolation involves the reader parsing out the individual sounds in a word in order to determine
its meaning. Similarly, phoneme segmentation asks the reader to break words into their
corresponding phonemes (which may involve one or more individual sounds) to figure out
the new word. Both of these approaches are very similar to synthetic phonics. Phoneme
identification relies on the reader’s general knowledge of phonemes (usually developed
through speaking) to identify sound patterns in words. For example a reader would identify
the phoneme /d/ he knows from the words “dog” and “dad” to help him learn how to read a
new word “doctor”. Finally, phoneme blending requires the reader to connect a series of
phonemes together to create a word. This strategy is always used in conjunction with one of
the others.

Vocabulary
In order to read words we must first know them. Imagine how frustrating and fruitless it
would be to read this article if all of the words were unfamiliar to you. As children become
stronger, more advanced readers they not only learn to connect their oral vocabularies (the
words we know when they are spoken) to their reading vocabularies (the words we know
when they are used in print) they also strengthen each of these areas by adding new words to
their repertoires. Vocabulary development is an ongoing process that continues throughout
one’s “reading life”.

There are two primary ways of teaching and learning new vocabulary words. The first is
explicit instruction. This involves someone telling you how a word is pronounced and what
its meaning is. That “someone” might be a teacher, a dictionary, a vocabulary guide or any
other resource offering definitions and pronunciations. Context clues provide another method
for discovering new words. Context clues are the “hints” contained in a text that help a reader
figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. They include other words in a sentence or
paragraph, text features (ie. bold print, italics), illustrations, graphs and charts. Context clues
are basically any item in the text that points to the definition of a new word.

Fluency

Fluency is a reader’s ability to read with speed, accuracy and expression. Thus it requires him
to combine and use multiple reading skills at the same time. While fluency is most often
measured through oral readings, good readers also exhibit this skill when they are reading
silently. Think about the way a book “sounds” in your mind when you are reading silently.
You “hear” the characters “speak” with expression. Even passages that are not written in
dialogue “sound” as if the words fit the meaning. A particularly suspenseful action sequence
moves quickly through your mind creating a palpable sense of tension. Your ability to move
through a piece of text at a fluid pace while evoking the meaning and feeling of it
demonstrates your fluency.

Fluency is intimately tied to comprehension. A reader must be able to move quickly enough
through a text to develop meaning. If he is bogged down reading each individual word, he is
not able to create an overall picture in his mind of what the text is saying. Even if the reader
is able to move rapidly through a text, if she cannot master the expression associated with the
words, the meaning of it will be lost.

Reading Comprehension

Comprehension is what most people think reading is. This is because comprehension is the
main reason why we read. It is the aspect of reading that all of the others serve to create.
Reading comprehension is understanding what a text is all about. It is more than just
understanding words in isolation. It is putting them together and using prior knowledge to
develop meaning.

Reading comprehension is the most complex aspect of reading. It not only involves all of the
other four aspects of reading, it also requires the reader to draw upon general thinking skills.
When a reader is actively engaged with a text, she is asking and answering questions about
the story and summarizing what she has read. Like vocabulary, reading comprehension skills
develop and improve over time through instruction and practice.
 The four main types of reading techniques are the following:
 Skimming
 Scanning
 Intensive
 Extensive
Skimming
Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. Skimming may help in order to know
what the text is about at its most basic level. You might typically do this with a magazine or
newspaper and would help you mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might
consider for a deeper read. You might typically skim to search for a name in a telephone
directory.
You can reach a speed count of even 700 words per minute if you train yourself well in this
particular method. Comprehension is of course very low and understanding of overall content
very superficial.
Scanning
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would most probably just
scan the guide book to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your
eyes to quickly scuttle across sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information.
Interestingly, research has concluded that reading off a computer screen actually inhibits the
pathways to effective scanning and thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy
comprehension of texts.
Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is illustrations. These
should be included in your scanning. Special attention to the introduction and the conclusion
should also be paid.
Intensive Reading
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember
this is going to be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the
chronology of events in a long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of
reading has indeed beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand vocabulary by
deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover, helps with retention of information
for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from intensive reading persists in your long
term memory.
This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an exam does not
work very well. When students do this, they undertake neither type of reading process
effectively, especially neglecting intensive reading. They may remember the answers in an
exam but will likely forget everything soon afterwards.
Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in
extensive reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do
not like. It also requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of
you. If the text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or
to look up new words in the dictionary, you are breaking your concentration and diverting
your thoughts.
Is the ability to learn and assimilate information genetic?
It is not uncommon for people to associate intelligent or bright kids with their equally
intelligent parents. Often children of parents exercising a profession appear to be more
intelligent. However, it is important to note first and foremost, that academic intelligence is
only one form of intelligence and even a university professor who scores high on academic
intelligence, might be the most impractical person, finding it difficult to pragmatically solve
problems to simple everyday tasks. The notion of intelligence is an extremely complex and
diverse one and to pin it into just a single word means whipping out the multitude of
connotations and meanings that it actually embodies.
Scientists have found no plausible relationship between our genes and our ability to learn or
our intelligence. There is no genetic DNA test that can predict intelligence because
intelligence is due to your environment. It is likely that children with parents who exercise a
profession appear more intelligent because their parents directly or directly encourage it.
Likely, it is also evident that parents who neglect their children and do not enforce their
schooling commitments (doing their homework, study periods etc) will perform less well in
school and appear “less intelligent”. Again, it is evident why children who have had no
opportunity for schooling might be considered anything but “intelligent”.
 Writing Skills

Note Making

Note Making

Note Making is a way of recording important details from a source. This source can be any
book, article, meeting or any oral discussion. In note making, the writer records the essence of
the information. It helps us to understand and clarify thinking. Note making saves a lot of time
by going through the notes made. One can get a glimpse of a lot of information from a short
note.

Advantages of Note Making

A note making is a skill which improves by practicing. There are some advantages of note
making. Let us get to know some of them.

 It has great importance in exams or in academic writing

 It is an organization of main points for future use

 Note making helps in keeping the information handy whenever we require
 It helps in recollecting and recalling the past events said or heard
 It helps in concentrating, understanding and provides a permanent record
 Note making format helps a writer to go through bulky documents quicker
 It helps in understanding a material if the notes are in own words
 It distinguishes between main points and details

Here we will learn why and how to make a note.

Note Making Format

There is a fixed note making format. One needs to follow this note making format in order to
have a clear and unambiguous understanding from it. The note making format has-
Heading
It shows the title or the heading of note.

Subheading
As the name suggests, a subheading is a subdivision of the main topic. One can use as many
subheadings as he or she wants.

Point
Below subheading, there are some points which are the part of the main topics.

Sub-subheading
One can add more headings below the points for showing the category, types, advantages, etc.

Key or Keywords
The key portion of the note shows the various codes, symbols or the abbreviation used. It helps
to get a clear understanding of the keys used in the note making format.

The Procedure of Note Making

  Read the passage provided

 Underline the important sentences. It helps to make headings and subheadings

 Make a rough note first so as to get an idea
 Organize them in logical order or sequence for the final note
 Use the appropriate note making format
 Do not change the idea or the message of the passage

Points to Remember for Note Making Format

 Avoid using long sentences as heading or title

 Never lose the main idea of the passage

 Ignore information which is less important
 Be brief, clear, and specific
 Use logical sequencing
 Use proper indention
 Leave no spaces to avoid confusion
 Do not include your own version or understandings
 Use abbreviations
 Make your note more memorable by adding colors, drawings, and symbols

What are the Mechanics of linear note making?

Note Making Format

A note making involves the selection, analysis, summarization, and organization of information.
There are different note making format. Let us make ourselves familiar with them.

Split – page Format (A narrative note making format method)

In this method, the page is divided into two columns. The first column had the standard notes.
The second column will have a summary. This is the most common note making format to note
down lecture notes.

Diagram / Pattern format (A visual note making format method)

In this method, the information is presented by a diagram. The main topic is linked together by
related ideas. This method is visually more appealing and easy to understand.
Mind Map (A visual note making method)
In this method, the main points and all the related points are presented through a map. It contains
text and images both. For a clear understanding, the information is linked in the proper
sequence.

Outline Format (A visual note making format method)

In this method, the information is presented as an outline. Proper titles and subtitles are
numbered accordingly for this outline.

Question and Prompt Format (A visual note making format method)

In this method, the main points are highlighted as a series of questions and appropriate answers.
It helps in revising the note in an easy way.

Solved Example for You

Problem: A person really wants to remember the information the speaker is providing.
What should he need to do?

1. Listen for non – verbal clues

2. Listen for verbal clues

3. Write down the important details
4. None of the above

Solution: 3. Write down the important details.

Problem: Why is it important to take notes?

1. Helps you remember

2. Improves your concentration level

3. Helps you prepare for tests
4. All of the above

Solution: 4. All of the above.

C V Writing
What is a CV? Your CV, short for curriculum vitae, is a personal marketing document used
to sell yourself to prospective employers. It should tell them about you, your professional
history and your skills, abilities and achievements

A curriculum vitae, or CV, includes more information than your typical resume, including
details of your education and academic achievements, research, publications, awards,
affiliations, and more.

Here you can review curriculum vitae samples, learn about the difference between a CV and
a resume, and glean tips and advice on how to write a CV.

What to Include in a Curriculum Vitae

A curriculum vitae, commonly referred to as a “CV,” is a longer (two or more pages), more
detailed synopsis than a resume. Your CV should be clear, concise, complete, and up-to-date
with current employment and educational information.

The following are examples of information that can be included in your curriculum vitae. The
elements that you include will depend on what you are applying for, so be sure to incorporate
the most relevant information to support your candidacy in your CV.

 Personal details and contact information. Most CVs start with contact information
and personal data but take care to avoid superfluous details, such as religious
affiliation, children's names, and so on.
 Education and qualifications. Be sure to include the names of institutions and dates
attended in reverse order: Ph.D., Masters, Undergraduate.
 Work experience/employment history. The most widely accepted style of
employment record is the chronological curriculum vitae. Your career history is
presented in reverse date order starting with the most recent appointment. More
emphasis/information should be placed on your most recent jobs.
 Skills. Include computer skills, foreign language skills, and any other recent training
that is relevant to the role applied for.
 Training / Graduate Fieldwork / Study Abroad
 Dissertations / Theses
 Research experience
 Teaching experience
 Publications
 Presentations, lectures, and exhibitions
 Grants, scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships
 Awards and honors
 Technical, computer, and language skills
  Professional licenses, certifications, and memberships

What Not to Include

There is no need to include your photo, your salary history, the reason you left your previous
position, or references in a CV submitted for jobs in the United States. References should be
listed separately and given to employers upon request.

The requirements for international CVs differ, and depend upon the country to which you are
applying.

In other countries, private information like your date of birth, nationality, marital status, how
many children you have, and a photograph may be required.

How Long Should a CV Be?

A good, entry-level curriculum vitae should ideally cover two to three pages (CVs for mid-
level professionals, especially in academia and medical research roles, may run longer). Aim
to ensure the content is clear, structured, concise, and relevant. Using bullet points rather than
full sentences can help minimize word usage.

Curriculum Vitae Sample

Gloria Gonzalez
3204 Windover Way
Houston, TX 77204
ggonzalez@email.com
000.123.4567 (Cell)

RESEARCH INTERESTS

Hispanic Literature, Latin American Literature, Peninsular Literature

EDUCATION

Ph.D. in Spanish (US Hispanic Literature), 2016 – University of Houston.

Dissertation: Quixote Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature. Sancho Rodriguez,
Chair

M.A. in Spanish, June 2013 – University of Houston

B.A. in Spanish, June 2011 – University of Houston

APPOINTMENTS

Adjunct Lecturer: University of Houston, Department of Hispanic Studies, September 2016

to Present.
PUBLICATIONS

Book

Gonzalez, Gloria. Quixote Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature. New Haven:
Yale University Press (forthcoming)

Peer-reviewed Journals

Gonzalez, Gloria. “Mexican Immigrant Stories from the Central Valley,” Lady Liberty
Journal, 6(1): 24-41.

Gonzalez, Gloria. “Comparing the Hispanic and European Immigrant Experience through
Story,” Hispanic Literature Today 12(3): 25-35.

Gonzalez, Gloria. “Yearning to Be Free: 3 Hispanic Women’s Diaries,” Hispanic Literature

Today: 11(2): 18-31.

CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS

2018. Gonzalez, Gloria. “Storytelling Methods in the Central Valley.” Hispanic Storytelling
Association Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA

2017. Gonzalez, Gloria. “When Cultures Merge: Themes of Exclusion in Mexican-American

Literature.” US Hispanic Literature Annual Conference, Tucson, AZ.

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Adjunct Lecturer, University of Houston

 Mexican-American Literature, Spanish 3331

 Women in Hispanic Literature, Spanish 3350
 Spanish-American Short Story, Spanish 4339

Graduate Teaching Assistant, Northwestern University

 Elementary Spanish 1501, 1502, 1505

 Intermediate Spanish 2301, 2302, 2610

HONORS / AWARDS

Mexico Study Abroad Summer Grant, 2016

UH Teaching Awards, 2015, 2016, 2018
Dissertation Fellowship, 2015

LANGUAGES
English (native)
Spanish (bilingual oral and written fluency)
Classical Latin (written)

MEMBERSHIPS / AFFILIATIONS

National Association of Latino Arts and Cultures

Asociación Internacional de Literatura y Cultura Femenina Hispánica
Modern Languages Association

Report Writing

Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The tone of a report is always
formal. The audience it is meant for is always thought out section. For example – report writing
about a school event, report writing about a business case, etc.

Reports are written with much analysis. The purpose of report writing is essential to inform
the reader about a topic, minus one’s opinion on the topic. It’s simply a portrayal of facts, as it
is. Even if one gives inferences, solid analysis, charts, tables and data is provided. Mostly it is
specified by the person who’s asked for the report whether they’d like your take or not if that
is the case.In many cases, what’s required is your suggestions for a specific case after a factual
report. That depends on why are you writing the report and who you are writing it for in the
first place. Knowing your audience’s motive for asking for that report is very important as it
sets the course of the facts focused in your report.

write-up flows like – introduction, body, conclusion and summary. The layout is pretty crisp
with a title page, numbered subheadings, clear bulleted points, recommendations, references,
appendices, dates, and timings reported exactly sometimes, and so on. This format stays
consistent throughout.

 All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to bias-free, but
they also have to be a 100% correct. Proof-reading and fact-checking is always what you
do as a thumb rule before submitting a report.

Types of Report

Type # 1. Formal or Informal Reports:

Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization, contain much
detail, and are written in a style that tends to eliminate such elements as personal pronouns.
Informal reports are usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The internal
memorandum can generally be described as an informal report.
Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:
This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is obviously short, and a twenty
page report is clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear in mind that as a report
becomes longer (or what you determine as long), it takes on more characteristics of formal
reports.

Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:

Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on personnel
absenteeism) carry objective information from one area of an organization to another.
Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals) present
attempts to solve problems.

Type # 4. Proposal Report:

The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a document prepared to
describe how one organization can meet the needs of another. Most governmental agencies
advertise their needs by issuing “requests for proposal” or RFPs. The RFP specifies a need
and potential suppliers prepare proposal reports telling how they can meet that need.

Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:

This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more upward or
downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such reports contribute to
management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the
organization. A report traveling between units of the same organization level (production and
finance departments) is lateral.

Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:

Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual reports of
companies, are prepared for distribution outside the organization.

Type # 7. Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally upward directed
and serve management control. Preprinted forms and computer-generated data contribute to
uniformity of periodic reports.

Type # 8. Functional Reports:

This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial reports, and a
variety of other reports that take their designation from the ultimate use of the report. Almost
all reports could be included in most of these categories. And a single report could be
included in several classifications.
 Formats of Reports

Although authorities have not agreed on a universal report classification, these report
categories are in common use and provide a nomenclature for the study (and use) of reports.
Reports are also classified on the basis of their format. As you read the classification structure
described below, bear in mind that it overlaps with the classification pattern described above.

i. Preprinted Form:
Basically for “fill in the blank” reports. Most are relatively short (five or fewer pages) and
deal with routine information, mainly numerical information. Use this format when it is
requested by the person authorizing the report.
ii. Letter:
Common for reports of five or fewer pages that are directed to outsiders. These reports
include all the normal parts of a letter, but they may also have headings, footnotes, tables, and
figures. Personal pronouns are used in this type of report.

iii. Memo:
Common for short (fewer than ten pages) informal reports distributed within an organization.
The memo format of “Date,” “To,” “From,” and “Subject” is used. Like longer reports, they
often have internal headings and sometimes have visual aids. Memos exceeding ten pages are
sometimes referred to as memo reports to distinguish them from shorter ones.

iv. Manuscript:
Common for reports that run from a few pages to several hundred pages and require a formal
approach. As their length increases, reports in manuscript format require more elements
before and after the text of the report. Now that we have surveyed the different types of
reports and become familiar with the nomenclature, let us move on to the actual process of
writing the report.

Agenda Writing

An agenda, also called a docket or a schedule, is a list of activities in the order they are to
be taken up, from the beginning till the adjournment. An agenda helps in preparing for a
meeting by providing a list of items and a clear set of topics, objectives, and time frames that
are needed to be discussed upon.

Format of an Agenda

An Agenda normally includes the following elements −

  Meeting Agenda Title − at the top; preferably center-aligned
 Meeting Information − Description of the purpose
 Objective − description of Agenda
 Date − for maintaining records of correspondence
 Location − the place of meeting
 Time − the actual time of commencement of the meeting
 Meeting Type − brainstorming or Discussion or Assessment
 Time of Arrival − time to begin the meeting
 Time of Adjournment − time the meeting ends
 Attendees − Number of people present, with their names
 Preparation for Meeting −
o Please Read − instructions to be followed
o Please bring − things supposed to be carried that day
o Action Items −
Last Action Responsible Authority Due Date
New Action Responsible Authority Due Date
o Other notes − other instruction or information to be taken down.

Example - Agenda Writing

Update after meeting with Hasta La Vista representatives

Meeting Information − Update after meeting representatives of Hasta La Vista.
Objective − for the purpose of interior decoration of our office premises.
Date- 23rd April, 2015
Location- Meeting Room-1
Time- 4:30 PM
Meeting Type- Discussion
Time of Arrival- 6:00 PM
Time of Adjournment- 8:30 PM
Attendees- Mohtahsim M., Kiran K. Panigrahi, Gopal K Verma, Manisha Shejwal
Preparation for Meeting:
Please Read - Hasta La Vista Company Brochure, Quotation Document
Please bring - Competitor Company’s quotation, hourly rates analysis
Action Items:
Due Action:

Updates from Hasta la Vista Gopal K Verma 30th April, 2015

Find Hasta la Vista’s competitor Manisha Shejwal 30th April, 2015

New Action:

Send email to their Head of Marketing Manisha Shejwal 5th May, 2015

Other notes - Products to purchase for the interior décor.

Circular Letter Sample / Format / Example / Template

A circular letter is used to share the same information with a large

audience. Circular letters are often used to announce new information or to
clarify policies. They are somewhat general in topic, since they are widely read.
Writing a circular letter of any kind requires a few important steps. Circular
letter is a written letter which is mainly used for business promotion. Here we
provide some circular letter sample / circular letter format / circular letter
example / circular letter template to make the topic circular letter very clear.
Importance or advantages of circular letter

Circular letter circulates information relating to a company, its products and services etc. to a

large number of people at a time. It plays an important role in the growth and development of

business. Its importance is briefly discussed below:

 1. Easy method of conveying information: Circular letter is the most easy, simple

and effective way to convey any information to a huge number of people.

2. Achieving economy: Circular letter can be used for wide publicity of products. As

a result, organizations can save cost of sending letters to different parties

separately and can gain economy.

3. Saving time: Circular letter transmits information to a large number of people at a

time. It does not require reaching each individual separately. Thus, it saves time.

4. Less effort: Circulating information to each individual separately is a time

consuming and laborious job. Circular letter helps to overcome this problem.

Through circular letter, we can communicate with large number of people at a

minimum effort.

5. Creating market: Through circular letter, a company can inform the potential

customers about its products and services. In this way, new market can be created.

6. Increasing consumer’s confidence: Convincing and attractive circular letter can

easily touch the reader’s heart and thus helps to enhance consumer’s confidence on

the company’s products.

7. Creating public consciousness: In circular letter, information like price, quality,

utility, place of availability etc. are mentioned in details that make people more

conscious about the product.

A circular Letter sample announcing the opening of a branch in a city

The Electronic World

2/6, Mohakhali, Dhaka-1212
Dear Customer,
We have come to your City
Do you wish to come to your home?

Just within five years of being established, the Electronic World has made a name in the
supply of anything and everything in electric domestic appliances. Having won the
recognition of our customers in Chittagong for our goods and service, we have now opened a
new outlet in your city, at the address given above.

The Electrical World is the largest traders of all types of electrical appliances for your home.
It will be a pleasure to assist you in the purchase, fitting and maintenance of your domestic
electrical equipment. You will get specialized service from us in installing various electrical
appliances at your home.

Whatever you are planning to buy this month, you can make a choice from our wide selection
of refrigerators, washing machine, blender, oven, toaster, mixers, grinders, TV, VCD, DVD,
air conditions etc. We have different models and brands for the mentioned appliances. We
hope our product will provide you the” best service in the city. As we always look for the
benefits and satisfaction of customers, you can enjoy credit services,, guarantee and warranty
at our shop made for you.

You are most welcome to our showroom at the above-mentioned address. You will be glad
each and every time when you will visit your shop: The Electronic World.

Yours cordially,

S. A Khan
Marketing Manager
The Electronic world.

ESSAY WRITING

A formal essay is a piece of writing that informs or persuades its audience. There are other
kinds of essays. For example, the narrative essay relays a story with a moral or lesson. ... A
formal essay is more objective than the narrative or personal essay because it is usually based
on provable facts and examples.

Format of the Formal Essay

In general, a formal essay is at least five paragraphs long and contains an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion.
The introduction is the first paragraph of a formal essay and should include three things. The
first item of the introduction is the hook, or the part that grabs your reader's attention. Some
common hooks include statistics, quotations from famous people, or strong questions. After
the hook, you should have two or three sentences of background information on your topic.
Your introduction paragraph should end with the thesis statement, which is the main idea of
your essay.
The following paragraphs, not including the last one, are known as the body paragraphs.
These paragraphs contain the details that support your thesis statement. These body
paragraphs start with a topic sentence, which is one sentence that connects back to your
thesis statement and outlines the paragraph. Next, you provide an example from your life, a
common experience, or a source, and then you provide a few sentences of analysis or
explanation of your example. Then you end with a concluding sentence that summarizes the
paragraph and/or transitions into the next paragraph.
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper and includes two things: a restatement of
your thesis statement, which emphasizes your main idea, and a summary of your main points.

Effectively writing different types of essays has become critical to academic success.
Essay writing is a common school assignment, a part of standardized tests, and a
requirement on college applications. Often on tests, choosing the correct type of essay to
write in response to a writing prompt is key to getting the question right. Clearly, students
can’t afford to remain confused about types of essays.

There are over a dozen types of essays, so it’s easy to get confused. However, rest assured,
the number is actually more manageable. Essentially there are four major types of essays,
with the variations making up the remainder.

Four Major Types of Essays

Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s goal.
Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something, explain an
issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain viewpoint? The four major types of essays
address these purposes:

 1. Narrative Essays: Telling a Story

In a narrative essay , the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. While
telling a story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay challenges students to
think and write about themselves. When writing a narrative essay, writers should
try to involve the reader by making the story as vivid as possible. The fact that
narrative essays are usually written in the first person helps engage the reader. “I”
sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted narrative
essay will also build towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal statement.
 2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture
A cousin of the narrative essay, a descriptive essay paints a picture with words. A
writer might describe a person, place, object, or even memory of special
significance. However, this type of essay is not description for description’s sake.
The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning through the
description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, through the use
of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays appeal to the
reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative.
 3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts
The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced
analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic,
 using facts, statistics, and examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range
of essay variations, such as the comparison and contrast essay, the cause and effect
essay, and the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are based on
facts and not personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the
first person.
 4. Persuasive Essays: Convince Me
While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of
the persuasive essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or
recommendation. The writer must build a case using facts and logic, as well as
examples, expert opinion, and sound reasoning. The writer should present all sides
of the argument, but must be able to communicate clearly and without equivocation
why a certain position is correct.

SAMPLE ESSAY

The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The different parts of
the essay have been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics,
and each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of course, you will not
need to mark these parts of the essay unless your teacher has asked you to do so. They are
marked here just so that you can more easily identify them.

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not
the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their
best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent housepets as they
are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to
care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They
will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring
cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase
balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy
playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats
can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to
avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not
bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a
quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use
the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually
understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and
owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house
will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can
be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do
not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their
business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take
care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary
circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than
people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some
pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about
their usual activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or
less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people
who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality.
In many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.

Paragraph writing

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a
single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should
be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the
subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the
essay and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a
series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a
place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of
information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most
important of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed

in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it
substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and
directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and
how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a
paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often
best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however,
it’s more effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a
sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background
information.

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a
paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic
sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing
an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the
sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The
vast majority of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion.

You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing,
contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in
communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a
transition.

Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments,
analysis, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed
in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

SAMPLE PARAGRAPH

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN

NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a
great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of
space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of
water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of
which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on
earth, they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television
images which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a
vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion pictures,
by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns
of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an
injured child, they send the information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then
convert it back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY
TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED
TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.

George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”