Drilling Technology

DRILLING
TECHNOLOGY
1 DRILLING TECHNOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION
Rock drilling, in the field of Mining Engineering, is the first operation carried out whether
the purpose is to drill exploratory boreholes during the preliminary stage of a Mining Project
or during the development phase of Underground as well as Surface Mines, or to drill shot
holes for Production Blasting. The systems of rock drilling that have been developed and
classified according to their order of present day applicability are:
o Mechanical: Percussion, rotary, rotary-percussion
o Thermal: Flame, plasma, hot fluid, freezing
o Hydraulic: Jet, erosion, cavitation
o Sonic: High frequency vibration
o Chemical: Micro blast, dissolution
o Electrical: Electric arc, magnetic induction
o Seismic: Laser ray
o Nuclear: Fusion, fission
Even though there is an enormous variety of possible rock drilling systems, in mining and
civil engineering drilling is presently carried out, almost exclusively, by mechanical energy.
Therefore, in this handbook only the mechanical means will be discussed, reviewing the
fundamentals, tools and equipment for each of them. The main components of a drilling
system of this type are: the drilling rig which is the source of mechanical energy, the drill
steel which is the means of transmitting that energy, the bit which is the tool that exercises
that energy upon the rock, and the flushing air that cleans out and evacuates the drilling
cuttings and waste produced.
2. TYPES OF DRILLING OPERATIONS USED IN MINING

Within the large variety of excavations using explosives, numerous machines have been
developed which can be classified in two types of drilling procedures:
1- Manual Drilling. This is carried out with light equipment that is hand held by the drillers.
It is used in small operations where, due to the size, other machinery cannot be used or its
cost is not justified.
2- Mechanized Drilling. The drilling equipment is mounted on rigs with which the Operator
can control all drilling Parameters from a comfortable position. These structures or chassis
can themselves be mounted on wheels or tracks and either is self-propelled or towable.
Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

On the other hand, the types of work, in surface as well as in underground operations, can
be classified in the following groups:
1- Bench Drilling. This is the best method for rock blasting as a free face is available for the
projection of material and it allows work to be systemized. It is used in surface projects as
well as in underground operations, usually with vertical blastholes, although horizontal
holes can be drilled on occasion.
2- Drilling for Drifting and Tunnelling. An initial cavity or cut must be opened towards
which the rest of the fragmented rock from the other charges is directed. Blasthole drilling
can be carried out with hand held drills, but the trend is towards total mechanization, using
jumbos with one or various booms.
3- Production Drilling. This term is used in mining operations, fundamentally underground,

to describe the labours of ore extraction. The equipment and methods used vary with the
exploitation systems, having the common factor of little available space in the drifts for
blasthole drilling.
4- Drilling for Raises. In many underground and civil engineering projects it is necessary to
open raises. Although there is a tendency to apply the Raise Boring method, still today the
long blasthole method is used as well as other special drilling systems combined with
blasting.
5- Drilling Rocks with Overburden. The drilling of rock masses which are covered with beds
of unconsolidated materials calls for special drilling methods with casing. This method is also
used in underwater operations.
6- Rock Supports. In many underground operations and sometimes in surface ones it is

necessary to support the rocks by means of bolting or cementing cables, in which drilling is
the first phase.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINES
Drilling is basically method of penetrating rock. The machine that carries out the drilling
operation is called drill. Rock can be penetrated by overcoming its resistance to penetrate
by providing external energy. Depending on how this energy is imparted and how the
broken mass produced by drilling is removed to get new surfaces to drill, the drilling
methods and the drill can be classified into several category.
Table 1 illustrates how drilling and drills can be classified Figure 1 further gives the
classification of drilling methods.
S. No Basis Variants Example
1 Mode of energy Percussion Churn or cable tool drill, jack hammer,

application. Top Hammer For shallow holes, the whole drill strings
offer hammering.
Bottom Hammer For hole larger than 150 mm and deeper

(Down the hole holes, offers increased rod and coupling
hammer or DTH) life and less noisy.
Rotary Auger or rotary drill,
Diamond drill,
Rotary Percussion DTH, Top hammer drill
2 Size of Hole Small Hole 150-200 mm for coal
Large Hole 250-315 mm for OB
Very Large Hole > 315 mm for dewatering well
3 Method of Hand held Jack Hammer

mounting
Skid mounted
Wagon mounted Typical hole size 63-150 mm

(Percussion)

Crawler mounted Single pass drilling from 7.6 to 15.2 m,
hole size 120 to 229mm(Percussion)
4 Type of power Electric
Pneumatic Less costly, high noise
Hydraulic May be diesel or electrically powered

hydraulically operated and controlled.
New development, lesser noise
5 Flushing Wet drilling Water flushed
Dry drilling Air flushed
6 Direction Vertical
Horizontal
Inclined
7 On board Facilities With Measure while

drilling (MWD) and
automated Drill
Monitoring (ADM)
Without measure while

drilling
With automation
Semi-Automatic
Remotely controlled
Table 1: Classification of Drilling and Drills
The above methods are deployed in drilling. However, one must remember that the drilling
could be carried out provided the following requirements are fulfilled (Gokhale, 2003):
1. The drilling bit meant for disintegrating the formation must be sufficiently hard so
that it can disintegrates the formation for a longer period.

2. The cuttings formed in the process of formation disintegration must be taken out of
the hole as soon as possible. One should avoid crushing and grinding of the drilled
chips inside the hole.
3. Drilling tool must be advanced in the intended direction of the drilled hole
4. The hole walls must be competent to avoid collapsing and blinding of the hole
5. After completing the hole the drilling components and the drill should be removed
from the place.
6. The dust and noise generated during the drilling should be contained as far as
practicable.


4. ROCKMASS PROPERTIES THAT AFFECT DRILLING OPERATIONS
The principal physical rock properties that have influence upon penetration mechanisms
and, as a consequence, on choice of the drilling method are: hardness, strength, elasticity,
plasticity, abrasiveness, texture, structure, characteristics of breakage.
i. Hardness
Hardness is considered to be the resistance of a surface layer to be penetrated by another
body of harder consistency. In rock, it is a function of the hardness and composition of its
mineral grains, the porosity, degree of humidity, etc. The hardness of rocks is the principal
type of resistance that must be overcome during drilling, because once the bit has
penetrated, the rest of the operation is easier. Rocks are classified as to their hardness by
using Friedrich von Mohs' Scale of Hardness (1882), in which the concept is that any mineral
can scratch anything that has a lower or equal number to it, numbering from 1 to 10. There
is a certain correlation between hardness and compressive strength of the rocks.
ii. Strength
Mechanical strength of a rock is the property of opposing destruction by an external force,
either static or dynamic. The rocks give maximum resistance to compression, normally, as
the tensile strength is not more than 10 or 15% of the compressive strength. This is due to
the fragility of rocks, to the large quantity of local defects and irregularities that exist and to
the small cohesion between the particles of which they are constituted. The rock strength
fundamentally depends on its mineralogical composition. Among the integrating minerals,
quartz is the most solid with a strength that goes over 500 MPa, while that of the
ferromagnesian silicates and the alumina-silicates vary between 200 and 500 MPa, and that
of calcite from 10 to 20 MPa. Therefore, the higher the quartz content, the more the
strength increases. The mineral strength depends upon the size of the crystals and
diminishes with their increase. This influence is significant when the crystal size is under 0.5
mm.
In rocks, the size factor has less influence on strength as the inter-crystalline cohesion force
also intervenes. For example, the compressive strength of fine grained Arkose sandstone is
almost double that of a coarse grained; that of marble composed of 1 mm grains is equal to
100 MPa, whereas a fine grained limestone - 3 to 4 mm - has strength of 200 to 250 MPa.
Amongst the sedimentary rocks the ones with highest strength are those that contain silica
cement. With the presence of clay cement, the strength is drastically reduced.

Porosity in rocks with the same lithology also reduces strength proportionately, more
porosity - less strength; as it simultaneously reduces the number of contacts of the mineral
particles and the force of reciprocal action between them.
The depth at which rocks were formed arid the degree of metamorphism also have
influence upon their strength. Therefore, the strength of clay beddings near the ground
surface can be of 2 to 10 MPa, whereas in clay rocks that went through a certain
metamorphism the strengths can reach 50 to 100 MPa. On the other hand, the strength of
anisotropic rocks depends upon the sense of action of the force. The compressive strength
of rocks in the perpendicular to stratification sense or schistosity is larger than in a parallel
sense. The quotient that is usually obtained between both strength values varies between
0.3 and 0.8, and it is equal to 1 only for isotropic rocks.
iii. Elasticity
The majority of rock minerals have an elastic-fragile behaviour, which obeys the Law of
Hooke, and are destroyed when the strains exceed the limit of elasticity. Depending upon
the nature of deformation, as function of the Stresses produced by static charges, three
groups of rocks are taken into consideration:
1) The elastic-fragile or those which obey the Law of Hooke,
2) The plastic fragile, that has plastic deformation before destruction,
3) The highly plastic or very porous, in which the elastic deformation is insignificant.
The elastic properties of rocks are characterized by the elasticity module 'E' and the Poisson
coefficient 'V'. The elasticity module is the proportionality factor between the normal Stress
in the rock and the relative correspondent deformation, its value in most rocks varies
between 0.03 X 104 and 1.7 X 105 MPa, basically depending upon the mineralogical
composition, porosity, type of deformation and magnitude of the applied force. The values
of the elasticity modules in the majority of sedimentary rocks are lower than those
corresponding to the minerals in their composition. The texture of the rock also has
influence on this Parameter, as the elasticity module in the direction of the bedding or
schistosity is usually larger than when perpendicular.
Poisson's coefficient is the factor of proportionality between the relative longitudinal
deformations and the transversal deformations. For most rocks and minerals it is between
0.2 and 0.4, and only in quartz is it abnormally low, around 0.07.

iv. Plasticity
As indicated before, in some rocks the plastic deformation precedes destruction. This begins
when the Stresses exceed the limit of elasticity. In the case of an ideally plastic body, that
deformation is developed with an invariable stress. Real rocks are deformed and
consolidated at the same time: in order to increase the plastic deformation it is necessary to
increase the effort.
The plasticity depends upon the mineral composition of the rocks and diminishes with an
increase in quartz content, feldspar and other hard minerals. The humid clays and some
homogeneous rocks have plastic properties. The plasticity of the stony rocks (granites,
schistose, crystallines and sandstones) becomes noticeable especially at high temperatures.
v. Abrasiveness
Abrasiveness is the capacity of the rocks to wear away the contact surface of another body
that is harder, in the rubbing or abrasive process during movement. The factors that
enhance abrasive capacities of rocks are the following:
- The hardness of the grains of the rock. Rocks containing quartz grains are highly abrasive.
- The shape of the grains. Those that are angular are more abrasive than the round ones.
- The size of the grains.
- The porosity of the rock. It gives rough contact surfaces with local stress concentrations.
- The heterogeneity. Polymineral rocks, although these are equally hard, are more abrasive
because they leave rough surfaces with hard grains as, for example, quartz grains in granite.
This property has great influence upon the life of drill steel and bits.
vi. Texture
The texture of a rock refers to the structure of the grains of minerals that constitute it. The
size of the grains is an indication, as well as their shape, porosity etc. All these aspects have
significant influence on drilling performance. When the grains have a lenticular shape, as in
schist, drilling is more difficult than when they are round, as in sandstone.
The type of material that makes up the rock matrix and unites the mineral grains also has an
important influence. As to porosity, those rocks that have low density and, consequently,
are more porous, have low crushing strength and are easier to drill.

vii. Structure
The structural properties of the rock masses, such as schistosity, bedding planes, joints,
diabase and faults, as well as their dip and strike affect the alignment of the blastholes, the
drilling performance and the stability of the blasthole walls.
5. MODES OF FRAGMENTATION
Whichever may be the type of energy used, in the drilling process rock is fragmented to
create a hole. The three forms of energy that has potential in being used for drilling are
described here for academic purposes.
A. MECHANICAL ENERGY
When mechanical energy is applied to a rock mass it causes various types of stresses. These
stresses cause strains in the rock mass and subsequently it breaks into small pieces as the
cracks propagate. Different modes of passing on the mechanical energy to the formation are
practiced. These are described below.
i. Crushing
Crushing takes place when heavy and somewhat steady force is exerted on the formation
through a hard drilling bit. The strain required to cause crack propagation can be adequately
high only when the stress generated by the drilling tool is high. This can be achieved by
having a very low contact area between the rock and the drilling tool or by exerting a very
high force on the drilling tool.
Figure 01 shows the disintegration pattern of the rock mass caused by the exertion of
steady force on it. It must be noted that just along the contact between bit and the
formation and within some portion beneath it, the stresses developed are compressive, but
along the fracture lines the stresses are predominantly shear stresses and the fracture takes
place due to shear stresses. Crushing is the basis of material disintegration in rotary drilling
using tricone bits.

ii. Impact Crushing

When a hard material piece impinges on the rock mass, the impact force is increasing for a
very short duration and then it reduces suddenly. Thereafter the contact between the tool
and rock mass is lost. As the impact force is increasing, the particles of the rock mass are
compressed and a compression wave is generated when the particles near the drilling tool
compress the particles a little farther from the drilling tool.
As the force exerted by the drilling tool suddenly reduces, the particles in contact with the
drilling tool try to regain their original position by moving back. Thus, a tension wave is also
generated. Rocks by nature are made up of such materials that their tensile strength is very
low. Since the tensile forces in the vicinity of the drilling tool are high, cracks are generated
in the vicinity of the drilling tool. Further impacts of the drilling tool propagate the cracks
and eventually a piece of rock is separated from the rock mass. Impact crushing is the basis
of material disintegration in percussion drilling.
iii. Scratching
Scratching of rock mass by a drilling tool is schematically illustrated in Figure 02. For
scratching to take place, a vertical force that tries to penetrate the drilling tool into the rock
mass and a horizontal force that tries to move the drilling tool along the surface of the rock
mass, are necessary. Cracks are generated and propagated by the horizontal force along a
shear surface as shown in the figure.

The vertical force is necessary to initially cause penetration of the drilling tool into the rock
mass and then keep the drilling tool in the penetrated position. If the vertical force is
removed the drilling tool slides up along the fractured surface and continues its movement
on the top of the rock surface without generating cracks and scratches. Scratching action for
rock disintegration takes place in rotary drag bit drilling or diamond bit drilling.
B. HEAT ENERGY
When heat energy is transferred to the rock mass, disintegration takes place either by
spalling or fusion and vaporization.
i. Spalling
A rock mass consists of varied constituent minerals. These minerals have different
coefficients of linear expansion. When formations having such minerals are rapidly heated,
due to different levels of thermal expansion of the mineral particles, high stresses develop
in the rock mass and result in disintegration. Most of the rock-forming minerals are poor
conductors of heat. If a heat source with high potential such as a high temperature flame is
brought very near the rock surface, the rock particles in a layer near to the flame get heated
very quickly to high temperature.
Since the heat is not effectively transmitted by these hot particles to the particles situated a
little deeper in the rock mass, there is a great disparity between the thermal expansion of

the particles in these two (or more) layers. This gives rise to flakes. The phenomenon of
flaking caused by heat is called spalling. If a rock mass consists of minerals that are better
conductors of heat and have uniform coefficient of thermal expansion, it does not spall
easily. Limestone is one such rock that does not spall easily. Spalling is the basis of material
disintegration in jet piercing.
ii. Fusion and Vaporization

If a rock mass is heated to very high temperature, it melts. Further heating causes
vaporization of the rock mass. In vapour form the formation can be displaced easily by the
gases used for the combustion. As the vaporized minerals move away from the flames with
the exhaust gas flow, the cooler surroundings turn the mineral back to solid form and the
cuttings formed in the solidification come out of the hole with the exhaust gas flow. This
type of heat energy transfer to formation for the purpose of drilling is as yet under
laboratory testing.
C. CHEMICAL ENERGY
Some minerals that form rock easily react with certain chemicals. A very common example
of this is the reaction of marble with carbonic acid. As marble is mostly composed of calcium
carbonate, i.e. CaCO3, it easily reacts with carbonic acid i.e. H2CO3. The chemical equation of
the reaction is:
CaCO3 + H2CO3 = Ca (HCO3)2
The minerals that result from such a reaction are in loosely bonded crystal form and can be
easily removed from the place of formation. Many such reactions of different chemicals
with a variety of minerals are known. It is, however, not very likely that chemical energy will
be used for primary rock fracture in drilling for the following two main reasons.
i. The chemical reactions are invariably slow

ii. The composition of rock mass varies and even a small layer of mineral that does not
react with the chemical can halt further progress.

6. FRACTURE MECHANICS OF ROCK IN DRILLING
Rotary blasthole drilling is carried out either by tricone bits or on fewer occasions by drag
bits. In either cases the cutting edge of the teeth of the bit must penetrate the rock mass. A
clear concept of penetration of teeth in rock is therefore essential.
A. PENETRATION OF AN INDENTER
When an indenter is forced into rock, stresses are generated in the rock. Even if the contact
surface between the rock and the indenter is perfectly plane, the stress distribution in the
rock is usually uneven. The nature of stress distribution depends upon the rigidity of the
indenter. For a perfectly rigid indenter the stress distribution is shown in Figure 03. The
isobar curves show the lines (or surface sections in case of three dimensions) where stresses
generated are equal. As can be seen, the maximum stress is always generated near the edge
of the indenter.
B. PENETRATION OF A WEDGE
Considerations about penetration of a wedge in the rock are more important than that of an
indenter because in actual drilling practice all the teeth of a tricone bit or even the cutting
edge of a drag bit have a wedge shape. This is because a wedge has a very small contact

area and more importantly an ability of exerting side pressures on the rock. With this, a
wedge is capable of forming larger chips on the side and is far more effective in
disintegrating the rock as compared to an indenter with a large contact area and inability of
generating side pressure on the rock.
When a wedge penetrates rock, in the very initial stage the contact area of the edge of a
wedge disintegrates a small area underneath and a very small bulb of disintegrated rock
particles is formed. This is shown in Figure 04 on the left side sketch of the wedge. As the
wedge is forced further into the rock the sides of the wedge break the rock at their contacts.
Owing to the friction between the wedge surface and the particles formed in the process,
the particles have a natural tendency of moving towards the tip. The pressure inside the
small bulb at the tip increases. This causes the particles in the bulb to break rock on the
surroundings, and the size of the bulb increases. As the pressure in the surroundings is
increased further cracks are formed at the discontinuities. This is shown by the middle
sketch of the wedge in Figure 04.
Further penetration of the wedge results in higher growth of the cracks near the surface
because the rock mass on their upper side is unable to offer necessary resistance to the
crack growth and finally chips are formed, as shown on the right side sketch of the wedge in
Figure 04. A wedge generates more coarse chips of the rock mass than an Indenter.
04

C. FORMATION FRACTURE BELOW A DRILL BIT
Whether a drag bit or a tricone bit is used, fracture of the formation takes place by a
combination of the shear and tensile stresses. As shown in Figure 02, a tooth of a drag bit
must initially penetrate the rock through the action of vertical force and later cause shear-
cum-tensile failure by the horizontal force. In the case of drag bits the penetration of the
tooth causes very little formation fracture. It is the horizontal force that mainly contributes
in the formation fracture by shear.
Diamond bits, though not much used in blasthole drilling, are a type of drag bit. In the case
of old style diamond bits where the diamonds jut outward, failure surfaces are almost
wholly formed by shear stress as shown in Figure 05 because the horizontal force on the
diamond tends to push the formation within it. In the case of PDC bits the diamond compact
is placed somewhat like a plough, as shown in Figure 06. Since in this case the horizontal
force tries to move the formation outward, the major cause behind generation of failure
surface is tensile stress. As most of the rocks are very weak in tension, PDC bits give better
penetration rates than the old style diamond bits under the same operating conditions.

In a tricone bit the cones of the bit rotate around their respective axes as the bit rotates
around the axis of the drill string. The teeth on the cone come in contact with the rock mass
and later move away from it. Therefore the load exerted on a tooth increases initially and
then decreases. Of many stages in which this happens, five stages are shown in Figure 07.
Technical common sense tells us that as long as the penetration of the tooth in the
formation does not exceed the height of the tooth, the following trends are likely to occur.
1) Since the teeth of the bit will penetrate in the formation to a larger depth, the
penetration rate is likely to increase with increasing feed force.
2) If the speed of rotation of the bit increases, the teeth of the bit will penetrate into
the formation more frequently. Hence the penetration rate is likely to increase with
increasing rotary speed.

In actual drilling with tricone bits, there are four factors that largely affect the process of
drilling. Mathematically it can be expressed as:
P = f (W, N, C, Q)
Where
P = Penetration rate
W = Feed force on the bit
N = Rotary speed of the bit
C = Height of tooth of the bit
Q = Compressed air flow volume used.
A plot shown in Figure 08 clearly indicates that for a constant rotary speed the penetration
rate varies as per the feed force exerted on the tricone bit.
Mathematically it can be stated that,
P∝W

The plot in Figure 09 is for penetration rates at 100 and 200 rpm rotary speed for different
feed forces on the bit. The data used to draw this plot were from a coal mine. This plot also
reconfirms that rotary speed remaining the same; the penetration rate varies as per the
feed force exerted on the bit. More importantly the plot also indicates that by doubling the
rotary speed (i.e. from 100 rpm to 200 rpm) the penetration rates also doubles.

Yet another plot is shown in Figure 10. It represents data from a copper mine. Here it can be
seen that till the penetration rate was about 2.4 ft. /min (which corresponded with feed
force of 27000 lb) the curve was a straight line, but when higher and higher feed force was
exerted on the drill bit while keeping the same rotary speed, the penetration rate became
successively lower than the one predicted by the straight line.
Here, it may be noted that the bit used for drilling had a tooth height of 0.37 inches and was
rotated at 79 rpm. This means that while drilling at the penetration rate of 2.4 ft. /min the
penetration of the tooth was equal to the tooth height.
While using appropriate tricone bits in drilling soft, medium-hard and hard formations all
the three types of fragmentation modes are present but the contributory proportion
changes as shown in Figure 11. In soft formations much of the fragmentation is due to
scraping action but as the formation drilled is harder the contribution of abrasive and
fatigue type fragmentation becomes significantly higher.

D. SPECIFIC ENERGY
As a matter of fact, drilling is an excavation process. The difference between excavation, as
it is normally visualized, and drilling is that drilling takes place in a particular cross sectional
area in the rock to create a hole. The specific energy of rocks can be defined as the work
done in the excavation of a unit volume of rock. Naturally, specific energy is dependent
upon the properties of the rock to a very great extent. In rotary blasthole drilling the
excavation is carried out within the boundary of the blasthole and for this purpose energy in
the form of thrust and rotation of the drill bit is applied by the blasthole drill. An equation
that correlates various parameters of energy transfer through a drill bit in rotary drilling was
set forth by Teale as follows:
𝑭 𝟐𝝅 𝑵𝑻
𝑺= ( )+( )×( )
𝑨 𝑨 𝑷
Where, S = Specific energy
F = Thrust applied on the drill bit
A = Area of blasthole cross section
N = Rotary speed
T = Torque applied to the drill bit
P = Penetration rate
As can be seen the equation has two components. The first component viz. (F/A) does not
contribute to the ‘excavation’ process in a significant manner. This is because the energy
used for the penetration of the teeth of the bit into the formation is spent in crushing the
rock underneath the teeth and the formation of cracks. The second component viz.
(2π/A)*(NT/P), however, causes formation fracture to a very large extent because it loosens
and displaces the fragments made by the cracks. The cross sectional area of the blasthole is
almost constant as it is being drilled hence the first term, (2π/A), is a constant.
In the initial stage of drilling when the thrust on the bit is low, hardly any penetration takes
place. In such circumstances the specific energy is very high. But when thrust is increased
the torque required for rotating the drill bit also increases. This increases the penetration
rate. Thus, the specific energy decreases. The minimum value of specific energy can be
considered as an indicator of Drillability. However, such correlation has to be used very
cautiously.

6. DRILLABILITY OF ROCKS
Drillability of rock means the real or projected rate of penetration in a given rock by a
particular type of drilling bit. Sometimes it is considered as a property of rock but actually it
depends not only upon the type of rock and its characteristics, but also upon many other
factors. Factors that affect Drillability of rock are of four categories.
o Factors Related to the Rock
o Factors Related to the Blasthole Drill
o Factors Related to the Drill Bit
o Factors Related to the Rock Mass
From the above description of the process of rock fracture under a drill bit, it can be easily
summarised that the fracture process is very complicated. It is possible to establish a
qualitative relation of Drillability with many factors as has been done in Table 2. However,
as the factors are interrelated with each other in a complex manner, it is very difficult to
develop a mathematical formula that can take into account all the factors mentioned.

07. ESTIMATION OF PENETRATION RATE
Many terms such as penetration rate, net penetration rate, gross penetration rate, drilling
rate, drill performance etc. are used in connection with the progress of blasthole drilling.
Since the terminology is not standardized, often these terms are intermixed. These Terms
are explained in Table 3.
Many researchers have attempted to correlate penetration rate with one or more easily
measurable properties of rock. Some of these are elaborated in following sections.
7.1 PROTODYAKONOV APPROACH

One of the earliest attempts of correlating penetration rate with rock properties was by
Protodyakonov, who in 1926 proposed a toughness index of rock based on a simple test.
In actual test, samples of the rock measuring about 15 to 20 mm were kept in the pan of the
test apparatus shown in Figure 12, so that they filled the pan up to a height of 40 mm. A 2.4
kg weight was dropped on these rock specimens by removing the retaining pin so that the
drop height was 600 mm. After 10 drops (or more if required) of the weight the sample was
removed and sieved through a wire mesh having square openings of size 0.5 mm.

Crushed material passing through sieve was collected and poured in the measuring
apparatus shown in Figure 9.24. After lightly tapping the cylinder, a piston was inserted in
the cylinder to measure the height of column of crushed material in the measuring cylinder.
The Protodyakonov number, that represented the dynamic strength of the rock, was found
by using an empirical formula as under,
𝒏
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎 ( )
𝒉
Where “n” was the number of drops of the weight and “h” was the height of crushed rock,
measured in mm, in the cylinder. It was realized later that Protodyakonov number
correlated with properties of rock as
𝝈𝟐𝑪
𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟕 ×
𝟐𝑬
Where, σc = UCS in kg/cm2
E = Modulus of elasticity in kg/cm2

Based on tests described above, Protodyakonov proposed a classification of rocks as shown
in Table 4. The indices presented give indications of likely penetration rates only on relative
basis rather than absolute basis. Therefore, they are not of much use in actual estimation.
7.2 PAONE AND BRUCE APPROACH

An equation set forth by Paone and Bruce for penetration rates in diamond core drilling is:
𝝉 − 𝝁𝑭𝒓
𝜹 = 𝟐𝝅 ( )
𝑺𝑨 − 𝑭
Where, δ = Depth of penetration per revolution of the bit in m
T = Torque applied to drilling bit in Nm
μ = Coefficient of friction between bit and rock
F = Feed force applied on the bit in N
r = Mean radius of the drilling kerf in m
S = Resistance of rock to drilling, A = Cross sectional area under bit in m2

This equation applies to diamond core bits that have small and uniform size diamonds
studded in a sintered matrix. While calculating the depth of penetration per revolution by
using above equation, all the other parameters, except S, are easily known from the bit
geometry and machine characteristics.
Figure 13 shows the experimental and theoretical results for penetration rates for diamond
core drilling. In theoretical calculations the coefficient of friction for the rock, i.e. μ, was
presumed to be 0.4 and resistance to rock drilling i.e. S, was presumed to be equal to the
compressive strength of rock. In tests the three quantities viz. penetration rate, coefficient
of friction and compressive strength were measured. Figure 13 indicates very good
correlation between experimental and theoretical results.
Fracture process in diamond bit and drag bit drilling is similar hence the equation can also
be used for predicting penetration rates of drag bit drilling.

7.3 BAUER, CALDER AND WORKMAN APPROACH
In the early 1960s rotary blasthole drilling became well established in blasthole drilling
activities. Very heavy blasthole drills were developed for drilling in extremely hard
formations, met in the iron ore mines, with the tungsten carbide inserted tricone bits. Bauer
and Calder studied the subject of working performance of TC inserted tricone bits in hard
iron ores of Mesabi Range in USA and developed the following empirical equation in 1967
for prediction of the penetration rate.
𝑷 𝟏𝟐𝑾
𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( ) = 𝑲 × 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝟔 𝑺𝑪
Where, P = Penetration rate in ft. /hr
SC = UCS in thousands of lb/in2
W = Feed force exerted on the bit in terms of lb. /in. of bit diameter
K = A factor that depended on the rock and varied between 1.4 and 1.75 for rocks of UCS
from 15000 lb/in2 to 50000 lb/in2
In 1971 Bauer modified the equation by adding one more factor i.e. rotary speed, as:
𝑾 𝑵
𝑷 = (𝟔𝟏 − 𝟐𝟖 × 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑺𝑪) ( ) ( )
∅ 𝟑𝟎𝟎
Where, P = Penetration rate in ft. /hr
SC = UCS in thousands of lb/in2
W = Feed force exerted on the bit in terms of thousands of lb.
N = Rotary speed of the bit in RPM
φ = Diameter of the bit in inches
In hard iron ores the values of penetration rates projected by using this equation tallied well
with the actual measurements taken in the field but gave erroneous results when the iron
ores were of less uniaxial compressive strength.
To overcome these shortcomings investigations were done by Calder and Workman. They
used data obtained in blasthole drilling in formations of lower uniaxial compressive strength
and proposed a modified equation in 1994 as under:
𝑷 = 𝟓. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × [𝑹𝑭 − 𝟐𝟖 × 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟓 × 𝑺𝑪 )] × 𝑾 × 𝑵

Where, P = Penetration rate in m/hr
RF = Rock Penetration Factor
SC = UCS in MPa
W = Feed force exerted on the bit in terms of kg/mm
N = Rotary speed of the bit in RPM
The rock penetration factor RF can be found from Table 5. If UCS of the formation lies
between the limits of each class appropriate value from the class should be taken from the
curve shown in Figure 14.

It is also presumed that the formation in which drilling is carried out is dry and the dry dust
collection method is used for the dust suppression.
EXAMPLE 01:
Blasthole drilling is to be carried out in a rock formation having UCS of 200 MPa by using TC
inserted tricone bit of 311 mm diameter with a feed force including the drill head weight of
30,000 kg at a rotary speed of 80 rpm. What penetration rate can be expected?
SOLUTION
As per chart in Figure 14, for the rock UCS of 200 MPa the rock factor works out to 65.
The feed force exerted on the bit is 30000/311 i.e. 96.46 kg/mm.
These factors give

P = 5.7 * 10−5 * (65 − 28 * log (0.145 * 200)) * 94.46 * 80
Evaluating the above equation gives P = 10.36 m/hr.

7.4 SPECIFIC ENERGY APPROACH
Following equation has been suggested for calculating penetration rate based on specific
energy of the rock.
𝟒𝟖 × 𝑹 × 𝑪
𝑷=
𝝅 × 𝑫𝟐 × 𝑬𝑺
Where, P = Penetration rate in in/m
R = Drill head rotary power in in.lb/min
C = Energy transmission factor
D = Blasthole diameter in inches
Es = Specific energy in in.lb/in3
The most common values of C (energy transmission factor) range from 0.6 to 0.8. The value
of Es can be determined by the following equation.
𝑬𝑺 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝑪𝑹𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎
Where
Es = Specific energy in in.lb/in3
CRS = Coefficient of rock strength (From Table 6)

8. ASSEMBLIES IN ROTARY BLAST HOLE DRILL
The rotary blast-hole drills are consisting of number of components. There are some
assemblies that are directly or indirectly involved in the drilling process and some are
essential for better performance. These primary assemblies and auxiliary facilities of a
rotary blast-hole rig are mentioned in the Table 7 below.
S.No Assembly Purpose

1 Mast i. To accommodate the rotary head and enable its up
and down translatory motion
ii. To accommodate the pipe changer
iii. To support the components that move the pipe
changer in desired position
iv. To support the components that enable making and
breaking tool joints
2 Rod Changer i. To hold the drill pipes while they are not being used
in the drill string
ii. Accommodate the components that enable locking
and unlocking of the drill pipes
3 Rotary Head i. To accommodate all components for transmitting the
rotary motion with desired torque at desired speeds
to the drill pipes.
ii. To accommodate the hydraulic or electric motors
that generate rotary motion
iii. To accommodate the components that fasten the
rotary head to the pull down mechanism
4 Pull Down To exert the necessary downward or upward force on the rotary
Mechanism head in the mast
5 Air To supply desired volume of compressed air at the desired
Compressor pressure
6 Drill Pipes To transmit the pulldown force and rotary speed and torque to
the drill bit

7 Hydraulic To transmit energy from mechanical or electrical form to
System hydraulic form and thus generate desired hydraulic flow at
desired hydraulic pressure
8 Dust Ducting To prevent mixing of the dust with atmosphere by means of a
hood around the blast hole and dust ducting
9 Dust To filter the dust to the desired level from the dust laden air
suppressor receiver through the dust ducting
10 Prime mover To act as main source of power and give desired quantity of
power to various components for drilling or traveling operations
11 Drill frame
12 Operators i. To allow a driller and helper to properly sit and
Cab control the drill
ii. To accommodate all the components and instrument
for controlling the drilling and travel operations
iii. To give desired protection to the operator from heat
or cold, rain and falling objects or flyrocks
iv. To properly place annunciation panel for indicating
equipment condition.
Table 7a Primary Assemblies in a Rotary Drill Rig
S.No Assembly Purpose

1 Piping To allow flow of compressed air , hydraulic oil, foam or water
2 Fuel Tank To accommodate desired quantity of fuel oil for consumption
over desired time period
3 Hydraulic To accommodate desired quantity of hydraulic oil
Tank
4 Cabling To allow flow of high voltage electric current for electric drills
5 Cable reel To enable automatic winding and unwinding of the electric cable
while the drill is moving
6 Lighting To generate low voltage electricity for the purpose of providing
alternator desired lighting in and around the drill

7 Wiring To allow flow of low voltage current to desired points
8 Lights To illuminate the drill and the drilling site to desired level
9 Lubricating oil To accommodate desired level of lubricating oil
Tank
10 Lube oil To carry desired quantity of lubricating oil to the components
piping that need to be lubricated
11 Machinery To guard the assemblies mounted on the main frame from rain,
House sun rays and flyrocks
12 Air To control the temperature of the interior of the operators cab
conditioner
Table 7b Auxiliary Facilities in the Rotary Blast Hole Drill
9. HOLE CLEANING AND BAILING VELOCITIES

For efficient drilling and higher penetration rate the chips are to be removed as soon they
are produced. Air flushing is normally used in blasthole drilling. The return air velocity in
the hole varies according to the drilling conditions i.e. weight of cuttings, the drillhole depth,
and amount of moisture encountered in the drillhole etc. As a thumb rule it was considered
that 5000 feet per min i.e. 1524 /min represents a minimum value.
For better performance of the drill when heavy cuttings result from the drilling operation or
excessive drillhole depth or under high moisture content, higher return velocities are
required.
Bailing velocity can be determined from the following formula:

CFM
144

BV
A
Where, BV= bailing velocity in feet/min

CFM= air feed in cubic feet per min
A= area of annulus, square inch
The bailing velocity can be determined using the nomogram given in Figure 16 below.

Figure 16 Determination of Bailing Velocity
While drilling a 6.5 inch hole using 4.5 inch drill pipe with 450 CFM air volume passing
through the annulus, as shown in the dotted line, you start moving up from the hole
diameter axis to meet the pipe size (as shown in A). Come down from the annulus air
volume rate (top) 450 CFM. Moving horizontally from A will meet the line at B. This
corresponds to bailing velocity near 4000 FPM.
The circulation air as drilling fluid medium has two primary functions
 Cooling of the bit
 Removal of the cuttings from the hole
The compressed air from the compressor is carried through the mast stand pipe, hose, and
swivel and tool string to the bit. There is sudden release of pressure as the air leaves the bit,
this causes considerable drop of the temperature of the air around the bit.

Annular velocity is determined to calculate the air quantity for the cutting removal. The
annular velocity depends on the drillhole diameter, drill pipe outer diameter and air
quantity.
For maximizing the upward air velocity for a given quantity of air, the annular area between
the drillhole wall and the drill pipe should be minimized. However, the linear gap between
the drillhole wall and the drill pipe should be sufficient to permit the free upward flow of
cutting chips. This clearance will depend on the chip size; however, the minimum clearance
should be 7 mm. If the clearance is not sufficient to allow free flow of chips and cleaning of
the hole is not effective, it may damage the drill stem. Thus it is necessary to estimate the
optimal up-hole air velocity for effective chip removal. It is recommended to use air
velocities from 1200 m/min to 2500 m/min depending on the rock type being drilled. Lower
values should be utilized for drilling through soils and soft rocks and higher values for harder
rocks. The air quantity required can be calculated as:
 Dh2  D p2 V
Q
4 106
Where, Q= Air quantity in the annular space, m3/min
DH= Hole diameter, mm
DP= Outer diameter of drill stem, mm
V= air velocity in the annular space, m/min
Air Pressure:
For conventional rotary drilling up to depth of 80 m the air pressure is not very high. 3.5
kg/cm2 may be sufficient. In DTH the penetration rate is proportional to the air pressure in
exploratory drilling pressure up to 24 kg/cm2 has been tried. Commonly used DTH drills
work at 7.5 kg/cm2.
Selection of Compressor
The pressure rating and air volumes required for any particular drilling operation will
determine the most type of compressor needed. Where the demand for compressed air is
relatively small and intermittent, compressors of reciprocating type should be employed
considering economy. Where demand is continuous efficient compressor like vane or screw
type may be the choice though they are costly.

For the purpose of drilling blast holes rotary and rotary-percussive drilling are often used.
For very hard formations and abrasive formations the rotary-percussive drills are proved to
be a better choice. However, in most strata conditions rotary drills are extensively used.
Harder formations normally require special types of bits with medium and hard steel teeth
or tungsten carbide inserts. In case of percussive drilling the penetration rate decreases with
increase in drillhole diameter and increase in rock strength. The diameter of the hole in
percussive drilling is kept within a limit of 228 mm or 9inches. The hammer operating
pressure is normally around 0.7MPa. However, increasing it to 1.7 MPa (250 psi) certain
manufacturer has claimed to get double the penetration rate. Normally, the hydraulic
percussive drill offer a 20 to 100% gain in the penetration rate.
The modern hydraulically operated drills have number of advantages over pneumatic drills.
These are:
1. The self-contained diesel powered hydraulic percussive drills do not require auxiliary
compressor for drill operation.
2. Energy delivered per stroke being higher, hydraulic percussive drills offer higher
penetration rate compared to the pneumatic drill.
3. Less noisy
4. Many hydraulic drill claims energy saving as high as 66% than pneumatic drilling.
5. Machine wear and bit wear is less compared to the pneumatic drills.
6. The investment cost on hydraulic drill is generally higher by about 27%. However,
the energy cost, drill steel cost and overall operating cost are claimed to be 24%,
86% and 76% less respectively.
Vertical blast holes are most common. However, to avoid formation of hard toes and to
obtain better fragmentation and reduced vibration level inclined blast holes are more useful
in many situations. A hard strata occurring at depth in the lower horizon of a high bench is
better blasted by horizontal blast holes. However, horizontal drilling is not normally carried
out in opencast mining due to the difficulties associated with drilling and charging.

10. FACTORS AFFECTING DRILLING
The performance of drills is affected by factors related to various aspects of drilling as
shown in the Table 8:
S. No. Category Factors
1 Operating Drill 1. Drill power

Variables 2. Drill Thrust
3. Drill Torque
4. Drill Rotary Speed
Rod 5.
1. Blow energy
Rod dimensions
6.
2. Blow frequency
Rod Geometry
Bit 3.
1. Material Properties
Bit diameter
2. Bit geometry
Circulation Fluid 3.
1. Material
Fluid flowProperties
rate
2. Fluid properties
2 Drill Hole Factor Hole 1. Size

specifications 2. Depth
3. Inclination
3 Rock factors Material 1. Resistance to penetration

Properties 2. Porosity
3. Moisture content
4. Density
5. Shore hardness
6. compressive strength
Geologic 7. Petrologic and structural bedding
1.
Condition 8. Fractures
2.
9. Folds
3. Coefficient of rock strength
10. Faults
4. Specific energy consumption for
5. drilling
Joints
State of stress 1.
6. In situ pressures
Rockmass composition
2. Pore pressure

4 Job or service Operational 1. Labor quality
factor variables 2. supervision quality
3. Scale of Operations
4. Power availability
Site factors and 5. nature
1. Weatherand
conditions
scope of task,
job site conditions 2. achievement targets, working
conditions,
3. site lighting conditions,
4. defects on equipment, hazards and
Coordination requirements/issues.
Table 8: Factors Affecting Drilling Performance
The optimal penetration rate in drilling blast holes by a particular bit size depends on
appropriate pull down force necessary for the rock types being drilled. Table 9 shows
approximate pull down force required for medium hard conditions.
Rock Type Bit Diameter
200 mm 250 mm 300 mm
Shale 10800 18600 27300
Sandstone 11700 20400 29700
Limestone 12300 21500 31000
Table 9 Pull down force (Kg) for blast-hole drilling
General Recommendation for better drilling performance:

1. Drill at minimum bailing velocity of 1524 m/min.
2. After each hole, the bit should be inspected to ensure that all the cones are at the
same temperature. One excessively hot cone usually indicates obstruction of air
passage to the bearing.
3. Air valve should be fully opened before rotating bit and are kept on while bit is
rotating.
4. The bit and drill steel should not be dropped to avoid damage of cones or bearings.
5. The bit should never be forced into soft, loose formations faster than the cleaning of
hole by the air. Operating the bit while buried under formation cuttings to lock when
cuttings can cause bearings to lock when cuttings may be fixed inside the cone.

11. SELECTION OF DRILLING METHOD AND DRILLING EXECUTION
Selection of machine for production drilling calls for your value judgment. Capp (1962)
suggested the following steps as guide to select the right drill:
1. Determine the job factors:
i. Labor and skill availability
ii. Site conditions. From this one will specify if the site preparation for drilling will
need a flat surface or inclined surface
iii. Weather
iv. Safety Requirements
v. Power availability
2. Define Job Objectives of rock breakage vis a vis relationship with other production
cycle operations: Clearly state:
i. Excavation constraints and restrictions
ii. Haulage constraints and restrictions
iii. Pit slope stability and pit geometry
iv. Crushing capacity for size and rate
v. Production targets
vi. Fragmentation demanded
vii. Muckpile through expected
viii. Ground vibrations restrictions
3. Design the drillhole pattern that would be use. This will be based on the blasting
requirements. The pattern will consists of:
i. Hole size
ii. Hole depth
iii. Hole inclination
iv. Burden
v. Spacing
vi. Toe Burden
4. Determine the Drillability factor and select suitable drill

5. Specify Operating conditions: Drill selection should be done with the drill
manufacturer and operating variables should be properly defined considering the
site conditions. The safety information and procedures will have to be learnt from
the legislation and regulations, applicable Pakistani and International Standards.
Management plans, manager's rules, company's policy, code of practice, equipment
manufacturers instructions and safe job procedures will have to be referred to
specify the operating conditions and work instructions. Needs for positioning
information through GPS, drillhole condition information through borehole camera,
hole depth measurements and dust suppression requirements should be assessed.
6. Determine Coordination Requirements: For the drilling operations it may be

necessary to coordinate with the electrical department to arrange for electric supply
through trailing cable. There will be necessity for site preparation equipment like
dozers or grader, it may also require water truck to supply water for wet hole
drilling, service vehicles, cranes and floats may also be necessary depending on the
site conditions. The manager must coordinate these needs in consultation with the
drilling in charge.
7. Estimate Performance parameters. This will include:

i. Estimations of machine availability
ii. Estimation of cost of operations
iii. Determination of specifications of power source used
iv. Identification of cost items like bit, oil and lubricants
v. Determination of depreciation, labor cost, maintenance cost, power cost, bit
costs, spare costs
vi. Select a system on the basis of optimal cost, and maximum safe operation.
8. Monitoring of Operations:
i. Drill operations monitoring includes monitoring of rotation and pull-down
pressures,
ii. Monitoring the status of the gauges, alarms and other warning devices
iii. Inspecting the conditions of the rods, bits and associated equipment for ensuring
optimal performance.

12. SMALL DIAMETER BLASTHOLE DRILL
It is necessary for drifting in underground and for small size blasts in surface mines. This is
basically a pneumatically operated percussion drill of top hammer type. DTH can also be
used. Crater is formed by the blow of the drill steel and the debris formed is removed by the
flushing air and new surface is impacted to make progress in drilling the required hole. The
drilling requires the drill rig and the compressor. The components of the drill rig are shown
in Figure 17 below:
Figure 17 ICM drill

This light weight drill is easily maneuverable and easily positioned for drilling vertical,
angular or horizontal holes. The operations are hydraulically controlled. It tows its own
compressor for powering.
The components of this are:
1. Rotary Head: Comprises of a hydraulic motor and a suck assembly to hold the drill
pipes

2. Feed motor: To apply an axial thrust on the bit through the drill rod by having a chain
feed mechanism.
3. Drill guide to position the drill rod and bit at proper angle to make vertical or angular
hole.
4. Drill pipe or drill rod: A tubular rod with a central hole to send compressed air and
male and female ends for connecting to the next rod and to the suck of the rotary
head.
5. Hammer: It is a pneumatically acting hammer. When the compressed air is entered
in this valve released pressure energy to a piston to blow the bit connected to it
provide the impact on the rock mass.
6. Drill bit: It is tungsten carbide button insert bit connected to the hammer.
7. Undercarriage or crawler unit which allows the drill to be propelled.
8. Propel control valve for releasing the hydraulic to power the hydraulic motor to drive
the crawler.
9. Propulsion Motor is the hydraulic motor that provides the power to propel the
machine.
10. Hydraulic control unit having pressure regulator for rotation of the drive head,
pressure regulator for the control of the feed motor, blow valves, hydraulic control,
rotation control and feed control.
13. MANAGEMENT OF DRILLING OPERATION

What should you do while planning and preparing for the drilling job?
1. You may have to learn the work requirements from the previous shift operations. Your
mine might be having prescribed form for shift briefing. In those form you may get
handover details from the previous shift. In certain work culture, there may be
messaging through wireless communication system or telephones. All such
instructions written or verbal must be obtained, clearly interpreted and clarified
before proceeding to the drilling job.
2. For the drilling job with ultimate objective of quality control of ROM, the geological
and survey information should be accessible. While following the site procedure those
information should be interpreted and applied.

3. Depending on the site, equipment and specific operations planned safety information
and procedures may vary. The drilling operation executives must have access to these
information and they must apply them throughout the work.
i. This information may be what the noise level of the machine is and what is the safe
exposure limit?
ii. Similarly he should know how the size of blasts affects ground vibration and what
the safe vibration levels for the particular site are.
4. Every mine develops its own safety information and procedures. The drilling executive
must collect and apply those procedures throughout his work while constantly
examining if they are adequate and needs modifications
5. The drill site should be well examined and procure the required tools and man power
for preparing the site for drilling.
6. The drill pattern is designed as per the technical requirements of the overall mining.
The drilling personnel need to get this drill pattern and accurately mark the drilling
pattern. Modern equipment and control technology can automate the drilling
machine to move to subsequent holes based on the instructed pattern.
Better drilling management involves the following:

 Planning for surface blast hole drilling
 Set up and conduct of surface blast hole drilling
 Relocation of drilling equipment
 Basic maintenance of the equipment in the work site
 Maintaining safety and quality work standards in site operations
13.1 DRILLING PROPER

The exact drilling operation is carried out by the drill operator. Many a times he may not be
aware of the technical requirement of specific drilling job. Thus it is very essential that he is
properly instructed and his job is coordinated with the other operations like blending and
reclamation in site. Further the drilling Incharge must be careful to:
1. follow the instructions and procedures prescribed by the equipment supplier in
operations like pre start, start up and shut down of the machines

2. The drill must be positioned and leveled according to pattern while taking care of the
trailing cable, edge clearance, bench stability in the site etc.
3. The drill operator should be trained to use the monitoring instrumentations in the
machine.
4. Based on the site conditions and the selected equipment there may be certain
precautions and specific actions necessary. The drilling in-charge must know and
implement those.
5. The drilling personnel must have knowledge of the hazardous and emergency
situations. On such situations the drilling personnel must follow the stipulated actions
laid out by the manufacturer of machine or adopted by the mines without any panic.
6. Drilling operations should be properly logged. Whenever, there is no measure while
drilling system are installed close observations of the operating parameters and
recording in the logbook as much detailed as possible should be practiced. Recording
requirements are normally dictated by site conditions.
7. As far as practicable the operations should be carried out as per the agreed plans
without overloading the equipment in any form.
13.2 DRILL RELOCATIONS

It may be essential to march the drilling machine from one location to another. Such
requirement may arise in ore mining for maintaining the grade of the ROM by blending
output from different zones. The relocation may be by walking, driving, towing, transporting
or floating. Whenever such situation arises, the drilling crew should consider the following:
1. Properly inspect the site and collect the location and route plan from the surveyor.
2. For marching the machine site preparation work should be carried out with proper
coordination with other working unit like civil construction, if available. If the drill is an
electrically operated drill, it may be necessary to relocate the supply kiosk and cable
handling. Depending on the location there may be requirements for construction of
ramps, culverts etc. Such work should be planned beforehand and logistics should be
arranged with pre-thoughts to eliminate avoidable delays.
3. There may be regulatory compliance to fulfill while handling cables, laying out ramps
or roads. If so that should be given priority.

4. Overall arrangements for drilling may require services from other concerned
departments like maintenance and electrical supply. For the success of operations
proper coordination will be essential.
5. Prior to relocation and after relocation certain inspections of the machine may be
prescribed by the manufacturers. That should be strictly followed. A check list of such
inspection should be readily available to the supervisor.
13.3 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The drilling personnel should orthodoxly follow the operating manual of the machine
provided by the manufacturer. Some important points regarding operation and
maintenance are:
1. The drilling personnel should have enough exposure to the manufacturer’s instruction
for operation and maintenance.
2. The mine might have developed certain housekeeping norm. In absence of such
norms, the technical officers can take up proper faultfinding methodology whenever
such need arises and should document them for future reference.
3. The manufacturers normally provide routine tests and services guideline. Such
guideline should be followed without failure.
4. In case of major failure of the machine or major repair work, the manufacturer’s
presence may be expected for developing future procedures.
5. Depending on the size of operation, maintenance organization and system should be
preplanned.
6. Proper operational records should provide input for operation control software.
7. Proper coordination of workshop personnel, storage control etc. would be necessary.
13.4 COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT

As a manager of the mines and in charge of drilling operation it is important to know how to
judge competency of the persons involved in the drilling operations. The following
considerations may be used to judge drilling competency:
a. Applying personal and operational safety procedures involved in drilling
b. Interpreting and communicating information on drilling operations

c. Knowledge of the requirements in drill site preparation and executing them
d. Completing drill equipment pre-start, start-up and shut-down procedures at every drilling
operations
e. Operation of the drill (system)
f. Completion of drilling to pattern/specification
g. Efficient relocating and positioning of drills
h. Knowledge of maintenance needs and organizing drill maintenance
i. Capability of collecting, analyzing and organizing ideas and information.
j. Efficiency in communicating ideas and information.
k. Skill in planning and organizing activities.
l. Attitudes and ease in working with others and in teams.
m. Approach and ability to solve problems.
n. Using mathematical ideas and techniques as well as latest technology.
13.5 WHAT A DRILLING OPERATION IN-CHARGE MUST DO

1. Plan and prepare for operations:
i. For this the engineer should be provided with information regarding legislative
requirements, site requirements based on the geo-technical and geo-mining
conditions, requirements suggested by the manufacture of the deployed
equipment as well as the requirements for the established procedure for the job.
The officer must be able to interpret and clarify these requirements
ii. For the satisfactory completion of the job the officer must specify the work
requirements like the target to be achieved, the type of tools and worker he will
require and he must understand how to allocate those requirements at proper time
and at proper location.
iii. The officer should have access to the geological and survey data and he must know
how to interpret these data and apply the knowledge in field. This is important for
the drilling engineer to know how his drilling pattern and drilling sequence
contribute to the quality and grade control.
iv. The officer must inspect the work area and prepare it if necessary prior to
mobilizing exact drilling operation.

v. The officer must identify, manage and report potential hazards and risks in
accordance with legislative, site and manufacturer’s requirements and
procedures.
vi. The drilling officer must understand the links of his job with the other operations in
the mine and must coordinate his requirements with others. Resolving
coordination requirements is very important for overall productivity.
vii.The drilling officer/in-charge like any other job -in charge must be very careful
regarding the protective equipment with due consideration of the site
requirements and procedural demands.
14. SAFETY AT DRILLING OPERATIONS

The hazards and risks are involved in drilling mainly due to the following:
 Noise (hearing): the drilling operations normally produce higher level of noise. The
operator and helper must use personnel protective equipment as prescribed by the
manufacturer of the drill or the mine management.
 Explosives material: Drilling is followed by blasting and the drilling personnel must be
aware of explosive risks.
 Burst hoses: the machine comprises of hydraulic and pneumatic hose pipes. They
must be properly maintained and replaced after prescribed use. Accidental bursting
may cause accident.
 Air and hoses: The drilling personnel must be aware of the high pressure lines and
the risks to work with them.
 Couplings: The couplings at drill rods are not supposed to break, however, poor
workmanship may lead to improper coupling that get dislodged while operation may
create serious injury to men or machine.
 Compressed air: All the precautions to work with compressed air.
 Dust: dusts can cause lung disease as well as inconvenience in working. Dust
collector facilities in the drill must be well maintained.
 Loose clothing: No person with loose garment should be allowed to work with the
drill.
 Pre-start checks should be conducted orthodoxy during every starting in accordance
with specified requirements particularly with respect to the compressor, drill rig and

the consumables. Ground area should be checked to ensure working conditions
comply with specified requirements.
 At the drill work site while working inspections must be conducted to know if there
is any misfires and old explosives in the site as well as the high wall stability to
ensure a particular position of the drill is safe.
 All precautions prescribed by the manufacturer and norms suggested at the mine
should be followed during tramping the drill to the bench, moving it into position,
starting up and running to operating state, and positioning to the leveled position
using the jacks.
15. MONITORING OF DRILLING CONDITIONS

While conducting the drilling operation one must monitor the following:
 Instrument readings
 Penetration rate
 Replacement needs for rods
 Adding rods
 Dust/environmental requirements
 Chippings quality
 Status of water in hole
 Cracks, faults in the rock mass
 Conditions of the work area
 Illumination standards (night work)
15.1 MEASURE WHILE DRILLING

Drilling optimization is possible by controlling the operating parameters to match with the
geo-mechanical and structural properties of the rock mass being drilled. Measure –While –
Drilling (MWD) is the process to generate data for automatically or manually controlling the
operation parameters of a drill. During the operation of a drill the operator needs to adjust
pull down pressure (i.e. the axial thrust on the bit), rotary speed and bailing air pressure and
velocity depending on the strata encountered. Modern drills like BE 60R or 61 R
incorporates MWD system. This system comprises of an electronic black box incorporating
sophisticated transducers and current limit devices which feedback drill performance data

to a central controller. The system would respond to the monitored signal when preset
drilling and machine parameters were exceeded, through adjustments to down feed, rotary
speed and flushing rate. Similar systems were also developed by Gardner Denever for their
GD-120/130 rotary blast-hole drills and Marion for their M4 and M5 crawler rigs. The
system incorporated in Marion also controls by measuring while drilling. It controls the
parameters of down pressure, bailing air pressure and rotary speed. Limits for each of these
are preset into the system and are determined based on ground conditions, projected
rotary bit life and desired rate of penetration.
Variations in the penetration rate are due to the changing nature of the rock being drilled,
but may also reflect changes in the operating skill of the drill i.e. the control of pull down
pressure and rotary speed. Variations in the rotary torque indicate very clearly the presence
of strong or weak rock units in a manner similar to the penetration rate. Variations may be
due to change in down pressure and rotary speed, which can be confirmed by examination
of the drilling records. In general, at constant or set down pressure; torque increase occurs
for stronger rocks i.e. sandstone whilst decrease indicates weak rocks like mudstone, coal or
weathered rocks. Thus, measuring-while-drilling provides better control of the machine as
well as important geotechnical information for other mining operations.
16. PROBLEMS OF DRILLING

The problems that may occur during drilling include:
 Bit stuck.
 Broken bit (tungsten carbide).
 Rods stuck that won’t separate.
 Rods broken
Other problems associated are:
 Excessive noise
 Excessive dust generation
 Excessive bit wear rate
 Poor penetration rate
 Problem of flushing
 Wall collapse during drilling
 Water in the hole

16.1 DRILLING HAZARD
Blast hole flushing by air renders the operators and his assistant exposed to airborne
respirable crystalline silica dust. This may induce lung disease like silicosis. As the drilling
process itself generated dusts and dusts are emitted at a speed from the drilled hole, it may
be difficult to contain the dust at source. Normally, fixed shrouds are used to enclose the
area beneath the drill deck. However, there are often significant amount of leakage due to:
1) Gaps between the shroud and ground created by raising/leveling the drill
2) Gaps in the corner seams, and
3) Torn deck shrouds.
4) Less attention to keep it fixed.
Most deck shrouds are rectangular and constructed of four separate pieces of rubber
belting attached to the deck. Because of this design, there is usually a significant amount of
dust escaping from the open seams as well as the open area between the shroud and the
ground. This dust can be a significant source of silica exposure to drill operators as well as
other personnel downwind of the drill.
Figure 18: Dry dust collection system for blast-hole drill: circular deck shroud.

Figure 19: Drill operator at the control panel
To improve the efficiency of the dust suppression circular deck shrouds are designed. This
new shroud is circular and slightly conical in design and is without any open seams. Steel
banding is used to attach the shroud to the bottom of the drill deck and close the one seam.
The shroud is capable of being hydraulically raised to nearly flush with the drill deck and
lowered to make contact with the ground after raising and leveling the drill. A steel band is
attached to the bottom of the shroud to maintain shape as well as to provide weight for
lowering. Sheet rubber material, which is thinner than material typically used for deck
shrouds, is used for flexibility.
Operation is accomplished by guide wires attached to the bottom steel band and a hydraulic
cylinder. The cylinder is controlled by a hand valve located near the other drill controls. The
shroud has a small trap door which can be manually raised and/or lowered so that the
cuttings can be shoveled from inside the shroud without losing dust capture efficiency. Such
innovative designs can reduce dust emission from surface mines considerably.

17. UNDERGROUND DRILLING EQUIPMENT
The most commonly used drilling rigs for underground labors are the following:
— Jumbos for driving of tunnels and drifts cut and fill operations, chambers and pillars, etc.
— Drills for long holes in fan cut for sublevel and block-caving operations.
— Long-hole drills for vertical crater retreat systems and sub-level open stoping.
Other units such as the rubber tire wagon drills, and crawler drills are described in detail
along with the surface machines.
17.1 JUMBOS
Jumbos are the drilling units equipped with one or various drill hammers and their principle
applications in underground labors are:
— Driving of tunnels and drifts

— Bolting and cross cutting
— Benching with horizontal blastholes
— Cut and fill mining
These machines can be towed or, more commonly, self-propelled. The latter are rubber tire,
crawler or rail mounted. The first is the most used for its great mobility (up to 15km/h), for
its resistance to corrosive waters and for the least wear over irregular ground. The chassis
are articulated in most instances, permitting excavation operations with curves.
Figure 20: Schematic of Jumbo Working in Underground

Figure 21: Two Boom Jumbo Drill (Caterpillar Inc.)
Figure 22: Photograph of a Three Boom Jumbo Drill in Underground Mine
The crawler mounted jumbos are used over very bad terrain, narrow drifts, with high slopes
(15° to 20°) and few curves. The jumbos mounted on rails, which are rarely used nowadays,
find application when the work is: of great length, small section, poor ventilation and the
loading and haulage equipment is also mounted on rails. The sources of energy can be:
diesel oil, electric or compressed air.

The booms of modern jumbos are hydraulically operated and there is great variety in
design, but they can be classified in the following groups: tripod type, base rotation or roll-
over boom. There are also booms with telescopic extension that can be extended from 1.2
to 1.6 m. The number and size of the booms goes in hand with the required advance, tunnel
section, and drilling control to avoid subdrilling.
Portal jumbos are used for the drilling of large tunnels or chambers. These structures are
designed for a specific job and have an opening, or portal, through which the loading and
haulage equipment can pass to remove the blasted material. The advantage is that the
jumbo does not have to be pulled out of the way, only moved to a safe distance when
blasting. These jumbos can have several booms, as well as the man baskets that are
operated hydraulically to give easy access to the blasters when charging the holes or during
support operations.
18. SURFACE DRILLING EQUIPMENT

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drilling_rig
19. DRILLING FLUIDS AND DETERMINATION OF HYDROSTATIC

PRESSURE
[Practical Workbook]
20. DRILL SELECTION

While there are a number of performance specifications to be identified in the selection of a
production drill, the ones we shall consider of first importance are the following:
1. Type of drill, type of bit, size of bit, power source
2. Drillability (rate of penetration) in rock specified
3. Blasting factor (area of working face broken per drillhole)
4. Drilling factor (length of drillhole required per unit weight of rock broken)
5. Number of drill units per rig or jumbo.

Items included in factor 1 are discussed in previous sections. Drillability, the second factor,
which is also explained in detail, is usually based on empirical data. The abrasion index is an
indicator of bit wear, as Drillability is a measure of penetration rate. Use of the blasting
factor is an approximate measure expressing the fragmenting ability of a drillhole and is
based on field experience. Drilling Factor expresses fragmenting ability by another measure.
Finally, the number of drills is calculated for the prevailing operating and job conditions as
reflected by the preceding factors. A numerical example demonstrates the selection
procedure.
Example: Specified the following data regarding a drilling application in a hard-rock mine
select the number of drills required for a mobile, hydraulic, trac-mounted drill rig with a
capacity of one to four drill booms and also determine the tons of rock broken and the
drilling factor (DF).
 Mining Method: Stope-and-Pillar Mining
 Stope Face: Height 20 ft., Width 24 ft.
 Drill Power: Hydraulic
 Drill Bits: 2.25 in. Carbide, Cross Bits
 Rock: Granite Gneiss
 Penetration Rate: 5.066 FPM
 Blasting Factor (BF): 6.8 ft2 per hole
 Depth of Round or Holes: 16 ft.
 Delay Time in Drilling/Hole: 1.40 min
 Drill Rounds/Shift: 3
 Allowable Drill Time/round: 2.0 Hours
 Tonnage Factor (TF): 14.0 ft3 /ton
21. DRILLING COST

[PPT Presentation on MINE COST ESTIMATES]
**GOOD LUCK**

Drilling Technology

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DRILLING

2. TYPES OF DRILLING OPERATIONS USED IN MINING

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

3- Production Drilling. This term is used in mining operations, fundamentally underground,

6- Rock Supports. In many underground operations and sometimes in surface ones it is

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

S. No Basis Variants Example

1 Mode of energy Percussion Churn or cable tool drill, jack hammer,

Bottom Hammer For hole larger than 150 mm and deeper

Rotary Percussion DTH, Top hammer drill

2 Size of Hole Small Hole 150-200 mm for coal

Large Hole 250-315 mm for OB

Very Large Hole > 315 mm for dewatering well

3 Method of Hand held Jack Hammer

Wagon mounted Typical hole size 63-150 mm

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

4 Type of power Electric

Pneumatic Less costly, high noise

Hydraulic May be diesel or electrically powered

5 Flushing Wet drilling Water flushed

Dry drilling Air flushed

7 On board Facilities With Measure while

Without measure while

Table 1: Classification of Drilling and Drills

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

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Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

ii. Impact Crushing

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

ii. Fusion and Vaporization

i. The chemical reactions are invariably slow

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

7.1 PROTODYAKONOV APPROACH

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

7.2 PAONE AND BRUCE APPROACH

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

𝑷 = 𝟓. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × [𝑹𝑭 − 𝟐𝟖 × 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟓 × 𝑺𝑪 )] × 𝑾 × 𝑵

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

These factors give

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

S.No Assembly Purpose

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

S.No Assembly Purpose

Engr. Haji Agha Shafi Jawaid Khan Pathan

9. HOLE CLEANING AND BAILING VELOCITIES