UNIT I

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM AND SEDIMENTRARY

ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION:

By definition petroleum is a generic name for hydrocarbons, including crude oil, natural
gas liquids, natural gas and their products. Petroleum comes from the Latin petra meaning rock
or stone & oleum meaning oil. Petroleum occurs in the earth in combination of any of the four
states: gas, liquid, semisolid and solid. Chemically, petroleum is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen (called hydrocarbons) with minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur as
impurities along with heavy metals. Petroleum is organic; it contains complex carbon, hydrogen
molecular structures (CH4) called chains that are linked together to form long-chains of more
complex molecules.

TYPES OF PETROLEUM: There are three general types of petroleum:

1. Crude oil,
2. Natural gas, and
3. Semi-solid and Solid forms.

1. Crude oil refers to liquid petroleum as opposed to refined oil. These are liquid
hydrocarbons that contain varying amounts of dissolved gases, bitumens, and other impurities. In
the raw state, crude oil resembles ordinary lubricating oil. It is immiscible with water and has a
density less than that of sea water -- thus, crude oil floats on water. Crude oil is however, soluble
in naphtha, carbon disulfide, ether, and benzene.

2. Natural gas is petroleum gas as distinguished from manufactured gas. Natural gas
consists of lighter paraffin hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons of the methane series), the most
abundant being methane gas (CH4).

3. Semi-solid and solid forms are called heavy hydrocarbons and bitumens. They
comprise materials such as asphalt, tar, pitch, albertite, or any number of names depending on
their individual characteristics and local usage.

Fig: Flow properties of crude oil

PETROLEUM

The basic components of petroleum and natural gases are mixtures of hydrocarbons,
carbon and hydrogen being the only elements essential to their composition. A great number of
hydrocarbons occur in nature Crude oil consists of a very complex range of different
hydrocarbons. These form precursors for a variety of specially products and the entire host of
petrochemical products, apart from the bulk petroleum products. The bulk petroleum products,
however, are mainly the following:-

-- Liquified petroleum gas (L.P.G.)

_ Naphtha
_ Motor spirit (M.S.)
_ Kerosene
_ Aviation turbine fuel (A.T.F.)
_ High speed diesel oil (H.S.D)
_ Light diesel oil (L.D.O.)
_ Furnace oil (F.O.)
_ Bitumen

The physical properties of petroleum:

The physical properties of petroleum are controlled by the chemical composition. The
most readily observed parameters are: specific gravity, viscosity, and color.

Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio between weight of a given volume of material
and weight of an equal volume of water at 4o C. Oils generally lie between 0.73 - ~>1.0 with
paraffin-based oils being commonly light. Conversely, asphalt-based (naphthenic components)
oils are almost always heavy. The units of measure are degrees and are read directly from a
hydrometer. The symbol for specific gravity is the Greek letter (rho). The petroleum industry
uses an API (American Petroleum Institute) scale to grade crude oil.

Viscosity is defined as the internal friction of a liquid causing its resistance to change
form; it is the ratio of stress to shear per unit time. Shear in liquids is not constant but is
proportional to time. The symbol is the Greek letter (eta). Viscosity varies directly with density;
it is a function of the number of carbon (C) atoms and the amount of gas dissolved in the oil.
This parameter is important when transporting petroleum products through pipelines.
 Color is used in conjunction with refractive indices for identification of oil types under
themicroscope. Paraffinic oils are light in color, yellow to brown in transmitted light and green
inreflected light. Asphalt-based oils are black and are known as black oils.

Units used in Oil and Gas industry

Some important units used in oil and gas industry are:
Crude oil volume is usually measured in Barrels. One barrel holds 42 gallons (159) liters. Weight
or mass of crude in India is in metric tons. A barrel of average crude oil weighs 0.150tons as a
thumb rule. It depends on the density of crude oil.
Oil production capacity or refinery capacity are expressed in barrels per day (BPD).
Roughly20,000 BPSD is equivalent to 1 million tons per year crude taking an average density of
crude.

ORGIN OF PETROLEUM:

 Thomas-Graham(1843):
Petroleun is a product of action upon vegetable matter of high temperature.
 Chaptal(1845):
It is a product of oils which escapes by decomposition of plant into vegetable matters.
 J.W Draper(1846):
It is product of action of natural heat of earth on coal.
 Popoff(1886):
He shared that CH4 could be produced by decomposition of cellulose.
 Hoppe-seyler(1826):
Bacteria could produce CH4.

Theories of origin of petroleum:

Theories must explain the following characteristics associated with petroleum,Its
association with brine (sodium chloride solution). The presence of nitrogen and sulphur
compounds in it. The presence of chlorophyll and haemin in it.Its optically active nature.
Three important theories are as follows.
(i) Mendeleev’s carbide theory or inorganic theory
(ii) Engler’s theory or organic theory
(iii) Modern theory

(i)Mendeleef carbide theory or inorganic theory:

According to this theory petroleum is regarded as of inorganic orgin. The theory was
originally putforth by Mendeleef and subsequently supported by Moissan, Sabatier, Senderens.
Petroleum is believed to be formed by the action of steam or water on metallic carbides on inner
portion of earth crust. The acetylene thus formed is reduced to ethylene and ethane with
hydrogen in presence of metallic catalyst at high temperature(the hydrogen needed is obtained by
action of steam on hot metals). Also, the acetylene formed polymers in presence of hot
metalsand gave aromatic hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes, and other open chain hydrocarbons. The
carbides are believed to be formed by the reaction of metals( Al and Ca) with coal in interior of
the earth.

Metal Carbide hydrogenationHydrocarbon & respective hydroxides.

HydrocarbonpolymerisationHigher hydrocarbons.

Reactions:

4Al + 3C Al4C3.

Al4C3 + H2O4Al(OH)3 + 3 CH4.

3CH4 C3H8.

Ca + 2C CaC2.

CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2.

3C2H2 C6H6.

CH4 + C2H2 C3H6.

This theory fails to explain the presence of haemin, chlorophyll, S, N 2& optical activity etc.

(ii)Engler’s theory or organic theory:

This theory was proposed by Engler in 1900. He proposed that

petroleum has been formed by the decay and decomposition of dead animals (preferably the sea
animals) under high temperature and pressure. The sea animals, which died due to various
reasons, were deposited at the bottom of the sea. Gradually, these were covered with mud, silt
and sand. Under high temperature and pressure, these animals were dcomposed into petroleum.
The gaseous hydrocarbons, that were produced, constituted the natural gas. The theory is
supported by the following facts.

a) The presence of brine with petroleum

b) The presence of optically active compounds

c) The presence of nitrogen and sulphur compounds

d) The presence of fossils in the petroleum area.

 The theory was further supported by the fact that when the destructive distillation of fish
oil and other animal fats under high temperature and pressure was carried out, a petroleum-like
liquid containing N, S and optically active compounds was obtained.

The theory fails to account for a) the presence of chlorophyll in the petroleum b) the
presence of coal deposits found near the oil fields and c) the presence of resins in the oil.

(ii) Modern theory: Many oil contain compounds that could be derived from chlorophyll
which is sent in plants thus pointing to vegetable orgin of petroleum. The high resin contents of
Burma oil can also be accounted for vegetable orgin of the oil.

It is now believed that Petroleum is originated by partial decomposition of marine

animals(Engler theory) as well as vegetable matter. It is quite likely that changes, in earth crust’s
have brought the action of heat and water, the plants are converted into petroleum products. The
association of petroleum with brine(sea-water) and the presence of coal deposits(from historic
forests) in the neighbour of oil deposits indicate that orginn of petroleum is combination of
organic as well as vegetable orgin.

Important factors that control petroleum occurence or Size

i) A favourable basin Form.

ii) Trap size: The most important requisite of an oil /gas field is the large trap with a
great reservoir volume either in a single reservoir volume either in a single reservoir
or in a multiple reservoirs. Some oil/gas bearing reservoirs have great vertical
thickness which have a wide lateral extent which compensates for lesser vertical
thickness.
iii) Hydrocarbon source: The next important factor for the generation of hydrocarbons
and for accumulation, is the preservation and conversion of organic matter to
petroleum in a favourable environment for abundant life and vegetable matter, etc.
For this the most important factor is occurance of good quality source rocks
adjacent to reservoir rock forming traps. The individual requirements necessary for
generation of hydrocarbons are as follows:
(a) The matured zone is at a temperature between 65oC(150oF) and 150oC and this
zone should be an oil generation zone at the same time.
(b) The longer the effective heating time, also known as ‘cooking time’. If the
geothermal gradient is high and burial is deep, the cooking time for oil
generation is 5x106 to 5 to 107years. The generation of hydrocarbons varies from
area to area depending upon the burial depth and paleo-temperatures.
(c) In general, the oil generation needs sufficient burial depth in an area where the
geological age of source rock is young or geothermal gradient is low. If the
source rock is old, and where geothermal gradient is high, the oil generation will
be present at the shallow burial depth. Hydrocarbons do form in a short time, but
 have commercial accumulations long time is required depending on temperature
and pressure.
(d) As regard the quality of the source rocks, the geo thermal analysis has going for
long time and several companies have come out with various evaluation
methods. The shell group has taken the hydrocarbon content as the standard
evaluation of source rock. According to this Hy(ppm) of the source rock for the
commercial accumulation of oil should be more than 150ppm. In case it is less
than 150ppm or the reservoir is far from source rock, hydrocarbon should be gas.
Looking at this classification given by the shell group, the range of 500-1500ppm
is considered excellent source rock material for generation of hydrocarbons.
(e) The organic type of source rock material can be classified into three types:

i) Type-III as coaly and woody;

ii) Type-II, Herbaceous;

iii) Type-I, Sapropelic(Amorphous)Kerogen.

Sapropelic type of organic material is considered as excellent oil source

rock material, while Type-III source material will be good for gas source and
Type-II both for oil and gas.
The occurance of oil fields instead of oil fields in a particular area, is
explained by the type of organic matter present for the generation of
hydrocarbons. If the organic matter at the time of burial has been mostly of Type
III(coaly and woody) the hydrocarbon would be essentially gaseous type. The
other reason is the depth of burial.
Liquid hydrocarbons would not exist below 5,640m with a thermal
gradient of 2F/100ft,or below 8,380m,with a thermal gradient of 1F/100ft.

iv) Proper timing of formation of trap: In terms of the geological time scale,
Hydrocarbon generation from source bed takes places in a short span of time.
Hydrocarbon generation, migration and entrapment can occur within the time span of
less than 1-1.5 million years.
v) A fair ratio of source to reservoir rocks.
vi) Presence of cap rock, either evaporate bed or any impermeable argillaceous rock
shale, and even tight dense limestone.

OIL FORMATION

Accumulation of organic material capable of forming petroleum can occur in a number of

different ways. Ideal environments are those which accumulate abundant organic material innon-
oxidizing conditions. This can occur near the edge of larger sedimentary basins, behindbarrier
reefs, or in lagoon areas, where water circulation is more restricted. This is possible insmaller
water body seas that may be connected to a larger ocean, or it may be isolated. If it isisolated,
there is less circulation, and hence less oxygen. This situation is good for forming oil,becauseless
of the organic material gets oxidized. The type of organic material which isdeposited determines
the outcome of the petroleum. Land derived organic material tends toproduce more natural gas
than kerogen. Marine derived organic material tends to produce morekerogen than natural gas.

Conditions for Oil and Gas Formation

There are four requirements necessary to form an oil deposit:
1) there must be a source rock,
2)there must be a heating event,
3) there must be a reservoir rock, and
4) there must be atrapping mechanism.

The source rock must contain abundant organic matter.Major oil generation starts at
about 60° and reaches an optimum at about 100°. Oil generationdies out at around 140°C and
only methane (CH4) and other hydrocarbons gases are produced.At temperatures above 200°C,
all the organic material is further broken down and destroyed. It istherefore very important to
know the thermal maturity of source rock.

With a thermal gradient less than around 18°C per km, petroleum does not form as the
pressureinhibits the movement of the volatiles. At a thermal gradient more than 55°C per km,
petroleummay form, but at these pressures it is highly unlikely that they would be retained in
strata forperiods long enough to form petroleum deposits.

To form petroleum reservoir thus requires three components:

1. Source
2. Reservoir
3. Cap rock

SOURCE ROCK

The best sourcerocks are organic-rich shales, limestones and sandstones which contain
0.5 % to 5 % organicmatter. The organic material liquefies during the heating event, converting
to hydrocarbons inthe process.
The fine-grained, amorphous organic matter isknown as "Kerogen" and is the substance
that generates hydrocarbon oil and gas.The first hydrocarbons to form are called kerogen, which
consists of carbon (69-80%), Hydrogen (7-11 %), Nitrogen (1.25-2.5 %), Sulfur (1-8 %), and
Oxygen (9-17 %). Kerogenbecomes crude oil when the oxygen and nitrogen are removed in
some manner.
Kerogenis that part ofthe organic matter in a rock that isinsoluble in common organic
solvents. It owes its insolubility toits large molecular size and heat isrequired to break it down.
Maturation ofkerogen is afunction of increased burial and temperature and is accompanied by
chemical changes.Askerogen thermally matures and increases in carbon content, it changes form
animmature light greenish-yellow color to an overmature black, which is representative of
aprogressively higher coal rank.
Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater
than10%) as to occur in oil shales. It is, however, of great geological importance because it isthe
substance that generates hydrocarbon oil and gas.
Different types of kerogen can be identified, each withdifferent concentrations of the five
primary elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen, and sulphur, and each with a different
potential for generating petroleum.Theorganicmatter needs to have been deposited with reducing
conditions near sediment/water interface topreserve organic matter from oxidation. Such
conditions generally produce fine sediments (muds)where organic debris can settle. e.g. shelf or
lagoonal muds. Source rocks are therefore relativelyimpermeable and are unsuitable as a
reservoir for petroleum deposits.A source rock must containsignificant amounts of kerogen.

KerogenTypes

Type I - Algal
These are very rich in hydrogen and low in oxygen. They are particularly abundant in
algae, b
othmarine and freshwater. This type of kerogen tends to produce oil and is present in
many oilshales.

Type II - Liptinic
These have a H:C ratio greater than 1, and are formed from algal detritus, zooplankton
andphytoplankton. Type II kerogen can produce both oil and gas.

Type III - Humic

These have a low H: C ratio (approx. 0.84) and are produced from the lignin of woody
plants.This type of kerogen is gas prone.

Types I and II tend to occur in marine environments and produces oil and gas deposits.
Type IIIis of continental origin and produces coal deposits and coal seam gas.
 Fig.Thermal maturity indicators

Fig. Hydrocarbon formation as a function of burial of the source rock

RESERVOIR ROCK:

If you wanted to find a large supply of water, where would you look? You would, of
course, go out andlook for a lake or a pond. But, have you ever thought of why ponds and lakes
are located where they are?To understand why water collects where it does, we must consider the
forces that are acting upon it.The force of gravity makes water run downhill. Therefore, water
collects in low bowl-shaped depressionsin the land. These bowl-shaped depressions provide traps
in which water collects and become lakes andponds. Fortunately for us, there are many such
natural water traps or reservoirs that conveniently storelarge amounts of water for our use.
 In a similar fashion, when we look for oil, we must look for places that oil is likely to
accumulate in largequantities. To understand where oil will collect, we must consider the forces
that are acting on droplets ofoil buried deep within the earth.
A reservoir is a subsurface volume of porous and permeable rock that has both
storagecapacity and the ability to allow fluids to flow through it. Hydrocarbons
migrateupwardthrough porous and permeable rock formations until they either reach the surface
asseepage or become trapped below the surface by a non-permeable cap rock which allowsthem
to accumulate in place in the reservoir. Porosity and permeability are influenced bythe
depositional pore-geometries of the reservoir sediments and the post-depositionaldiagenetic
changes that take place.

Fig.Reservoirs occur in places where fluids tend to collect

MIGRATION:

The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of
newlygenerated hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary migration, also called
expulsion. Thefurther movement of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or
other area ofaccumulation is secondary migration. Migration typically occurs from a structurally
low area to ahigher area because of the relative buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison to the
surroundingrock. Migration can be local or can occur along distances of hundreds of kilometers
in largesedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable petroleum system.
Petroleum migrates upwards and laterally from source to reservoir by buoyancy. Being
lighterthan water, petroleum will displace groundwater and flow upwards, as well as laterally
and willseep to the surface via faults and porous overburden unless confined under special
circumstancesto become trapped and to form economic petroleum deposits. Migration of
petroleum is aided byits low surface tension, so that molecular attraction creates a film of water
around grains,whereas the petroleum occupies the central pore spaces and is separated from the
water.

Primary Migration
Primary migration is the process by which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source
rock intoan adjacent permeable carrier bed.

Secondary Migration
Secondary migration is the movement of hydrocarbons along a "carrier bed" from the
sourcearea to the trap. Migration mostly takes place as one or more separate hydrocarbons
phases (gasor liquid depending on pressure and temperature conditions).

CAP ROCK
Impermeable material to prevent further migration by buoyancy, and to seal petroleum
withinreservoir. Cap rocks are commonly of shale or of chemically precipitated evaporite
deposits suchas salt or gypsum.

Factors influences the Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

Physical characteristics of a reservoir include
a)Type of reservoir
b)Depth
c)Area
d)Thickness
e)Porosity
f)Permeability and
g)Capillary pressure.
a) Type of reservoir
Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by theaccumulation of large amounts of
clastic sediments which ischaracteristic of depositional environments such as riverchannels,
deltas, beaches, lakes and submarine fans.

Carbonate reservoirs are created inmarine sedimentary environmentswith little or no

clastic material inputand generally in a location between 30degnorth and south of theequator.
Porosity types of carbonate reservoirs include vuggy(pores larger than grains), intergranular
(between grains),intragranular or cellular (within grains), and chalky.

b) Depth
The physical characteristics of a reservoir are greatly affected by the depth at which they
occur.
Shallow reservoir— Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately
compactedreservoir rock with accumulation under an anticline or some trap. The
hydrocarbonswould generally be better separated as a result of lower internal reservoir pressures,
lessgas in solution and oil of increased viscosity, resulting from lower temperatures.

Deep reservoir— Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be

lessseparated with more gas in solution and oil of reduced viscosity because of
highertemperatures. There is often a reduction in porosity and permeability due to
increasedcompaction.

c) Area and d)Thickness

The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable importance indetermining
if a reservoir is a commercial one or not. The greater the area and thicknessof the reservoir, the
greater the potential for large accumulations of oil and gas.However,there are reservoirs that
produce substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that are not ofconsiderable size.
 e) Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of void space in a rock to the total volume of rock, and reflects thefluid
storage capacity of the reservoir.

Porosity = Volume of void space / Total volume of rock

Porosity is expressed as a percentage on a log.When used in calculations, however, it isimportant

that porosity be expressed in decimalform.

f) Permeability
Recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir is an important process in
petroleumengineering and estimating permeability can aid in determining how much
hydrocarbonscan be produced from a reservoir. Permeability is a measure of the ease with which
aformation permits a fluid to flow through it. To be permeable, a formation must
haveinterconnected porosity (intergranular or intercrystalline porosity, interconnected vugs,
orfractures).

g) Capillary Pressure
Reservoir rocks arecomposed of varying sizesof grains, pores, and capillaries
(channelsbetween grains whichconnect pores together,sometimes called porethroats). As the size
of thepores and channelsdecrease, the surfacetension of fluids in the rockincreases. When there
areseveral fluids in the rock,each fluid has a differentsurface tension andadhesion that causes a
pressure variation between those fluids. This pressure is calledcapillary pressure and is often
sufficient to prevent the flow of one fluid in the presenceof another.

POROSITY

Porosity is the ratio of void space in a rock to the total volume of rock, and reflects thefluid
storage capacity of the reservoir.

Porosity = Volume of void space / Total volume of rock

Porosity is expressed as a percentage on a log.When used in calculations, however, it isimportant

that porosity be expressed in decimalform.

Porosity can be classified into following types:

Primary Porosity— Amount of pore space present in the sediment at the time
ofdeposition, or formed during sedimentation. It is usually a function of the amount ofspace
between rock-forming grains.

Secondary Porosity— Post depositional porosity. Such porosityresults from roundwater

dissolution, recrystallization andfracturing.

Effective Porosity vs. Total Porosity— Effective porosity is theinterconnected pore

volume available to free fluids. Total porosity isall void space in a rock and matrix whether
effective or noneffective.
 Fracture porosityresults from thepresence of openingsproduced by
thebreakingorshatteringofa rock. All rock typesare affected byfracturing and a
rockscompositionwilldetermine how brittlethe rock is and howmuch fracturing willoccur. The
two basictypes of fracturesincludenaturaltectonicallyrelatedfractures and hydraulically induced
fractures.Hydraulic fracturing is a method ofstimulating production by inducing fractures and
fissures in the formation byinjecting fluids into the reservoir rock at pressures which exceed the
strength of therock. Hydraulic fracturing can tremendously increase the effective porosity
andpermeability of a formation.

Fig.Fractures in rock material

Vuggyporosityisaformofsecondaryporosityresultingfromthe dissolution of the more

soluble portions of rock or solutionenlargement of pores or fractures.
 Fig.Vuggy porosity in carbonates

Maximum Porosity vs. Realistic Porosity— Porosity can approach, in a

verywellsorteduncompacted sand, a theoretical maximum of 47.6%. In a sandstone, this valueis
typically much lower due to cementation and compaction.In a carbonate, it ispossible to greatly
exceed the theoretical maximum porosity. This may be achievedif the carbonate is highly
fractured along with vuggy porosity.

Factors influences the Porosity / Controls on Porosity

In sandstone, porosity is largely controlled by sorting. Sorting is a process by which the

agents of transportation, especially running water, naturally separate sedimentaryparticles that
ave some particular characteristicsuch as a) Size, b) Shape c) Grainpacking d) Compaction, and
e) Cementation.
a) Size and b) Shape :
Depends upon size and shape of the rock, the rock can be classified into two types:

1. Well Sorted Rock— Grains aregenerally of the same size andshape. If the grains are
wellrounded and of similar size, thenthey will not fit well together,thereby leaving a
large amountof pore space between thegrains. Porosity in a well sortedrock is
generally high.
 Fig.Well sorted

2. Poorly Sorted Rock— Rock that iscomposed of a wide variety of grainsizes and
shapes. Porosity can bereduced considerably because smaller orirregularly shaped
grains can be insertedin between the larger grains, therebyreducing the amount of
pore space.

Fig.Poorly sorted

b) Grain Packing— Refers to the spacing or density patterns of grains in a sedimentaryrock

and is a function mainly of grain size, grain shape, and the degree of compactionofthe
sediment.

Fig.Grain packing and its effect on porosity

 Packing strongly affects the bulk density of the rocks as well as their porosity
andpermeability. The effects of packing on porosity can be illustrated by considering thechange
in porosity that takes place when even-size spheres are rearranged from openpacking (cubic
packing) to tightest or closed packing (rhombohedral packing).

Cubic packing can yield a porosity of 47.6%. Rhombohedral packing

yieldsapproximately 26.0%.

c) Compaction—Over along period of time sediments can accumulate and create

formations that are thousands of feet thick. The weight of the overlying sediments
squeezes the particles together into the tightest arrangement possible. The load pressure
also squeezes out the water that occupies the pore spaces between the particles, thus
reducing the bulk volume of the formation. Compaction is dependent not only on
overburden pressure but also on the different types of clastic materials present in the
formation. Compaction affects porosity and permeability by reducing the amount of
interconnected pore space.

Fig.Sedimentation process: Layer A is compactedby layer B

d) Cementation —Cementation is the crystallization or precipitation of

solublemineralsintheporespacesbetweenclasticparticles.Theprocess of lithification (the
conversion of consolidated deposits into solid rock) is completed by cementation. Common
cementing agents include calcite (CaCO3), silica (SiO2), and iron oxide(Fe2O3). Minerals in
solution crystallize out of solution to coat grains and may eventually fill the pore spaces
completely. Porosity and permeability can be reduced significantly due to cementation.
 Fig.Effect of cementation on porosity

PERMEABILITY

Recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir is an important process in petroleum

engineering and estimating permeability can aid in determining how much hydrocarbons can be
produced from a reservoir. Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a formation permits
a fluid to flow through it. To be permeable, a formation must have inter connected porosity (inter
granular or inter crystalline porosity, interconnected vugs, or fractures).

Permeability in petroleum-producing rocks is usually expressed in units called milli

darcys (onemillidarcy is 1/1000 of a darcy). A petroleum reservoir may have permeability in the
range of a few millidarcys up to several darcys.

Permeability = ability to transmit fluids, measured by Darcys law

Q = KAD / uL
Where
Q = the rate of flow; volume / unit time (cc/s)
K = permeability (darcys)
A = cross section through which flow occurs (sq cm)
D = change in pressure
u = fluid viscosity (centipoise)
L = length of section
The unit of permeability is the Darcy, which is equal to a flow of a fluid with a viscosity
of 1centipoise flowing at 1 cm/sec for a pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere/cm. As rocks
generallyhave a permeability well less than 1 Darcy, the millidarcy (md) is the common
measurement used. For a reservoir, permeability is regarded as

Fair -- 1.0-10 md
Good -- 10-100 md
Very good -- 100-1000 md
 Most reservoirs have permeabilities in the range of 100 - 500 md. Lower permeabilities
may be used for gas production. To determine the permeability of a formation, several factors
must be known: the size and shape of the formation, its fluid properties, the pressure exerted on
the fluids, and the amount of fluid flow. The more pressure exerted on a fluid, the higher the
flow rate. The more viscous the fluid, the more difficult it is to push through the rock. Viscosity
refers to a fluid’s internal resistance to flow, or it’s internal friction. For example, it is much
more difficult to push honey through a rock than it is to push air through it.

Absolute Permeability (Ka)— Permeability calculated with only one fluid present inthe pores
of a formation.

Effective Permeability (Ke)— The ability of a rock to conduct one fluid in the presence of
another, considering that both fluids are immiscible (e.g., oil and water).Effective permeability
depends not only on the permeability of the rock itself, but also on the relative amounts of the
different types of fluid present.

Relative Permeability (Kr)— The ratio of a fluid’s effective permeability to the formation’s
absolute permeability (100% saturated with that fluid). Relative permeability reflects the
amount of a specific fluid that will flow at a given saturation¾ in the presence of other fluids ¾
to the amount that would flow at a saturation of100%, with all other factors remaining the same.
 Unit II

EXPLORATION METHODS, WELL PROGNOSIS AND ECONOMIC

ANALYSIS

Exploration:

The practise of locating or identifying the area of available sources of natural gas & petroleum
deposits is called exploration.

In the early days of the industry, the only way of locating underground petroleum and
natural gas deposits was to search for surface evidence of these underground formation. For this,
they were forced to scour the earth, looking for seepages of oil or gas emitted from underground.
So this is a inefficient& difficult exploration process.

The exploration for natural gas typically begins with geologist examing the surface structure
of the earth & determining areas where it is geologically, lightly that petroleum or gas deposit
might exist. By surveying &mapping the surfacing &subsurface characteristics of certain area,
the geologists can extrapolate areas which are most likely to contain a petroleum of natural gas
reservoir. In the process of exploring petroleum & natural gas deposits is rife with uncertaining
trail &error.

Role of geologist:
A petroleum geologist is an occupation that involves all aspects of oil discovery and
production in the field of petroleum geology. Petroleum geologists are usually linked to the
actual discovery of oil and the identification of possible oil deposits or leads. It can be a very
labor intensive task involving several different fields of science and elaborate machinery.
Petroleum geologists look at the structural and sedimentary aspects of the stratum/strata to
identify possible oil traps.
Petroleum geologists make the decision on where the location of drilling will occur. This is
done by locating prospects within a sedimentary basin. Petroleum geologists determine a
prospect’s viability looking at seven main aspects, according to the orthodox view of petroleum
exploration:

 Source- The presence of an organic-rich source rock capable of generating hydrocarbons

during deep burial.
 Reservoir- The porous rock unit that collects the hydrocarbons expelled from the source
rock and holds them inside a trap.
 Seal- The rock unit that inhibits the oil or gas from escaping vertically out of a hydrocarbon
bearing reservoir rock.
 Trap- Structural or stratigraphic feature that captures migrating hydrocarbons into an
economically producible accumulation.
 Timing- Geologic events must occur in a certain order e.g. that the trap formed before
migration rather than after.
 Maturation- The process of thermal maturing of a source rock, leading to the cracking of its
organic matter into oil and gas.
 Migration- The movement of the (less dense) oil or gas from the source rock into a reservoir
rock and then into a trap.
These seven key aspects allow the Petroleum geologist to obtain a 1-dimensional idea of the
subsurface. Some other data may be obtained via Geophysical methods. Geophysical logs show
the seismology data of elastic waves, mainly seismic reflection. This allows a 3-dimensional
look of the trap, and source rock. More data may be obtained from the mudlogger, who analyzes
the drill cuttings and the rock formation thicknesses.
Role of Geophysict

Geophysict measure the physical propertied of rock, and will detect the measurable
physical differences between rocks that contain ore deposits or hydrocarbons and those without,
the physical methods involved are seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and
electromagnetic methods.

The methods involved are given below:

Seismic reflection techniques are the most widely used geophysical technique in hydrocarbon
exploration. They are used to map the subsurface distribution of stratigraphy and its structure
which can be used to delineate potential hydrocarbon accumulations.
Well logging is another widely used technique as it provides necessary high resolution
information about rock and fluid properties in a vertical section, although they are limited in
areal extent. This limitation in areal extent is the reason why seismic reflection techniques are so
popular; they provide a method for interpolating and extrapolating well log information over a
much larger area.
Gravity and magnetics are also used, with considerable frequency, in oil and gas exploration.
These can be used to determine the geometry and depth of covered geological structures
including uplifts, subsiding basins, faults, folds, igneous intrusions and salt diapirs due to their
unique density and magnetic susceptibility signatures compared to the surrounding rocks.
Remote sensing techniques, specifically hyperspectral imaging, have been used to detect
hydrocarbon microseepages using the spectral signature of geochemically altered soils and
vegetation.
Magnetotellurics and Controlled source electro-magnetics can provide pseudo-direct detection
of hydrocarbons by detecting resistivity changes. It can also complement seismic data when
imaging below salt.

Exploration process:

Exploration Gas
Gas
processing

Oil well Product Gas

from well separation

Product Seperation
of sand

De-emulsifying

Petroleum Desalting
Storage Transportation
storage tank
tank&refinery

Types of refining process:

1) Upstream process:
- Deals with exploration of natural resources.
2) Downstream process:
- Deals with crude oil processing.
- Seperation of valuable component from crude oil. It is further classified into two
types.
 1 process:
o

Deals with unit operation.eg: ADU & VDU.

 2o process:
Deals with both unit operation &unit process.Eg: Cracking, Reforming, Visbreaking..

GEOLOGY BASICS
The earth is composed of three basic layers: the core, the mantle, and the crust. The
crustis the layer that is of most importance in petroleum geology.Geologistsdistinguishbetween
oceanic crust and continental crust. Oceanic crust lies under the oceans and isthin about 5-7
miles (8-11 km) and is made up primarily of heavy rock that isformed when molten rock
(magma) cools. Continental crust is thickabout 10-30miles (16-48 km) and is composed of rock
that is relatively light as compared tooceanic crust.

Earth Crust

The crust is continuously changing and moving because of two major forces of nature—
Orogeny and weathering/erosion. Orogeny, or mountain building, is a process inwhich the
layers of the crust are folded and pushed upward by such processes as platetectonics and
volcanism. Weathering and erosion are the opposing forces in which thesediments are broken
down and transported.

Three Basic Rock Types

The earth’s crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary andmetamorphic.

Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of molten rock (magma or lava) from
within the earth’s mantle. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and gabbro.

Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical

and/or structural changes in response to marked changes in temperature, pressure,shearing stress,
and chemical environment. These changes generally take place deepwithin the earth’s crust.
Examples of common metamorphic rocks include slate, marbleand schist.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed as sediments, either from eroded fragments of older rocks
or chemical precipitates. Sediments lithify by both compaction, as the grains aresqueezed ogether
into a denser mass than the original, and by cementation, as mineralsprecipitate around the grains
after deposition and bind the particles together. Sedimentsare compacted and cemented after
burial under additional layers of sediment. Thussandstone forms by the lithification of sand
particles and limestone by the lithification ofshells and other particles of calcium carbonate.
These types of rocks are typicallydeposited in horizontal layers, or strata, at the bottom of rivers,
oceans, and deltas.Limestone, sandstone, and clay are typical sedimentary rocks.

There are two types of weathering:

Physical— occurs when solid rock is fragmented by physical processes that do
notchange the rock’s chemical composition. These processes include wind (Aeolian forces),
water (freezing, flowing, wave action, etc), heat, and even glacial movement.Frost wedging is
one example of physical weathering.

Chemical— occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or dissolved.

Theweathering of potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a clay, is an example of
chemicalweathering.

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As a

rockweathers, it becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the removal of weathered
debris.These and additional forces and processes have resulted in the creation of
subsurfacegeological formations in which petroleum reservoirs are found.

Weathering and Erosion

The Rock Cycle

Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are related by the rock cycle, the circular
process by which each is formed from the others. Rocks are weathered to form sediment,which is
then buried. During deeper and deeper burial, the rocks undergo metamorphismand/or melting.
Later, they are deformed and uplifted into mountain chains, only to beweathered again and
recycled.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

There are five types of sedimentary rocks that are important inthe production ofhydrocarbons:

1.Sandstones
Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks composed of mainly sand size particles orgrains
set in a matrix of silt or clay and more or less firmly united by a cementingmaterial (commonly
silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate). The sand particles usuallyconsist of quartz, and the term
“sandstone”, when used without qualification, indicates arock containing about 85-90% quartz.

Carbonates, broken into two categories, 2.limestones and 3.Dolomites.

Carbonates are sediments formed by a mineral compound characterized by afundamental
anionic structure of CO3-2. Calcite and aragonite CaCO3, are examples of
carbonates.
2.Limestonesare sedimentary rocks consisting chiefly of the mineral calcite(calcium carbonate,
CaCO3), with or without magnesium carbonate. Limestones are themost important and widely
distributed of the carbonate rocks.
3.Dolomite is a commonrock forming mineral with the formula CaMg(CO3)2. A sedimentary
rock will be nameddolomite if that rock is composed of more than 90% mineral dolomite and
less than 10%mineral calcite.

4. Shales
Shale is a type of detrital sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of fine-grained
material including clay, mud, and silt and have a layered or stratified structure parallel
tobedding. Shales are typically porous and contain hydrocarbons but generally exhibit
nopermeability. Therefore, they typically do not form reservoirs but do make excellent caprocks.
If a shale is fractured, it would have the potential to be a reservoir.

5. Evaporites
Evaporites do not form reservoirs like limestone and sandstone, but are very important to
petroleum exploration because they make excellent cap rocks and generate traps. The term
“evaporite” is used for all deposits, such as salt deposits, that are composed of minerals that
precipitated from saline solutions concentrated by evaporation. One vaporation the general
sequence of precipitation is: calcite, gypsum or anhydrite, halite,and finally bittern salts.
Evaporites make excellent cap rocks because they are impermeable and, unlike lithified shales,
they deform plastically, not by fracturing.

EXPLORATION METHODS

Preliminary Studies:

At early stage there are two sources of information: the available literature and remote
sensing. These methods employ basic data gathering and mapping skills. Ore minerals and rock
types and structures must be recognized and be noted in the field. Gathering accurate location
data is a very important aspect of this work. Surface data is used to project features to the
subsurface and interpret the subsurface geology.
Surveying marks the elementary phase for oil and gas exploration. In the first stage of the
search for hydrocarbon-bearing rock formations, geological maps and satellite data
are reviewed to identify major sedimentary basins. Remote sensing and aerial photography
may then be used to identify promising landscape formations such as faults, or anticlines. More
detailed information is assembled using a field geological assessment, followed by gravity,
magnetic and seismic survey methods. Of these, seismic survey is the most common
and can be the first field activity undertaken. Magnetic and gravity methods are
undertaken using aircraft flying in straight lines and at a fixed altitude or at ground level.
 Exploration methods are broadly classified into 3 types

1. Geological Methods

2. Geophysical Method

3. Geochemical Method

GEOLOGICAL METHOD

A petroleum geologist working for oil exploration in an area where rocks are seen on the
surface focuses his attention on three or four important parameters in strata related
to hydrocarbon occurrence and are accessible right on surface.
Commercially viable tools are:

• Oil seeps

• Remote Sensings / Surveying Methods/ Tophography

• The second important point in geological method for surface exploratory methods
includes:
- Establishment of lithostratigraphic succession
- Preparation of geologic maps of the area
- Preparation of cross section geological formations
Seeps and Oilfields

A good definition of a seep is ‘‘the surface expression of a migration

pathway, along which petroleum is currently flowing, driven by buoyancy from a sub-surface
origin''. Knowledge of where oil and gas seeps are emerging is therefore a key piece of evidence
in reducing the risk on source presence in a new basin as seeps originate by leakage from buried
oil and gas accumulations (fig 1).

Fig. Seeps from Oilfields schematic

At the most basic level, this demonstrates that the basin contains a generating source rock
and hence a viable petroleum system. Most seeps represent little but detectable volumes of oil
and gas which are not significantly depleting the reservoir. Exceptions would be in
some recent onshore fold and thrust belts where accumulations have either been breached or
redistributed to tertiary traps and where the link between surface seeps and the leaking traps is
more complex. Such geology, however, is rarely encountered in offshore basins so that problem
does not arise. Confirmation of the presence of seeps, therefore especially in offshore basins, is
encouraging and in the vast majority of cases is not indicative of breached or depleted traps.

Every major petroleum-bearing basin of the world has numerous oil seeps or seepages
where oil is leaking on the surface. This is because not all the oil is trapped as it migrates up
from the source rock For the next 50 years, exploration wells were randomly drilled or located
next to seeps; a technique that was relatively successful. If the trap has been filled with oil and
gas down to the spill point and more migrates into the trap, some of the oil will spill out the side
of the trap. In this case the trap is full, and the seep is located to the side of the trap. This is why
drilling on or near oil seeps was so successful.

When oil seeps on the surface, three processes degrade the crude oil to heavy oil, tar, and
asphalt. These are water washing, evaporation, and bac- teria. Water flowing by the oil will
"wash it" by dissolving and removing some of the soluble, lighter fractions. Heating by the sun
causes evaporation of the lighter fractions. Bacteria on the surface consume the lighter fractions.
The effect of these processes is to increase the relative percentage the heavy fractions of the oil.

Surveying Methods / Remote Sensing

Aerial photographic surveys are often undertaken, especially in remote

locations where little exploration and mapping has previously taken place. Today, increasing use
is made of satellite images. Although these are taken from several hundred miles up in space,
they are able to show features only a few feet in size. Besides showing the structures on the
earth's surface, they also record information, invisible to the human eye, which can be processed
to reveal subtle variations in soil type, moisture content, mineral and vegetation distribution, all
of which can help the geologist to construct a picture of regional geology.
Satellite photographs from hundreds of miles in space can reveal the geological structure
of an area. Certain areas are then chosen for more detailed survey. Geologists study rock
outcrops and rock specimens and the fossils they may contain for clues as to their origin and
ages.
Benefits of Remote Sensing:

• The goal of remote sensing is to

• Locate surface indicators that may indicate suitable traps at depth.
• Lineament mapping.
• Thrust zone mapping.
• Micro-seepage maps of hydrocarbons.
• Stain maps of hydrocarbons.
• The remote sensing images provide accurate and visual data for directly determining
geometric shapes of sedimentary basins.

The remote sensing techniques are more effective and useful for
understanding and studying those basins in the out-of-the-way mountains and remote deserts.
Tophography:

In the early 1900s, it was finally accepted that oil accumulated in high areas of reservoir
rocks such as anticlines and domes. This was known as the anticlinal theory that was originally
suggested in the late 1800s but was not immediately accepted. Bulls-eye and nose patterns were
used to locate subsurface traps such as domes and anticlines. With the development of airplanes
and aerial photography, surface mapping became more efficient. Vertical black-and-white aerial
pho- tographs were made into geologic maps.

Aerial photography can also be done with radar. The ground image is similar to a
black-and-white photograph. Radar has the advantage that it can see through clouds and
can be run at night. Since the 1970s, satellites have been orbiting the earth at distances of
several hundred miles in space. Some of these satellites photograph the surface of the
earth in infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light and transmit these images back to earth.
 A geologist starts by looking for large structural traps. First, the size and shape of the
basin is determined. The stratigraphy (i.e., sequence of rock layers) in the basin is established to
identify potential source rocks, reservoir rocks, and seals. Structures that can be identified by
field mapping

Constructing cross sections to find gas and oil is done by correlation.Correlation is the
matching of rocks from one area to another. On the surface, correlation of sedimentary rocks is
often started with a marker bed.
 A marker bed is a distinctive rock layer that is easy to identify. Volcanic ash layers, thin
beds of coal, limestone, or sandstone, and fossil zones are good marker beds. After correlating
the marker bed, the rock layers above and below the maker bed can then be correlated on
physical similarity and their position in the sequence of layers.

Establishment of lithostratigraphic succession

Lithostratigraphic, deals with the physical lithology or rock type change both vertically in
layering or bedding of varying rock type and laterally reflecting changing
environments of deposition, known as facies change. Key elements of stratigraphy involve
understanding how certain geometric relationships between rock layers arise and what these
geometries mean in terms of depositional environment. One of stratigraphy’s basic concepts is
codified in the Law of Superposition, which simply states that, in an un-deformed
stratigraphic sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.With this data the
thickness and succession of rock column is computed. This column is used for preparation of
geological history or distribution of strata in time the thickness is also required for preparation of
cross-sections.
Preparation of Geological Maps

A geologic map is a special-purpose map made for the purpose of showing subsurface
geological features. Geologic maps portray an interpretive, three-dimensional view of the rock,
sediment, and soil units arranged by their age. The time scale is essential because it allows for
interpretation and prediction of structures and other features at and below the Earth's surface that
can have significant economic implications (for example, oil traps, coal seams, minerals) and
societal implications (for example, natural hazards, faults, pollution/contamination).
The preparation of geologic maps is a fundamental skill that is unique to the
science of geology. Geologic maps effectively and succinctly communicate the
geologic information derived from field-based research and supplemented by laboratory and
office investigations.
Cross Section is an application in Geology that allows geological features such as
formation boundaries, faults, and sand bodies to be interpreted along the planes of a cross
section by adding correlations and creating section fills.
A common diagram used by geologists to show subsurface geological picture is the cross
section. The information needed to make a cross section, such as depth, rock types, and
thicknesses of rock layers, is obtained from the rock columns of existing wells and surface
outcrops. The rock layers which are represented on the columns of several wells are joined
together to produce a view of a slice through the crust.
Picking a good orientation and location for a geologic cross section is one of the most
important steps. If there is a dominant structural trend in mapping area, picking a cross
section line perpendicular to that trend will not only make the cross section easier to draft but
will also best express the subsurface architecture.
GEOLOGICAL / SUBSURFACE MAPPING:

A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to understand the

composition and structure of geologic materials at the Earth’s surface and at depth, which
depicts observations and interpretations using symbols and colors. In almost all geologic maps,
observations are available only in outcrops, boreholes, quarries, road cuts, and the like. Within
the past 10 to 20 years, geographic information system (GIS) technology has begun to change
some aspects of geologic mapping by providing software tools that permit the
geometry and characteristics of rock bodies and other geologic features (such as
faults) to be electronically stored, displayed, queried, and analyzed in conjunction with a
seemingly infinite variety of other data types.
Subsurface geological mapping is perhaps the single most important device for
communicating subsurface geologic information. The essential feature for constructing a
subsurface geological map is a series of observations made at specific geographic locations. The
observations include the kind of rock exposed at the given locality, the elevation of
some specific correlated stratigraphic horizon, the thickness, dip and strike of the beds, and
the stratigraphic position of the rock. The data are expressed in terms of (1) known geographic
locations (well sites); (2) known stratigraphic markers; (3) known depths below and (4) known
rock composition at the depth of interest. The finished map may represent only a single stage in
the complete geological analysis. Individual maps may show the areal distribution of structural,
lithology, or stratigraphic characteristics, which provide a basis for reconstruction of
the paleogeology, paleogeography, structural history, and historical geology of the unit under
study.
Contour maps are one of the most effective means of displaying information about the
geologic structure (ie., the degree of buckling and faulting of the layers) of an area. A contour is
a line on which every point is at the same level above or below a chosen reference surface. In
most maps the reference surface is sea level. If a contour line represents an elevation on the
surface of the ground, it is a topographic contour. A map showing topographic contours for an
area would be called a topographic map.
If such a contour represented an elevation of a rock stratum (layer), then it is called a
structure contour. A map showing structure contours for a certain rock layer throughout an area
would be called a structure contour map (Figure).
 Such maps are used to illustrate the size, shape and location of geologic structures For
example, suppose you are a geologist working in a given area and you know that approximately
500 meters below the surface there is a porous and permeable sandstone layer overlain by a thick
impermeable shale. And suppose that somewhere in the area the sandstone was arched up in the
shape of a dome or anticline.
Preparation of cross section geological formations

A cross section is a vertical slice or panel of the subsurface rocks. It is made by

correlating the rock layers from one well to another. When a well is drilled, a record of rocks in
the well, called a well log, is made. Comparison of rock layers on well logs is used to correlate
between wells.
A fence diagram is used to show how wells correlate in three dimensions (Fig. 13-7). The
diagram is arranged like a map. North is at the top, south at the bottom, east to the right, and west
to the left. Each well is located {spotted) on the map. The well log for each well is drawn
vertically under the wells position. The rock layers are then correlated from one log to another.
Each set of correlations forms a panel. The panels extend from well to well to form a closure.
The entire diagram is called a fence diagram.
 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES

Geophysical Surveys

These methods measure the physical properties of minerals and rocks to suggest the
presence or absence of economic mineralization or petroleum concentration. Most important are
the properties of magnetism, electrical conductivity and density. The methods or
techniques most commonly employed by practitioners include:

• Gravity: Respond to Density

• Electrical: Respond to Resistivity

• Magnetic: Respond to Susceptibility

• Seismic: Respond to velocity

Seismic Methods

Seismic exploration is the primary method of exploring for hydrocarbon deposits, on

land, under the sea and in the transition zone (the interface area between the sea and land). It is a
method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the
properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a seismic
acoustic energy as a source, such as explosives (dynamite) and vibrators for land surveys or air
guns for marine surveys. The reflected signals are output onto a storage medium, which is
usually a magnetic tape. Once the data is recorded on the tape, it can then be processed using
specialist software which will result in processed seismic profiles being produced. These profiles
or data sets can then be interpreted for possible hydrocarbon reserves.

Seismic waves travel at known but varying velocities depending upon the kinds of rocks
through which they pass and their depth below Earth’s surface. The speed of sound waves
through the earth’s crust varies directly with density and inversely with porosity. Through soil,
the pulses travel as slowly as 1,000 feet per second, which is comparable to the speed of sound
through air at sea level. On the other hand, some metamorphic rocks transmit seismic waves at
20,000 feet (approximately 6 km) per second, or slightly less than 4 miles per second. Some
typical average velocities are: shale = 3.6 km/s;
sandstone = 4.2 km/s; limestone = 5.0 km/s.
Seismic field acquisition involves three basic elements:

I. A source of acoustic energy

Seismic “shooting” produces acoustic waves at or near the surface by energy
sources such as dynamite, a “Thumper” (a weight dropped on ground surface), a
“Dinoseis” (a gas gun), or a “Vibroseis” (which literally vibrates the earth’s surface).

II. Seismic receivers - geophones / hydrophones

III. A seismograph or recorder to collect and store the data

There are two types of seismic survey: refraction and reflection. Refraction surveys
were common early last century for reconnaissance and salt dome exploration. They
are seldom acquired now-a-days, except for deep crustal studies, because seismic reflection
surveys provide far greater information and accuracy for hydrocarbon exploration.

REFRACTION SURVEY:

When a sound wave crosses an interface between layers of two different velocities, the
wave is refracted. That is, the angle of the wave leaving the interface will be altered from the
incident angle, depending on the relative velocities. Going from a low-velocity layer to a high-
velocity layer, a wave at a particular incident angle (the "critical angle") will be refracted along
the upper surface of the lower layer. As it travels, the refracted wave spawns up-going waves in
the upper layer, which impinge on the surface geophones.

Figure-: Concept of seismic refraction and reflection (Courtesy: Geosphere Inc.)

REFLECTION SURVEY:

A reflection experiment is carried out by initiating a seismic source (such as a

dynamite explosion) and recording the reflected waves using one or more
seismometers. On land, the typical seismometer used in a reflection experiment is a small,
portable instrument known as a geophone, which converts ground motion into an
analog electrical signal. In water, hydrophones, which convert pressure changes into
electrical signals, are used.

Reflections of sound waves from the subsurface arrive at the geophones some measurable
time after the source pulse. If we know the speed of sound in the earth and the geometry of the
wave path, we can convert that seismic travel time to depth. By measuring the arrival time at
successive surface locations we can produce a profile, or cross-section, of seismic travel times.

A linear spread in which the geophone groups are arranged in a line. A split spread
with the source in the middle of the linear spread is commonly used on land (Fig. l4-8a). The roll
along technique is often used to move the geophones. After each seismic shot, a portion of the
geophone cable is detached from one end of the linear spread and moved to the other end. The
shot point is then moved an equal distance in the same direction. A shot point base map (Fig.
14-11) accurately shows the location of the seismic lines and individual shot points.
METHODS OF SURVEYING:

(a) 2D surveys: When exploring a new area where little is known of the subsurface
geology, a 2D survey is usually performed. This consists of survey lines spaced one, two,
five or more kilometers apart. This is the most basic of the seismic surveys and is carried out
during the exploration phase. It gives an idea about the lithology of the field and the presence of
any geological formations where petroleum can be trapped. In this only a single array of shot
holes are used along with receivers. It gives two-dimensional picture (length and breadth) of the
subsurface formations.

(b) 3D surveys: In areas where the larger and more obvious traps are
mapped, petroleum explorers are increasingly using 3D surveys to obtain greater definition. By
placing survey lines much closer together, a more detailed three-dimensional picture can be built.
This method is more advanced than the 2D seismic surveys and is hence more costly. 3D surveys
are used during the delineation phase of the project. The shot holes and receivers are
arranged in a bin formation which gives a three- dimensional picture of the subsurface
formations. The third dimension is depth.

(c) 4D surveys: This type of survey is also called time-lapse seismic survey. Time-
lapse 3-D (4-D) seismic surveys have been a growing technical success, and for
some operators, have greatly influenced key reservoir management decisions. This is nothing but
3D survey that is carried out at regular intervals to plan the development of the field. Hence the
fourth dimension becomes time.

STAGES IN SEISMIC TECHNIQUE:

There are three distinct stages in the seismic technique - acquisition of data, processing,
and Interpretation.

ACQUISITION OF DATA:

Land operations: The logistics of land operations can be a more time-consuming and expensive
task, particularly in mountainous, jungle or remote desert terrain. Acquisition
involves many different receiver configurations, including laying geophones or seismometers
on the surface of the Earth. A source, such as a vibrator unit or dynamite shot
generates acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through strata
with different seismic responses and filtering effects, and return to the surface to be
recorded as seismic data.
 Figure-: Onshore Seismic Survey

Land surveys require crews to deploy the hundreds or thousands of

geophones necessary to record the data. Most surveys today are conducted by
laying out a two-dimensional array of geophones together with a two-dimensional pattern
of source points. This allows the interpreter to create a three-dimensional image of the geology
beneath the array. Less expensive survey methods use one-dimensional lines of geophones that
only allowed the interpreter to make two- dimensional cross-sections.

Marine Operations: Deep water marine surveys are conducted using vessels capable of towing
one or more seismic cables known as "streamers” and acoustic energy sources
such as compressed air guns through the water. Modern 3D surveys use multiple streamers
deployed in parallel, to record data suitable for the three-dimensional interpretation of the
structures beneath the sea bed. A single vessel may tow anything up to 10+
streamers, each 6 km+ in length, spaced 50–150 m apart. Hydrophones are deployed at
regular intervals within each streamer and are used to record sound signals which are reflected
back from structures within the rock. The positioning accuracy required is achieved using a
combination of acoustic networks, compasses and GPS receivers (often used with a radio
correction applied - differential GPS).

Figure-: Marine Seismic Survey

Seismic Data Acquisition System:

A seismic survey system having remote acquisition modules (RAMs) for acquiring
seismic signals and communicating with a central recording system (CRU) via a network of
cables, other RAMs, and line tap units (LTUs), arranged in a matrix of receiver
lines and base lines. Each RAM cyclically converts analog signal values to digital, forming
data packets. Interrogation commands emanating from the CRU and relayed with strategic delays
by intervening LTUs and RAMs are received by the RAM.

PROCESSING OF DATA:

Successful exploration and exploitation programs require the best possible

“picture” of the subsurface. Thus, the subsurface data recorded by means of digital recording
equipment has to be processed to bring meaning to the data.

Seismic processing is a computerized treatment given to a recorded seismic trace / traces

using various seismic parameters so as to eliminate or suppress undesired coherent and random
noise components interfering with the seismic reflectors. A properly processed
section must be accurate image of subsurface structure and stratigraphic element at
their proper spatial and temporal position.

Processing of seismic data involves alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance
signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate location in space. Processing steps typically
include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static corrections, Deconvolution, Normal
Move out, Dip Move out, Stacking, and Migration, which can be performed before or
after stacking. Seismic processing facilitates better interpretation because subsurface
structures and reflection geometries are more apparent.

INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

In geophysics, interpretation of seismic data means analysis of data to

generate reasonable models and predictions about the properties and structures of the
subsurface. The interpretation of features mapped using a seismic data set is based
on acoustic impedance differences of subsurface material. A seismic source emits acoustic
energy at regular intervals. The transmitted acoustic energy is reflected from boundaries between
mediums of different acoustic impedances. The interface between different materials is displayed
graphically in a seismic record, based on the time it takes the transmitted acoustic energy to
travel from the source to each interface and back to the receiver, termed two-way travel time. If
the speed of sound within the material is known, depth to each interface can be calculated.

Processing, interpretation, and analysis of the seismic stratigraphy are performed within a
suite of programs designed for this task. The Landmark SeisWorks interpretation
software for e.g., enables the visualization, interpretation, and to some extent the modeling of
a large quantity of data within a study area. Stratigraphic data and surface models are displayed
within a GIS and can be integrated with other data types.

BENEFITS:

Seismic surveys are a widely used tool in petroleum exploration. They are used to get an
idea about the subsurface geology of the region and hence determine if the area is prospective in
terms of presence of hydrocarbon.

• Seismic surveys give an idea about the structural characteristics, fault

pattern and sediment velocity.

• They also give an idea about the stratigraphic traps, lithological variations
and pressure regimes.

• The survey provides the information necessary to develop an accurate

conceptual model of a site; thereby, potentially reducing the chances of drilling a dry
hole.

• Because more precise information is available, a better estimate of the project budget

And schedule for developing a field can be done.

• The seismic industry is continuously evolving through the development

of new technologies, such as single–sensor seismic recording (e.g. Q-Marine technology)
for repeatable time-lapse seismic or new depth imaging techniques. The benefits of these
technology developments are observed in the seismic data in the form of improved
resolution of thin beds, better imaging beneath salt and basalt horizon, and, in the case
of time-lapse seismic, snapshots of reservoir production, to name but a few
examples.

Gravity Methods

Gravity surveys involve taking reading about a kilometer apart throughout the
region with a device called gravimeter. The gravimeter measures the gravitational
field and this reading correlates with the density of the region. By studying the
differences in the density, one can predict which areas of the region might contain oil.

The gravity meter is very sensitive to the density of the rocks in the sub- surface. It
measures gravity in units of acceleration called Milligal. Gravity differences occur because of
local density differences. Uplifts usually bring denser rocks nearer the surface and thereby create
positive gravity anomalies. Faults that displace rocks of different densities also can cause
gravity anomalies. Salt domes generally produce negative anomalies because salt is
less dense than the surrounding rocks. Such folds, faults, and salt domes trap oil,
and so the detection of gravity anomalies associated with them are crucial in
Petroleum exploration.

Airborne gravity surveys are a more recent addition to the exploration

toolbox, and can map structures represented by density variations. The regional coverage of
aeromagnetic and airborne gravity surveys can be used to characterize entire basins,
linking together more sparsely distributed seismic data.

Gravity data are useful for

• Estimation of sedimentary thickness.

• Detection of basin shape and extent.

• Reconnaissance for structural trends.

• Detection of faults at basement level and also within sedimentary section.

• Leads for new prospects for further detailing with seismic surveys.

• Basement mapping.

• Detection of Salt Domes.

Magnetic Methods

By measuring the magnetic field, one can tell where there is likely to be oil because the rocks
that may contain oil have very low magnetic readings. The magnetic field can be measured with
an instrument called magnetometer which can be flown over an area or used on the ground.

Magnetic surveys are usually made with magnetometers borne by aircraft flying in
parallel lines spaced two to four kilometers apart at an elevation of about 500
meters when exploring for petroleum deposits. Ground surveys are conducted to follow up
magnetic anomaly discoveries made from the air. Such surveys may involve stations spaced only
50 meters apart. Magnetic effects result primarily from the magnetization induced in
susceptible rocks by the Earth's magnetic field. Most sedimentary rocks have very
low susceptibility and thus are nearly transparent to magnetism. Accordingly, in
petroleum exploration magnetics are used negatively: Magnetic anomalies indicate the absence
of explorable sedimentary rocks.

Airborne magnetic surveying has been used extensively in oil exploration, for mapping
bedrock structure and depth to basement. Capable of detecting subtle faulting and folding deep
within the earth, aeromagnetic surveys are fast, low-cost methods of covering large
areas. Salt dome mapping is another application where the susceptibility contrast between the
sediments and the salt is measurable and salt diapirs, domes and ridges can be mapped.

Magnetic methods are based upon measuring the magnetic effects produced by varying
concentrations of ferromagnetic minerals, such as magnetite. Instruments used for magnetic
prospecting vary from the simple mining compass used in the seventeenth century to sensitive
airborne magnetic units permitting intensity variations to be measured with an accuracy greater
than 1=10,000 part of the earth’s field.

The magnetometer measures the earths magnetic field in units called Gauss or
Nanoteslas. It is very sensitive to rocks containing a very magnetic mineral called magnetite. If a
large mass of magnetite-bearing rock (e.g., basement rock) occurs near the surface, it is detected
by a larger magnetic force than the normal, regional value (Fig. 14-2).

Magnetometer:

The magnetometer is a specially designed magnetic compass and detects minute

differences in the magnetic properties of rock formations, thus helping to find structures that
might contain oil, such as the layers of sedimentary rock that may lie on top of the much denser
igneous, or basement, rock. The data give clues to places that might conceal anticlines or other
oil favorable structures. Of even more value is the determination of the approximate total
thickness of the sedimentary rock, which can save unwarranted expenditure later or more costly
geophysics or even the drilling of a well when the sediment may not contain sufficient oil to
warrant further investigation. Most magnetometer surveys used now are performed by the use of
aircraft, which permits large-scale surveys to be made rapidly and surveys over regions that may
be otherwise inaccessible.
 One of the most widely used magnetic instruments is the Schmidt vertical magnetometer.
It consists of a pair of blade magnets balanced horizontally on a quartz knife edge. The balance is
oriented at right angles to the magnetic meridian. The deflection from the horizontal is observed,
giving the variation in magnetic vertical intensity with gravity.

The torsion fiber magnetometer is also a vertical component instrument but has an
operating range greater than the Schmidt instrument. It also has an advantage in that it is easier
and quicker to read. The instrument values are referred to a base and corrected for temperature
and diurnal variation and for the normal geographic variation of the earth’s magnetic field. The
nuclear precession magnetometer is another continuous recording magnetic instrument that
measures the earth’s total magnetic field by observing the free precession (progressive
movement) frequency of the protons in a sample of water.

Magnetic Minerals

Magnetic strength of a mineral or rock is a function of two things: 1) the amount of iron, nickel
or cobalt, and 2) the amount of alignment which takes place. The measure of magnetic strength
of a mineral or rock is called the “magnetic susceptibility” (Table T6). This can be measured
with a simple magnet by testing the “pull”, or it can be measured with very sensitive, highly
sophisticated instruments. The susceptibility of a completely nonmagnetic substance is equal to
0. The susceptibility of a highly magnetic mineral like magnetite is about 20.

Rock/Mineral Magnetic Susceptibility

Rocks
Salt 0 – 0.001
Slate 0 – 0.002
Limestone 0.00001 – 0.0001
Granulite 0.0001 – 0.05
Rhyolite 0.00025 – 0.001
Greenstone 0.0005 – 0.001
Basalt 0.001 – 0.1
 Gabbro 0.001 – 0.1
Dolerite 0.01 – 0.15

Minerals
Pyrite 0.0001 – 0.005
Hematite 0.001 – 0.0001
Pyrrhotite 0.001 – 1.0
Chromite 0.0075 – 1.5
Magnetite 0.1 – 20.0

Table: Magnetic susceptibilities of selected rocks and minerals.

Magnetic data are useful for

• Basement Mapping.

• Estimation of Sedimentary thickness.

• Delineation of sedimentary basins.

• Detection of basement faults.

• Detection of igneous intrusive.

• Distinguishing between volcanic rocks and evaporates.

 The interpretation of magnetic measurements is subject to the same fundamental
drawbacks as noted for gravity measurements. The drawbacks are as follows:

1. Contrast in physical properties of the formations

2. Depth of origin and integrated contributions from many sources

3. Changes in strength and direction of the earth’s field with location

4. Canceling effect related to proximity of opposite induced poses at the

boundaries of finite geological bodies

Electrical methods

The electric prospecting is carried out at the stage of regional investigation in order to
obtain qualitative data (or, in some cases, even the quantitative data) on the
subsurface tectonic framework of the area. The accuracy of this method is largely
dependent on the geological conditions (presence of highly resistant beds,
persistence of their composition & thickness, resistivity of underground waters, etc).
Therefore, the electric prospecting may produce good results particularly in case when
survey is conducted for the depth over 2 to 2.5 km, provided it is carried out in combination with
seismic exploration and drilling of key and parameter wells.

The electrical survey is suitable for use in wells drilled with relatively fresh mud. These
surveys are of the following types:

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a direct-current resistivity technique that

measures electric potentials generated by a current source either on the earth’s
surface or in the subsurface. These potentials are sensitive to the bulk electrical properties,
indicative of porosity; the amount and connectivity of pore fluid; and the pore fluid chemistry.
Electrical methods have the potential to identify fluids, and time-lapse measurements
can assess fluid movement, saturation changes, and deduce permeability.

The self-potential (SP) method is a passive electrical technique that involves

measurement of naturally occurring ground potentials. The two main sources of
SP signals important in environmental and engineering studies are streaming
potentials, due to movement of hydrocarbons through porous subsurface
materials, and diffusion potentials resulting from differing concentrations of electrolytes
within the hydrocarbons.

Induced polarization (IP) is a current-stimulated electrical method that provides

information on the subsurface chemical reactions taking place by using an electrode set-up
identical to the resistivity method and measuring the time-domain decay of voltage in
the ground from an induced electrical signal.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEY:

Electromagnetic survey methods have burst upon the offshore hydrocarbon exploration
scene over the past few years. Of the two main methods, magneto telluric (MT) surveys are at
least somewhat familiar from their use on land as a reconnaissance tool and for problem-solving
in areas of poor seismic performance, and to a large extent can be applied to the
marine environment in a similar way to their terrestrial counterparts. The other dominant
technology, controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) sounding, has featured much
less in land exploration, but more importantly behaves so very differently in the
deep water marine environment that it might as well be considered a completely separate
method.

Use of electromagnetic techniques for determining the nature of the subsurface is

scarcely new; in the oil industry wire line logging to measure the Subsea floor electrical
resistivity is a routine part of exploration and reservoir development.

GEOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES

SURFACE GEOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES

Surface geochemical prospecting is analogous to the oldest geological method of prospecting for
petroleum. It is a search for oil and gas seeps. The difference, as applied today, is that the
geochemical approach is concerned with micro-concentrations of petroleum substances which
are invisible to the eye, while the geological approach seeks macro-concentrations which are
visible to the eye.

Many seepages are the result of destruction of major accumulations of oil reservoirs. By studying
seeps and the reason for their location, geologists can see exposed on the face of the earth a great
many "type oil accumulations."

On land, most visible seepages have already been recorded and the nature of their relationship to
subsurface petroleum accumulation has been studied, if not always successfully concluded in an
economic deposit. Offshore, the situation is somewhat different. There, visual observation of
seepages has been impeded by water cover and reliance must be placed very largely on chemical
analysis of dissolved gases in the water column and the interstitial waters filling the pores of the
blanket of young sediment covering much of the sea floor. The main task now for surface
geochemical prospecting is the identification of the micro, or less clearly manifested "seepages,"
which can be determined only by detailed chemical analysis of fluids in surface and near-surface
rocks.
ADVANTAGES OF GEOCHEMICAL METHOD.

The main advantage of geochemistry over geophysics and geology is that

a) it is not limited by the type of trap in which the hydrocarbons have accumulated.

b) Geochemistry is especially useful in prospecting for stratigraphic and lithologic pools which
are not associated with easily discernable structural features.

c) It is also useful in deciding whether a previously discovered structural trap contains

petroleum.

The surface geochemical technology developed over the past several years has also found
increasing use in secondary applications to problems associated to

d)Petroleum product storage and distribution, secondary recovery operations, underground coal
gasification, and petroleum production. These applications are in addition to its primary function
in petroleum exploration.lusions.

DISADVANTAGES OF GEOCHEMICAL METHOD

a)Geochemical prospecting can only verify the existence of petroleum hydrocarbons, which may
be present either in a concentrated or dispersed form.

b)None of the geochemical methods can predict whether an oil or gas anomaly is of economic
proportions.
c)Geochemical methods of prospecting for petroleum should be used only in conjunction with all
available geological and geophysical data.

GEOCHEMICAL INDICES OF PETROLEUM

Geochemical methods of prospecting are classified as direct or indirect.

Direct method:

The direct methods involve the establishment of the presence of dispersed oil components in the
form of hydrocarbon gases or bitumens in the soils, waters, and rocks in the vicinity of oil and
gas accumulations.

Indirect method: The indirect methods are based on the detection of any chemical, physical, or
microbiological changes in the soils, waters, or rocks associated with the oil and gas deposits.

Direct method:

Gas Logging:

Gas logging is one of the geochemical methods for prospecting for Hydro Carbon. It is a
continous method unlike other geochemical methods. It records the pressure of gas in the mud in
the form of micro particles with the latest model of the gas logging unit one can have on the spot
under the very moment drilling idea about the quantitative and qualitative nature of the
hydrocarbon coming from the reservoir.

Bitumen survey

Second in rank to the gas survey is the bitumen survey. This direct method is based on the
detection of oil bitumens in the soil using their ability to fluoresce when excited by ultraviolet
light. The geochemical definition of bitumen is a natural organic substance soluble in neutral
organic liquids under normal conditions of temperature and pressure. Typical solvents of
bitumens are petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulfide, and
ethyl ether. The great majority of organic compounds which exhibit intense fluorescence possess
cyclic, conjugated structures. Since most bitumens fall into this class of compounds, nearly all of
them fluoresce.
Hydrochemical Techniques

The hydrochemical techniques are considered as both direct and indirect. The
determination of petroleum hydrocarbons in water is direct. The marine hydrocarbon program is
an excellent example of the use of the direct gas survey to water-covered regions. It is also
possible to conduct a survey of the hydrocarbon gas content of ground water.

Beginning in 1955, Gulf Research and Development Corporation scientists developed a

technique for using the benzene content of subsurface brines recovered from drill stem tests to
predict the presence of petroleum accumulations. This geochemical technique is very useful and
should be applied in the drilling of both development and wildcat wells.

In addition to benzene, there are several other hydrochemical indicators of petroleum

which will not be discussed in detail. Of these indicators, the three most important are: (1)
soluble bitumens (naphthenates), (2) iodine, and (3) ammonia.

Indirect hydrochemical indicators are the dissolved salts and ions which indicate
favorable conditions for the presence of oil reservoirs. These indirect indicators are (1)
hydrosulfides and other reduced compounds of sulfur, (2) absence of sulfates, (3) soda (HCO3),
(4) bromine, and (5) the classification of subsurface waters.
Figure 2 illustrates some characteristics related to waters that are likely to indicate an oil or gas
accumulation, and some characteristics related to waters that are likely to indicate a dry
reservoir.

Soil-salt methods

Soil-salt methods of prospecting are based on the determination of the content and
composition of salts and other mineral components in soils. At present the following types of
soil-salt methods are used: (1) chloride, (2) iodine, (3) gypsum, (4) radium. The only one of these
which is direct is iodine.

The significance of iodine in soils results from its presence in underground waters
associated with petroleum. It is reported that the iodine content correlates with the organic
carbon in some shales and sedimentary rocks and iodosubstituted hydrocarbons are actually
involved in the genesis of oil. Scientist are proved that iodine acts as a catalyst at high pressures
and allows the synthesis of new hydrocarbons.

Gypsum beds along the flanks are altered abruptly to erosion-resistant carbonate rocks at
the crest of the fold. Associated sandstones, typically red and friable in the surrounding region,
are altered to pink, yellow, and white on the flanks of the anticline and to hard carbonate-
cemented gray sandstone at the crest. Away from these avenues of leakage, the influence of
hydrocarbons on the isotopic composition of the carbonate cements decreases systematically.

Oxidation and reduction potential methods

The oxidation and reduction potential methods (Eh or redox potential) are a measure of
the relative concentrations of oxidized or reduced species in a chemical system. It is known that
a reducing atmosphere is necessary for the production of hydrocarbons. The redox potential of
petroleum-associated waters is influenced by many reduced species such as sulfur compounds.
When the water is brought to the surface, the change in pressure and temperatures will affect the
Eh, and if the sample is allowed to come into contact with the atmosphere, the equilibrium of the
sample will change immediately. This could be an excellent method with the proper technique
and instrumentation.

Microbiological Method

Microbiological prospecting for petroleum involves obtaining suitable samples of soils

and waters, analyzing these for hydrocarbon oxidizing microbes, and plotting the results on an
areal basis. Methods have been developed which utilize the hydrocarbon-oxidation activity of
microbes as an indirect index of petroleum hydrocarbons in soils and waters.
 UNIT III

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GEOLOGGING

Traps
Hydrocarbon traps are any combination of physical factors that promote the
accumulationand retention of petroleum in one location. Traps can be Structural, Stratigraphic,
or aCombination of the two.

Geologic processes such as faulting, folding, piercement, and deposition and

erosioncreate irregularities in the subsurface strata which may cause oil and gas to be retained
ina porous formation, thereby creating a petroleum reservoir. The rocks that form thebarrier, or
trap, are referred to as caprocks.

1. Structural Traps
Structural traps are created by the deformation of rock strata within the earth’s crust.This
deformation can be caused by horizontal compression or tension, vertical
movementanddifferential compaction, which results in the folding, tilting and faulting
withinsedimentary rock formations.

1.1 Anticlinal and DomeTrap— The rock layersin an anticlinal trap

wereoriginallylaidownhorizontally then foldedupward into an arch ordome.
Later,hydrocarbonsmigrateinto the porous andpermeablereservoirrock. A cap or
seal(impermeable layer ofrock) is required topermit the accumulationof the hydrocarbons.

An anticline is a large, upward arch of sedimentary rocks.whereas a syncline is a large,

downward arch of rocks. Anticlines (but not synclines) form gas and oil traps.

Most anticlines and synclines are not level and are tilted with respect to the surface of the
earth. These are called plunging anticlines and synclines
 Fig. Anticlinal Trap

During and after folding, erosion rapidly levels the folds. The pattern of an eroded
plunging anticline or syncline is lobate-shaped, called a nose.

Homoclines

Sedimentary rocks dipping uniformly in one direction are known as aHomocline.

Alternating layers of hard and soft: sedimentary rocks in a homocline will be eroded to form a
series of parallel ridges on the surface of the ground.
 1.2 Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap—A dome is a circular or elliptical uplift* When
eroded flat, a dome forms a bulls eye pattern of concentric rock layers with the oldest rock in
the center. Domes also form gas and oil traps.

A trap created by piercementorintrusionofstratified rock layers frombelow by ductile

nonporous salt. Theintrusion causes the lowerformationsnearest the intrusion to be uplifted
andtruncated along the sides of theintrusion, while layers above areuplifted creating a dome or
anticlinalfolding. Hydrocarbons migrate intothe porous and permeable beds on thesides of the
column of salt.Hydrocarbons accumulate in the trapsaround the outside of the salt plug if aseal or
cap rock is present.

Fig.Salt Dome Trap

Fig.Folding
2. Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are formed as aresult of differences or variationsbetween or within
stratified rocklayers, creating a change or loss ofpermeability from one area toanother. These
traps do not occurasa result of movement of the strata. Stratigraphic traps are created when the
seal or barrier is formed by changes in lithology orrock type (which also controls porosity and
permeability), DURING the deposition of the reservoirbeds involved. Litho logical variations
may be depositional, as in the case of reefs. channels, andsand bars. Litho logical variations may
also be post-depositional in nature; truncations occurwhere erosion has removed a significant
portion of an existing tilted structure followed bydeposition of another litho logic rock unit, the
latter forming the roof rock and thus becoming thecapping bed.

2.1 Angular Unconformtiy Trap— Anangular unconformity is one in whicholderstrata

dips at an angle differentfrom that of younger strata.An angular unconformity trapoccurs when
inclined, olderpetroleum bearing rocks aresubjected to the forces of youngernon-porous
formations. Thiscondition may occur whenever ananticline, dome or monocline areeroded and
then overlain withyounger, less permeable strata.

Angular unconformity
3. Combination Trap.
A Combination trap is formed by a combination of processes present in the sedimentsduring
the time of deposition of the reservoir beds AND by tectonic activity that occurred inthe
reservoir beds after their deposition. The geometry of this type of trap is the result of
acombination of tectonic processes and changes in lithology. A common trap that would bean
example of a Combination Trap is a salt dome. A salt dome is a mass of NaCl (SodiumChloride)
generally of a cylindrical shape and with a diameter of about 2 km near thesurface, though the
size and shape of the dome can vary. This mass of salt has betweenpushed upward from below
through the surrounding rock and sediments into its presentposition. The source of the salt lies as
a deeply buried layer that was formed in the geologicpast. Salt is an evaporite. Salt beds were
formed by the natural evaporation of sea waterfrom an enclosed basin. Subsequently, the
precipitated salt layer is buried by successivelayers of sediments over geologic time until
segments of it begin to flow upward toward thesurface of the earth.

FAULTS

Faults are breaks in the rocks along which one side has moved relative to the
other . The relative movement of each side is used to classify faults .

Dip-slip

Dip-slip faults move primarily up and down, whereas strike-slip faults move primarily
horizontal. Oblique-slip faults have roughly equal dip-slip and strike-slip displacements.

The side of a fault that extends under the fault plane is called the footwall, and the side
that protrudes above the fault plane is the hanging wall Throw is the vertical displacement on a
dip-slip fault. The side of the dip-slip fault that goes down is called the downthrown side, and
the side that goes up is called the upthrown side.

Types of faults

The sides of a fault

Two types of dip-slip faults are normal and reverse. If the hanging wallhas moved down relative
to the footwall, it is a normal dip-slip fault (Fig. 5-17). In a normal dip-slip fault, the beds are
separated and pulled apart.

A series of parallel, normal dip-slip faults forms a structure called horstand graben. A
graben is the down-dropped block between two normal faults. A horst is the ridge left standing
between two grabens. These can range in size from inches to tens of miles across.

Horst and Garben

If the hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall, it is a reverse dip-slip fault. A
thrust fault is a reverse fault with a fault plane less than 45° from horizon tal. On a thrust fault,
the upper part (the hanging wall) has been thrust up and over the lower part (the footwall).
There are some thrust faults in the earths crust where the hanging wall has been thrust
horizontally tens of miles over the footwall.

A normal dip-slip fault is formed when the rocks are pulled apart by tensional forces. A
reverse dip-slip fault is formed by shortening the rocks with compressional forces. When the
earths crust is pulled apart, normal dip-slip faults with horsts and grabens are formed. When the
earths crust is squeezed, reverse dip-slip and thrust faults and folds, such as anticlines and
synclines, are formed.
 Faulting
Sample or Lithologic Log

A sample or lithologic log, recorded on a long strip of thick paper, is a physical

description of the rocks through which the well was drilled. At the top of the sample log will be a
header (Fig. 19-1) with information about the well such as the operator, well name, and location.
A depth strip, usually along the left edge, lists depths in the well.

In the next column, geological symbols for various rocks are used to identify the
composition of each rock drilled (Fig. 9-7). The rock symbols can be colored with yellow for
sand- stone, blue for limestone, and gray for shale. Next to the symbols, the rock is described.
Rock texture, color, grain size, sorting, cementation, porosity, oil staining, and microfossil
content can be noted.
CORE/CUTTINGS

The source of information for the sample log is primarily from well cuttings, the small rock chips
that are made by the drill bit and flushed up the well by the drilling mud. The well cuttings are
typically sampled as a composite sample over each 10 ft. C m) of depth. The sample interval is
shortened as the reservoir rock is drilled. The well cuttings are washed to remove the drilling
mud and stored in cloth or paper bags. The cuttings are examined under a binocular microscope.
If oil stains are present in the cuttings, they can be verified with ultraviolet light. Different °API
gravity oils fluoresce with different colors.

A core, a cylinder of rock drilled from the well, is the most accurate source of
information about the reservoir. To take a core, drilling must stop at the top of the subsurface
interval to be cored. The drillstring is then run from the hole, and the drill bit is replaced with a
rotary coring bit. The drill-string is then run back into the hole.

The most common rotary core bits are solid metal with either industrial diamonds or
tungsten steel inserts for cutting. The rotary coring bit cuts in a circle (Fig. 19-2) around the
outside of the well and is hollow. The core is left to pass up into the hollow core bit and pipe.
The core is retained in the core barrel located above the bit (Fig. 19-3).
 The core barrel consists of an inner and outer barrel separated by ball bearings. This
allows the inner barrel to remain stationary to receive the core while the outer barrel is rotated
by the drillstring to cut the core. The inner barrel has a core catcher with flexible fingers
pointing upward and a check valve to retain the core. During coring, drilling mud is circulated
down the space between the inner and outer core barrel.

After the core has been cut, the drill string is raised to the surface and the rotary cone bit,
core barrel and core removed. The cores are usually stored in cardboard boxes. The normal drill
bit is then reattached, the drill string is run into the well, and drilling is resumed.
 A full-diameter core ranges in diameter from 4 to 14 cm) and can be up to 120 m long but
is commonly 6 to 27 m long. Subsurface rocks that are highly fractured, very porous, or
unconsolidated are not usually retained in the core barrel. Loss of core can indicate good
reservoir rock.

Sidewall Coring / Percussion Sidewall Coring :

A faster and less expensive way to take samples is sidewall coring. After the well has been
drilled, a sidewall coring device is lowered down the well until it is adjacent to the sample
interval (Fig. 19-4). A percussion sidewall coring tool commonly has 30 small core tubes called
bullets with explosive charges behind them. These are detonated, and the bullets are shot into
the sidewall to take samples. The bullets are attached to the tool by wires so that the bullets and
their samples are brought to the surface with the sidewall coring tool. The percussion method
can disturb the grains and alter the poros

ity and permeability of the sample. During rotary sidewall coring, the tube is drilled into the well
wall to minimize sample alteration. The rotary sidewall coring tool is lowered into position in the
well, and a small bit pivots out to drill the sample. The sample then falls into the tool. The tool
can be moved to take another sample.

The Samples are kept separate by discs in the tool. A limitation of sidewall cores is that
they are very small, 2.54 cm in diameter and 5 cm in long.
Drilling Time Log

A drilling-time log is a record of the rate of drill bit penetration through the rocks (rate of
penetration or ROP). It is recorded in minutes per foot or meter drilled on a paper chart around a
drum in a geolograph or drilling recorder on the drill floor. Because this log is recorded as the
well is drilled, the drilling-time log is a real time log. Changes in the subsurface rocks are
recorded instantaneously.

The rate of bit penetration depends on both drilling parameters and rock properties.
Revolutions per minute, weight on bit, and bit type affect the drilling rate. If the drilling
parameters are relatively constant, then rock proper- ties will cause the dominant variations in
drilling rate. With a tricone drill bit, sandstones have the fastest drilling rate, shales are
intermediate, and carbonates are slowest (Fig. 19-5).

A sudden change in the drilling rate is called a drilling break It occurs when the bit
penetrates the top of a different rock layer. Drilling breaks on a drilling-time log are used to
accurately determine the top and bottom elevations of subsurface formations. Because porous
zones are less dense and easier to drill, drilling breaks can also be used to locate porous zones in
a dense rock (Fig. 19-5).
Mud Log

A mud log is a chemical analysis of the drilling mud and well cuttings for traces of subsurface
gas and oil as the well is being drilled* It is made by a service company in a mud logging trailer
at the wellsite. The purpose of the mud log is to identify oil and/or gas bearing rocks in the sub-
surface. Drilling mud circulating out of the well is sampled from a gas trap in the shale shaker
along with well cuttings from the shaker screens.

A mud log (Fig. 19-6) will have a header at the top with operator, well name, location, elevation,
and other information. A depth strip, showing depth in the well, will run down near the middle of
the log. To the left of the depth strip can be a rate of penetration and a sample log. To the right of
the depth strip will be the mud log showing amounts of gas and oil detected in the drilling mud
and well cuttings.

Oil or gas in the drilling mud is called oil-cut and gas-cut mud. Any oil or gas above the
normal expected background is called a show. A more detailed chemical analysis (show
evaluation) can be made of a show. This includes a gas analysis showing the percentages of
methane (C,), ethane (C2), propane (C3), butane (C4), and pentane (C5).
Wireline Well Logs

A well log made by running an instrument down a well on a wireline is called a wireline well
log. To make a wireline well log after the well is drilled, the hole is first cleaned by circulating
drilling mud and then the drilling equipment is pulled from the well. A sonde is lowered down
the well (which is still filled with drilling mud) on a logging cable (Fig. 19-7). The logging cable
is an armored cable with steel cables surrounding conductor cables in insulation (Fig. 19-8a).

The sonde or tool is a cylinder (Fig. 19-8), commonly 27 to 60 ft (8 to 19 m) long and

sometimes up to 90 ft (27 m) long that is 3 to 4 in. (8 to 10 cm) in diameter and is filled with
instruments. Several instrument packages such as ormation density, neutron porosity and gamma
ray can be screwed together to form the sonde. The sonde has either one expandable arm or bow
spring the puts the sensors in contact with the well walls or three expandable arms or bow
springs that centers the sonde in the well (Fig. 19-8b and 19-8c).
 As the sonde is run back up the well, it remotely senses the electrical, acoustical, and/or
radioactive properties of the rocks and their fluids and sometimes the geometry of the wellbore.
The data from the sonde are trans-mitted up the cable to instruments in the logging truck where
they are recorded on a strip of paper called the field print The data are also processed later, and a
cleaner log {final print) is made.

A wireline well log is commonly recorded on one of two common formats (Fig. 19-9). A
headers the top of the log contains well information, followed by logging information. A depth
strip or track runs down near the middle of both formats. The depth is measured from below
kelly bushing (KB), rotary table (RT), or ground level (GL). On the left side of the depth strip on
both formats is a graph called track L On the right side of the depth strip in both formats is
another graph called track 2. On some logs, a third graph is located on the far right {track 3).

At least one line in each track records some property of the rocks and their fluids in the
well or the geometry of the wellbore. The caption at the top of each track (Fig. 19-10) identifies
the property being recorded. Each measurement line is also labeled in the track. There can be
one, two, or three different measurements in each track. If more than one property is being
recorded in the same track, different line (heavy or light, solid or dashed) is used for each. When
a measurement in a track goes from one side to the other, it is called a kick.

Most wireline well logs are open-hole logs, which can be run only in wells with bare rock
walls. Cased-hole logs are less common and can be run accurately both in open holes and wells
in which pipe (casing) has been cemented into the well.

Certain measurements are usually recorded in specific tracks. Spontaneous potential,

natural gamma ray, and caliper logs are usually recorded in track 1. Resistivity (electrical and
induction), formation density, neutron porosity, and sonic logs are usually recorded in tracks 2
and 3.
Electrical log

The first wireline log was an electrical log that measured resistivity. An electrical sonde
with electrodes in contact with the rocks along the wellbore was raised in the well (Fig. 19-11).
An electrical current was passed through the rocks, and the resistivity (R) of the rocks and their
fluids to that current was measured.

Two or more resistivities were often measured. Short normal resistivity was measured
with electrodes closely spaced, 16 in. ( 40 cm). Long normal resistivity was measured with
electrodes spaced far apart, 64 in (160 cm). Short normal resistivity was recorded in track 2 on
the electrical log (Fig. 19-12) with resistivity increasing to the right. Long normal resistivity was
usually recorded in track 3 with resistivity also increasing to the right.

An important factor in the resistivity of porous rock is the fluid in the rock. By measuring
the resistivity of the rock, the fluid (water, gas, or oil) in the pores can be identified.

Long normal resistivity puts the electrical current back behind the invade zone to
measure the true resistivity of the rock and determine the natural fluids in the pores of the rock.
Salt water conducts some electricity and has moderately low resistivity (Fig. 19-13). Oil and gas,
however, have very high resistivity. An oil or gas reservoir will have a long normal resistivity
kick to the right in track 3.
 Oil and gas cannot be differentiated on a resistivity log. However, an oil- water or gas-
water contact will appear as a kick on the resistivity curve (Fig 19-14). Also, if the resistivity of
the salt water is known, the oil saturation in a reservoir can be calculated from a resistivity log
(Fig. 19-15). The higher the oil saturation, the greater the resistivity. Electrical log resistivity has
been replaced by induction and focused log resistivity measurements.
 A common measurement made along with resistivity on an electrical log is spontaneous
or self potential (SP). It is made with an electrode that was grounded on the surface and
connected to another electrode in the sonde. As the sonde is run back up the well, the electrode is
in contact with the rocks along the wellbore.

When two fluids of different salinities are in contact, a potential electrical current is
created. A permeable reservoir rock drilled with a rotary drilling rig using mud overbalance has
an invade zone flushed with mud filtrate adjacent to the wellbore. The mud filtrate usually has a
different salinity than the water in the pores of the rock. This creates a potential electrical current
along the top and bottom of the reservoir rock where it is in contact with shales (Fig. 19-16).

Spontaneous potential measures the magnitude of this current to identify potential

reservoir rocks in the well. It is recorded in track 1 with positive on the right and negative on the
left (Fig. 19-17). The SP curve kicks to the left to identify a potential reservoir rock and to the
right for non-reservoir rocks such as shale, tight sand or dense limestone. Spontaneous potential
is still commonly run today. Tight sands, dense limestones, and shales have a characteristic
signature on SP and R logs (Fig. 19-18).
 Shales cause both curves to kick to the center of the log with the SP kicking to the right
and the R kicking to the left. Tight sands and dense limestones also cause the SP to kick to the
right, but they have high resistivities and cause R to kick to the right.
INDUCTION AND GUARD LOGS

Resistivity is a valuable measurement as it is the only common log that identifies the
fluid in the pores of the rock. Resistivity is commonly measured by an induction or a focused
log. An induction log uses coils in the sonde to focus and induce an electri cal current in the
rocks adjacent to the wellbore. A focused log, known as a hzterolog or guard log, uses guard
electrodes in the sonde to focus an electrical current into the rocks. The resistivity for both types
of logs is plotted in track 2 in a format similar to an electrical log (Fig. 19-20).

Deep, medium, or shallow resistivity describes how far back into the rock from the
wellbore the resistivity measurement was made. A dual induction log and dual laterolog
measures deep and medium resistivities. A microresistivity log does not penetrate very deep and
measures the resistivity of the rocks along the wellbore. Sometimes conductivity) the inverse of
resistivity, is recorded.
NATURAL GAMMA RAY LOG

A gamma ray or natural gamma ray log (GR) uses a scintillation counter to measure the
natural radioactivity from potassium, thorium and uranium in the rocks along the wellbore. Of
the three most common sedimentary rocks, only shale is radioactive. The gamma ray log is
plotted in track 1 (Fig. 19-21) with low radioactivity to the left and high radioactivity to the right.

Shales are "hot" and kick to the right. Sandstones and limestones, potential reservoir
rocks, kick to the left. The amount of shale in a sandstone or limestone can be computed from its
radioactivity on a gamma ray log.

A natural gamma ray log is relatively inexpensive and can be run accurately in both an
open-hole and cased-hole. A spectral gamma ray log is a type of gamma ray log that also
identifies the source of the radiation (potassium, thorium, and uranium). In most logs, either an
SP or gamma ray curve will be located in track 1. Both logs are used to locate potential reservoir
rocks, which have characteristic kicks to the left.
RADIOACTIVE LOGS

A radioactive log is made by running a radioactive source into the well. The radioactive
source is stored in a compartment in the back of the logging truck. The logging engineer uses a
metal pole to screw into the radioactive source and remove it from the compartment. The
radioactive source is then screwed into the sonde and lowered down the well. Two types are
commonly run today. A)

a) NEUTRON POROSITY LOG.

The neutron or neutron porosity log (NL) is used to measure the porosity of rocks in the
well. The tool has a radioactive source that bombards the rocks adjacent to the well with high-
speed atomic particles (neutrons) as the tool is raised in the well. If a high-speed neutron collides
with a large rock atom, the atom will bounce the high-speed neutron back with almost no loss of
energy. If the high-speed neutron collides with a hydrogen atom (a very small atom), the
hydrogen atom absorbs some of the neutrons energy. The neutron will bounce back as a slow-
moving neutron.

The slow-moving neutron can be captured by another atom in the rock, causing that atom
to emit gamma rays. The more hydrogen atoms in a rock, the more slow-moving neutrons and
gamma rays the rock will produce when bombarded by fast-moving neutrons. The less hydrogen
atoms in a rock, the more fast-moving neutrons will bounce back as the rock is bombarded.
Hydrogen atoms occur in water, gas, or oil in the pores of a subsurface rock. Each rock is
bombarded with a certain number of high-speed neutrons. Either the number of gamma rays or
slow neutrons is counted. The more porous a rock, the more slow neutrons and gamma rays will
be emitted and counted.
 The log is calibrated and recorded as percent porosity in track 2 with 0% porosity on the
right side and 60% porosity on the left (Fig. 19-22).

b) FORMATION DENSITY OR GAMMA-GAMMA LOG

The gamma-gamma or formation density log (FDL) is another type of porosity log. A
radioactive source bombards the rocks in the well with gamma rays as the tool is being raised. If
a gamma ray collides with a large rock atom that has a high electron density, part of the gamma
ray energy is absorbed, and the weakened gamma ray is scattered back. Gamma rays are not
significantly affected by small atoms such as hydrogen. Dense rocks have more rock atoms per
unit volume than porous rocks. The denser and less porous a rock, the more gamma ray energy
will be absorbed and less scattered gamma rays will return to the detector in the logging tool.
The more porous a rock, the more the gamma rays are able to return by scattering through the
rock and back to the detector.
 The formation density log measures the density of the subsurface rock. The porosity of
the rock (sandstone or limestone) can be computed from the density (Fig. 19-23).

The formation density log is recorded in track 2 in one of three ways. First, it can record
bulk density in units of grams/cubic centimeter. Second, it can recorded as porosity. Third, both
bulk density and porosity can both be displayed in track 2 (Fig. 19-24).

CALIPER LOG

A caliper log measures the diameter of the hole. The size of the hole depends upon
the size of the drill bit, the strength of the well walls, and the thickness of the filter cake. Soft
rocks, such as shale and coal, break off and sluff (cave) into the well, forming a wide hole.
Strong rocks such as limestones, dolomites, and well-cemented sandstones, have wellbores about
the size of the drill bit. Salt layers are often dissolved by fresh-water drilling mud, forming
caves.

The caliper logging tool has four arms that are expanded to touch the sides of the
well. As the caliper tool is run up the well, the arms expand andcontract to fit the well, and an
electrical signal is generated to record the wellbore size. The caliper log is recorded in track 1
(Fig, 19-26). The units are inches (centimeters) of diameter with a larger diameter wellbore to
the right and smaller to the left.

Caliper logs are commonly run for two reasons. First, it is necessary to know the
size of the hole for future engineering calculations Second, many of the other logs, need to be
calibrated for wellbore size to yield accurate results.
SONIC OR ACOUSTIC VELOCITY LOG

The sonic (SL) or acoustic velocity log (AVL) measures the sound velocity through each
rock layer in the well. The logging tool has a sound transmitter at the top of the tool and two
sound receivers spaced along the tool (Fig. 19-28). An impulse of sound is emitted by the
transmitter and is recorded on the two receivers. The time it takes the sound to travel from one
receiver through the rocks to the other receiver is recorded in units of microseconds per foot.
This velocity is called the interval transit time or dT of the rock.

Table 19-1 shows the common ranges of sound velocities through sedimentary rocks,
water and natural gas. Of the common sedimentary rocks, shales has the lowest sonic velocities,
sandstones have higher velocities, and limestone and dolomite have the highest. There is a wide
range of sonic velocities for sedimentary rocks because sound velocity through gas and liquid is
less than through solids such as rocks. The more porous a rock, the more gas or liquid it contains
and the slower its sonic velocity will be.

The sonic log is plotted as interval transit time in track 2 or 3 (Fig. 19-29). Fast interval transit
time is on the right and slow on the left. If the composition of the rock is known, the porosity of
the rock can be computed from the interval transit time of the rock.
DIPMETER

The dipmeter ox dip log is a logging tool used to determine the orientation of
rock layers in a well. The dipmeter consists of four arms, each with either two closely spaced
electrodes or pads of electrodes that record resistivity The arms expand in the well to touch the
sides of the well. As the dipmeter is brought up the well, the electrodes on each arm are in
contact with the rock layers (Fig. 19-31). If the rock layer is dipping, different arms will contact
the layer at different depths. The orientation of the dipmeter in the well is known from a
gyroscope. The sequence of contacts between individual arms and each layer can be used to
compute the dip of the layer. If the layer is horizontal, all arms of the dipmeter contact the layer
at the same time.
DRILLSTEM TEST

A drillstem test Is a temporary completion of a well. As the well is drilled and logged, it
is kept filled with drilling mud. Drilling mud pressure keeps any fluids back in the pores of the
rock adjacent to the wellbore. If the logs indicate a potential reservoir, a drillstem test can be run
to further evaluate that reservoir. A drillstem, usually a drillstring of drillpipe, is run in the well.
It has one or two packers, perforated pipe, pressure gauges and a valve assembly (Fig, 19-34).
Packers are cylinders made of a rubber-like material that can be compressed to expand against
the well walls to seal that portion of the well. The packers prevent any vertical flow of fluid in
that section of the well.

If the formation is located on the bottom of the well, only one packer is used (Fig. 19-34).
If the formation is located above the bottom of the well, two packers {straddlepackers) are used
(Fig. 19-35). The packer(s) eliminate the drilling mud pressure on that formation. After the
packer(s) have been seated, then water, gas, or oil can then flow out of the formation and into the
well. A valve is opened on the drillstem, and the formation fluids flow into and up the drillstem.
If gas is present, it will flow up the drillstem and onto the surface where it is measured and flared
(burned). Sometimes oil has enough pressure to flow to the surface during a drillstem test.
Usually, however, the oil fills the drillstem only to a certain height that is measured. During the
drillstem test, pressure on the fluid flowing into the drillstem is continuously measured. The
valve on the drillstem is opened and closed several times, and fluid pressure build-up and drop-
off are recorded on a chart of pressure versus time called a pressure buildup curve.

Engineers use these pressure records to calculate formation permeability, reservoir fluid
pressure, and the extent of any formation damage. The test can take 20 minutes to three days.
Longer tests are more accurate, but are also more expensive. The test can be run in either an
open-hole or a cased well that has been perforated.
 UNIT IV

DRILLING FLUIDS AND WORK COMPLETION

COMPLETING A WELL

After a well has been drilled and tested, there are two options. The well is either plugged
and abandoned as a dry hole or completed as a producer by setting pipe.

Casing:

Casing has several important functions during the drilling and completing of a well. It is
used to prevent the borehole from caving in during the drilling of the well, to provide a means of
controlling fluids encountered while drilling, to prevent contamination of fluids to be produced,
and to protect or isolate certain formations during the course of a well. Casing is also one of the
most expensive parts of a well, around 20% of the cost of a completed well.

Casing is seamless pipe made to API standards. It ranges in lengths from 5 m to greater
than 13 m but is commonly about 10m and is called a joint of casing. Diameters range from 12
to 92 cm but are commonly 14 to 35cm. Casing is graded by the API for 1) outer diameter and
wall thickness, 2) weight per unit length, 3) type of coupling, 4) length, and 5) grade of steel.
The end of each casing joint has male threads that are protected by a plastic or metal cap called a
thread protector until the casing is ready for use.
Advantages of Casing

a) stabilizes the well

b) prevents the sides from caving into the well
c) protects fresh water reservoirs from the oil, gas, and salt water brought up the well
during production and
d) prevents the production from being diluted by waters from other formations in the
well.

Types of casings

Casing is usually divided into three or four basic types (Fig. 20-5). Shallow wells can
have two or even just one casing string. Deeper wells have more casing strings. Each casing
string runs back up to the surface. The largest diameter and shortest length string is on the
outside. The smallest diameter and longest length string is on the inside. The outside string is
cemented first and the inside string last.

Conductor Casing
Conductor pipe is the largest diameter casing string 76 to 107 cm offshore and 40cm
onshore and is often several hundred feet long. Either a hole for the conductor pipe is drilled into
hard rock, or the conductor pipe is pile-driven into soft ground. Conductor pipe serves as a route
for the drilling mud coming from the well to the mud tanks, prevents the top of the well from
caving in, and isolates any near surface, fresh water, and gas zones. The blowout preventers are
attached to the top of the pipe if shallow gas is present. The conductor pipe must be large enough
to allow the other casing strings to be run through it.
Purposes of conductor pipe are to:
• raise the level of circulating fluid so that fluid returns are possible
• prevent washouts in the near surface, normally unconsolidated formations

Surface Casing
The next casing string is surface casing, often 35 cm in diameter and several hundred to
several thousand ft. in length. It prevents soft, near-surface sediments from caving into the well.
It also protects fresh water reservoirs from further contamination by drilling mud. Since
temperature, pressure and corrosive fluids tend to increase with depth, different grades of casing
will be required to handle the different well conditions.

The casing and cement is pressure-tested during a mechanical integrity test (MIT). The
well is shut in, and a liquid (water or drilling mud) is pumped into the well until the maximum
casing pressure is reached. The pumps are then stopped, and the pressure is monitored. A
pressure drop indicates a leak in the casing.
Intermediate Casing

Protection or intermediate casing can be set to isolate problem zones in the well such as
abnormal high pressure, lost circulation, or a salt layer. It is typically 22 cm in diameter. In some
wells there is no intermediate casing string. The final string of casing is the production or oil
string that runs down to the producing zone. It is typically 14 cm in diameter. Intermediate
casing is set after surface casing, normally to seal off a problem formation.

Production Casing
Production casing is usually the last full string of pipe set in a well. These strings are run
to solate producing formations and provide for selective production in multi-zone production
areas. The size of production casing will depend on the expected production rate, the higher the
barrel per day
production rate, the larger the inside diameter of the pipe. Common sizes are between 3 and 7
inch (outside diameter).
A collar or coupling, a short section of cylindrical, steel pipe with female threads on the
inside and a diameter slightly larger than the casing is used to connect joints of casing. Before a
cement job, the well is conditioned by running a drillstring with a used bit into the well. Mud is
then circulated for a period of time to remove any remaining cuttings.
Cementing
Oil well cementing is the process of mixing and displacing a slurry down the casing and
up the annulus, behind the casing, where is allowed to “set”, thus bonding the casing to the
formation. Some additional functions of cementing include:
• Protecting producing formations
• Providing support for the casing
• Protecting the casing from corrosion
• Sealing off troublesome zones
• Protecting the borehole in the event of problems

The first wiper plug pumped down the casing is the bottom plug. It separates the drilling
mud from the cement slurry. The cement slurry is pumped down the casing until the bottom plug
is caught in a float collar located one or more casing joints above the guide shoe (Fig. 20-4).

The float collar is a short pipe with the same diameter as the casing. It contains a
constriction to stop the wiper plug and also acts as a one-way valve. This allows the casing string
to be run in the well without the drilling mud flowing up the inside of the casing. Because of this,
the casing string floats in the drilling mud to partially support its weight. It does, however, allow
liquid cement to be pumped down the casing.

After the bottom plug has landed in the float collar, the pump pressure is increased until the
cement slurry ruptures a diaphragm in the bottom plug and flows through it. The slurry flows out
the guide shoe and up the outside of the casing string.

After a predetermined volume of slurry has been pumped down the well, the top plug is
pumped down the casing followed by a displacement fluid, which is usually drilling mud. When
the top plug hits the bottom plug and all the slurry has been displaced between them, the pumps
are shut down, and the cement is allowed to set for 8 to 12 hours. The wiper plugs, guide shoe,
and cement on the bottom are then drilled out.

A well is drilled in stages called a casing program. During the casing program, the well is
drilled to a certain depth and then cased, drilled deeper and cased again, drilled deeper and cased
again. Each time the well is drilled deeper, a bit is used that is at least 1 cm smaller in diameter
than the casing. The casing program defines the grades, lengths, and sizes of casing that are
going to be used before the well is drilled. The casing is ordered and delivered to the drillsite as
the well is being drilled.

Bottom-Hole Completions:
The bottom of the well is completed with either an open-hole or cased hole completion. A
open-hole, top set, or barefoot completion (Fig. 20-6) is made by drilling down to the top of the
producing formation and the well is then cased. The well is then drilled through the producing
formation, leaving the bottom of the well open. This completion is used primarily in developing
a field with a known reservoir and reduces the cost of casing. Openhole completions are
commonly used in coal bed gas wells, where the bottom of the wells are enlarged by reaming.

Currently open hole completions are applied in a range of environments

a) Low cost / multi well developments
b) Deep wells, consolidated with depletion drive
c) Naturally fractured reservoirs
d) Some horizontal and multi lateral wells

Completion of well can be done by any one of the following methods.

1. Open-hole completion
2. Gravel pack completion
3. Screen or Pre slotted liner completion
4. Cased and Perforated Completion
Open-hole completion :
An open-hole completion, however, cannot be used in soft formations that might cave
into the well and doesn't isolate selective zones in the producing formation. Because the casing is
'set in the dark" in an open-hole completion before the pay is drilled, the casing cannot be
salvaged if the pay proves to be unproductive.

Gravel pack completion

If the producing formation is composed of unconsolidated sands that can cave into the
well (a sand control problem), a gravel pack completion can be used. A gravel pack completion
starts similar to an open-hole completion with casing set to the top of the producing formation,
and the producing formation is then drilled through.

The cavity is then filled with very well-sorted, coarse sand, called a gravel pack. It is
pumped down the well suspended in a carrier fluid that leaks off into the formation, leaving the
gravel pack on the bottom of the well. The gravel pack is very porous and permeable. A section
of slotted or screen liner may run into the gravel pack (Fig. 20-8).

A screen liner has holes in the liner wall and wire wrapping around the liner to prevent
loose sediments from flowing through the holes into the liner. A slotted liner has several long
openings (slots) cut into it to allow fluids, but not sediments to flow into the liner. A prepacked
slotted liner is a liner that is filled with a gravel pack that is held together with a resin coating.
Screen or Preslotted liner completion:
Another completion technique is an uncemented slotted liner that is set in an open hole. It
is used if there is a sluffing shale problem. Horizontal drain wells are commonly completed
either open-hole or with a slotted liner. A set-through completion in which a liner string (Fig. 20-
9a) or a casing string (Fig. 20-9b) is cemented into the producing reservoir is very commonly
done today. Holes called perforations are then shot through the liner or casing and cement into
the producing formation. A perforating gun is run into the well on a wireline or tubing string to
make the perforations.

Cased and Perforated Completion:

The original perforating guns used steel bullets, but jet perforators that use shaped
explosive charges are more commonly used today. When detonated, the cone-shaped explosives
produce extremely fast jets of gasses that blow the perforations into the casing, cement, and
producing formation. The explosives can be shaped to give either a maximum diameter or
maximum length of penetration. Perforating guns are either expendable, which disintegrates and
leaves the debris in the well, or retrievable, which can be removed from the well. Perforated
completions are commonly used for multiple completions.

Tubing :
Small-diameter pipe called tubing is run into the well to just above the bottom to conduct
the water, gas, and oil (produced fluids) to the surface (Fig. 20-10). Tubing is special steel pipe
that ranges from 3 to 12 cm in diameter and comes in lengths of about 10m long. The API
grades tubing according to dimensions, strength, performance, and required threads.
 A completion packer is used near the bottom of the tubing string (Fig. 20-10). The packer
is made of hollow rubber that is compressed to seal the casing-tubing annulus. It keeps the tubing
string central in the well and prevents the produced fluids from flowing up the outside of the
tubing string.

Wellhead :
The wellhead is the permanent, large, forged or cast steel fitting on the surface of the
ground on top of the well (Fig. 20-10). It consists of casing- heads and a tubing head. The larger,
lower casing heads seal off the annulus between the casing strings and contain the casing hangers
for the top of each casing string. Casing hangers are used to suspend the casing strings in the
well. The smaller tubing head located on the casing heads suspends the tubing string down the
well and seals the casing-tubing annulus.

Surface Equipment : Christmas tree / Blow off Prevention (BOP)

Gas wells flow to the surface by themselves. There are some oil wells early in the
development of an oil field, in which the oil has enough pressure to flow up the tubing string to
the surface. For gas wells and flowing oil wells, a series of pipes, fittings, valves, and gauges are
used on the wellhead to control the flow (Fig. 20-11). This plumbing is called a Christmas tree
or production tree and is bolted to the wellhead.
 The Xmas Tree is the production flow control system and it is a system of valves which
control physical or hydraulic access into the tubing string or the annulus between the production
casing and tubing string (often termed the A-annulus). The access capabilities required are as
follows:

(a) A capability to inject into or produce from the production tubing - access is provided
through the flow wing valve or kill line valve.

(b) A capability to lower into the production tubing a wireline service tool string - the
vertical access is provided through the swab value.

(c) A capability to completely close off the well.

The simplest type of Xmas Tree utilises a series of valves connected to each leg of a cross piece.

All Christmas trees have a master valve sticking out of the lower part to turn the well off during
an emergency. The plumbing going off the side of the Christmas tree to the flowline is called the
wing. If there is only one producing zone in the well, it is a single wing tree. Two producing
zones require a double wing tree with two wings on opposite sides. On the wing a flow valve that
is turned to regulate flow through that flowline. A swab valve on the upper part of the tree is
used to open the well to allow wireline equipment to be lowered down the well during a
workover. A pressure gauge at the top of the tree measures tubing pressure. Most Christmas trees
are machined out of a solid block of metal. The cross piece
Xmas Tree possesses one major disadvantage and that is that it contains a large number
of flanges and hence a significantly increased possibility of leakage. In such cases pressure
sealing between the flanges is provided by ring gaskets.

PACKERS
A packer provides physical isolation of the casing/tubing(s) annulus above the production
zone.

Packers are an essential piece of completion equipment in a large number of wells.

The reasons for their use varies from well safety considerations to production flow stability.
Some of the more common reasons for using packers are outlined below:

(1) Well Protection

Since the packer isolates the casing/tubing annulus above the production zone, it is
designed to prevent the formation fluids communicating up the annulus and provides:
(a) Corrosion Protection - contact of well fluids containing H2S, CO2 or organic acids with the
casing and outside wall of the tubing is prevented.
(b) Abrasion Protection - since no flow occurs up the annulus, abrasion due to solids such as
sand entrained within the produced fluids is prevented.
(c) Casing/Wellhead Burst Protection - the elimination of reservoir pressure communication
prevents the generation of high annular casing pressures at surface. e.g. In a gas well where the
liquid in the annulus unloads and gas then fills the annulus and exerts a casing head pressure.

(2) Production Stability

In oil wells producing from a reservoir with a solution gas drive reservoir or where the
bubble point is reached close to the perforation, the flow of a 2 phase mixture into the tubing
string can lead to gas segregation and its accumulation in the annulus where its volume will
gradually increase until it offloads by U-tubing up the production tubing. This phenomenon is
known as an "annulus heading cycle”.

(3) Zonal Isolation

In wells designed to produce either up a single tubing string completed selectively over
several zones or where a tubing string is provided for each zone, a packer is required to isolate
between each zone to prevent comingling of production or inter zone fluid flow.
(4) Annulus to Tubing Injection e.g. gas lift wells
In a variety of completions, fluids are injected into the annulus and the completion string
is designed to allow these fluids to enter the tubing string at specific depths and at a certain
flowrate. The types of fluid injected can be chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors or pour point
depressants but very commonly it is gas injected to assist in the vertical lift process. In such
cases, the use of a packer prevents the fluid merely U-tubing at an uncontrolled rate via the
bottom of the tubing which would lead to ineffective production of hydrocarbon.

(5) Injection Operations

In injection operations such as water or gas reinjection, or stimulation operations such as
fracturing, the use of high surface pressures is necessary either to generate an economic injection
rate or to exceed the fracture initiation pressure. Without the use of a packer, these pressures
would be communicated up the annulus and might cause concern regarding the burst criteria for
the casing/wellhead.

(6) Temporary Isolation

In some cases it is necessary to provide some degree of protection across the production
zone to prevent the loss of fluid into the reservoir from a higher density fluid in the wellbore
during workover operations and well closures. In such cases running a bridge plug - a type of full
bore packer capable of being run down through the tubing, and setting it just above the
perforations would provide zonal isolation and protection.

Artificial Lifting / Pumping Methods:

In many oil wells (96% in the United States), the oil does not have enough pressure to
flow all the way up the tubing to the surface. The produced water and oil has to be lifted to the
surface in one of several methods called artificial lift. Even with a flowing oil well, as more
fluids are produced from the subsurface reservoir, the pressure on the remaining oil decreases
until it no longer flows to the surface. When this happens, the Christmas tree has to be removed,
and a surface pumper installed in a process called putting the well on pump.

Sucker-rod Pump:
The most common artificial lift system is a sucker-rod pump. A sucker- rod pump or rod-
pumping system uses a sucker rod pump on the bottom of the tubing string, a surface pumping
unit and a sucker-rod string that runs down the well to connect them. The sucker-rod pump is
built to API specifications and has a standing valve and traveling valve (Fig. 20—12).

The traveling valve moves up and down while the standing valve remains stationary.
Both valves consist of a ball, a seat (a plate with a hole) and a cage to hold the ball over the seat.
The steel ball allows the oil to flow up but not back down through the valve. Fluid flowing
upward lifts the ball off the seat and opens the valve (Fig. 20—13a). Fluid cannot flow down
because gravity holds the ball in the seat. Each upward stroke of the traveling valve lifts the oil
and water up the tubing (Fig. 20-13b). There are commonly 10 to 20 strokes per minute.

Three types of sucker-rod pumps are insert or rod pump, tubing pump, and casing pump.
The insert or rod pump (the most common of the sucker-rod-pumps) is run in the well as a
complete unit on the sucker-rod string through the tubing string. It is usually held in place by a
bottom anchor. The insert pump is the smallest of the pumps and has the lowest capacity. The
tubing pump is run as part of the tubing string. The plunger and traveling valve are run on the
sucker-rod string. A casing pump is a relatively large version of an insert pump that pumps the
produced fluids up the casing. It is held in position by a packer and has a much larger volume
than an insert pump.

The most common surface pumping unit is the beam pumping unit (Fig. 20-14). It is
mounted on a heavy, steel I-beam base or a concrete base. The beam pumping unit has a steel
beam {walking beam) that pivots up and down on bearings on top of a Samson post It is usually
driven by an electric motor but could also be driven by a motor that uses natural gas produced
from the well.
Gas Lift Pump:

In gas lift, another type of artificial lift, a compressed, inert gas {lift gas) is injected into the
annulus in the well between the casing and tubing (Fig. 20-19). The lift gas is usually natural gas
that was produced from the well. Gas lift valves are pressure valves that open and close and are
spaced along the tubing string. They allow the gas to flow into the tubing where it dissolves in
the produced liquid and also forms bubbles. This lightens the liquid density, which, along with
the expanding bubbles, forces the produced liquid up the tubing string to the surface where the
gas can be recycled.

The advantages of gas lift are that there is very little surface equipment and few moving
parts. Gas lift is a very inexpensive technique when many wells are serviced by one central
compressor facility.
Eelectric Submersible Pump (ESP):

An electric submersible pump (ESP) uses an electric motor that drives a centrifugal pump
with a series of rotating blades on a shaft on the bottom of the tubing (Fig. 20-20). An armored
electrical cable runs up the well, strapped to the tubing string. The electricity comes from a
surface transformer. The electric motor has a variable speed that can be adjusted for lifting
different volumes of liquids. Electric submersible pumps are used for lift ing large volumes of
liquid up the well and for crooked and deviated wells. A gas separator is often used on the
bottom of the pump to prevent gas from forming in the pump and decreasing the pumps

efficiency.

A hydraulic pump is identical to a sucker-rod pump except it is driven by- hydraulic

pressure from a liquid pumped down the well. It uses two Reciprocating pumps. One pump on
the surface injects high-pressure power oil ox fluid(usually crude oil from a storage tank) down a
tubing string in the well. The power fluid drives a reciprocating hydraulic motor on the bottom of
the tubing. It is coupled to a pump, similar to a sucker-rod pump, located below the fluid level in
the well. The pump lifts both the spent power fluid and the produced fluid from the well up
another tubing string. The power fluid causes the upstroke, and the release of pressure causes the
downstroke. This type is called a parallel-free pump.

In another variation, the casing-free pump, the power fluid is pumped down a tubing
string, and the produced liquid is pumped up the casing-tub- ing annulus. The stroke in a
hydraulic pump is very similar to a sucker-rod pump stroke except it is shorter.
 Hydraulic pumps can be either fixed (screwed onto the tubing string) or free (pumped up
and down the well). They can be either open, with downhole mixing of power and produced
fluids, or closed^ with no mixing. Most hydraulic pumps are free and open. Artificial lift in the
United States consists of 82% beam pumper, 10% gas lift, 4% electric submersible pump, and
2% hydraulic pump.

Intelligent Wells
An intelligent or smart well is a well that has downhole sensors that can measure well flow
properties such as rate, pressure, and gas-oil ratio. An adjustable choke on the bottom of the well
can be either automatically or manually adjusted, usually by hydraulics, to obtain an optimum
production rate.
Well Stimulation

Several well stimulation methods can be used to increase the well production rate. These include
acidizing, explosive fracturing, and hydraulic fracturing.

Acidizing
The well can be acidizedov given an acid job by pumping acid down into the well to
dissolve limestone, dolomite, or any calcite cement between sediment grains. HC1 {regular
acid), HC1 mixed with HF {mud acid) and HF {hydrofluoric acid) are acids that are commonly
used. HC1 is effective on limestones and dolomites and HF is used for sandstones. For
formations with high temperatures, acetic and formic acids are used. To prevent the acid from
corroding, the steel casing and tubing in the well, an additive called an inhibitor is used. A
sequestering agent is an additive used to prevent the formation of gels or precipitates of iron that
would clog the pores of the reservoir during an acid job.

Two types of acid treatment are matrix and fracture acidizing. During matrix acidizing,
the acid is pumped down the well and enlarges the natural pores of the reservoir. During fracture
acidizing, the acid is pumped down the well under higher pressure to fracture and dissolve the
reservoir rock. After an acid job, the spent acid, dissolved rock and sediments are pumped back
out the well during the backflusk An acid job used to remedy skin damage on a wellbore is called
a wash job.

Explosive Fracturing
From the 1860s until the late 1940s, explosives were commonly used in wells to increase
production. Well shooting or explosive fracturing was done with liquid nitroglycerin in a tin
cylinder called a torpedo. It was lowered down the well and detonated. The explosion created a
large cavity that was then cleaned out and the well was completed as an open hole. The person in
charge of the nitro was called the shooter. The technique was both effective and dangerous.
Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing was developed in 1948 and has effectively replaced explosive
fracturing. During a frac job or hydraulic fracturing (Fig. 25-8), a service company injects large
volumes of frac fluids under high pressure into the well to fracture the reservoir rock (Plate 25-1)
¦ Frac jobs are done either in an open-hole or a cased well with perforations.

A common frac fluid is a gel formed by water and polymers, organic molecules that form
a thick liquid when mixed with water. Oil-based fracfluid and foam-based frac fluids using
bubbles of nitrogen, or carbon dioxide can also be used to minimize formation damage. The frac
fluid is transported out to the frac job in large trailers.

A frac job is done in three steps. First, a pad of frac fluid is injected into the well by several,
large, pumping units mounted on trucks to initiate fracturing the reservoir. Next, a slurry of frac
fluid and propping agents are pumped down the well to extend the fractures and fill them with
propping agents. Propping agents or proppants are small spheres that hold open the fractures
after pumping has stopped. The propping agents are usually well- sorted quartz sand grains,
ceramic spheres, or aluminum oxide pellets. The well is then back flushedin the third stage to
remove the frac fluid

Drilling Fluids

A drilling fluid is any fluid which is circulated through a well in order to remove cuttings from a
wellbore.

A drilling fluid must fulfill many functions in order for a well to be drilled successfully, safely,
and economically. The most important functions are:

1. Remove drilled cuttings from under the bit

2. Carry those cuttings out of the hole

3. Suspend cuttings in the fluid when circulation is stopped

4. Release cuttings when processed by surface equipment

5. Allow cuttings to settle out at the surface

6. Provide enough hydrostatic pressure to balance formation porepressures

7. Prevent the bore hole from collapsing or caving in

8. Protect producing formations from damage which could impairproduction

9. Clean, cool, and lubricate the drill bit

A drilling fluid consists of:

1. The Base Liquid

• Water - fresh or saline

• Oil - diesel or crude

• Mineral Oil or other synthetic fluids

2. Dispersed Solids

• Colloidal particles, which are suspended particles of varioussizes

3. Dissolved Solids

• Usually salts, and their effects on colloids most is important

All drilling fluids have essentially the same properties, only the magnitude varies. These
roperties include density, viscosity, gel strength, filter cake,water loss, and electrical resistance

Normal Drilling Fluids

Though this type of drilling fluid is easy to describe, it is hard to define and even more difficult
to find. In the field, a normal fluid generally means there is little effort expended to control the
range of properties. As such, it is simple to make and control. General rules include:

1. It is used where no unexpected conditions occur

2. The mud will stabilize, so its properties are in the range required to control hole conditions

3. The chief problem is viscosity control

Formations usually drilled with this type of mud are shales and sands. Since viscosity is
the major problem, the amount and condition of the colloidal clay is important. To do this, two
general types of treatment are used:

1. Water soluble polyphosphates

(a) they reduce viscosity

(b) can be used alone

(c) if filter cake and filtration control is required- add colloidal clay to system
2. Caustic Soda

(a) they also reduce viscosity

(b) used under more severe conditions than phosphate treatment

Special Drilling Fluids

These drilling fluids are made to combat particular abnormal holeconditions or to accomplish
specific objectives. These are:

1. Special Objectives

(a) faster penetration rates

(b) greater protection to producing zones

2. Abnormal Hole Conditions

(a) long salt sections

(b) high formation pressures

Lime Base Muds

1. Water base mud

2. Treated with large amounts of caustic soda, quebracho, and lime.

3. Ratio of 2 lb caustic soda, 1.5 lbquebracho and 5 lb lime added in that orderper 1barrel of mud

4. Will go through a highly viscous stage, but will become stable ata low viscosity

5. Good points

(a) can tolerate large amounts of contaminating salts

(b) remains fluid when solids content gets high

6. Weakness - it has a tendency to solidify when subjected to highbottom-hole temperatures

Lime-Treated Muds

1. Similar to lime based mud - differ only in degree

2. A compromise attempt at overcoming the high temperaturegelation problem

(a) use less lime than lime-base mud (b) not nearly so resistant to salt contamination
Emulsion Muds - Oil in Water

1. Oil can be added to any of the normal or special muds with goodresults

2. No special properties necessary

3. Natural or special emulsifying agents hold oil in tight suspensionafter mixing

4. Oils used are:

(a) Crude oils

(b) Diesel

(c) any oil with an API gravity between 25 and 50

5. Oil content in mud may be 1% to 40%

6. Advantages are:

(a) very stable properties

(b) easily maintained

(c) low filtration and thin filter cake

(d) faster penetration rates

(e) reduces down-hole friction

7. Major objection is that the oil in the mud may mask any oil fromthe formations

Inhibited Muds

1. Muds with inhibited filtrates

2. Large amounts of dissolved salts added to the mud

3. High pH usually necessary for best results

4. Designed to reduce the amount of formation swelling caused byfiltrate - inhibit clay hydration

5. Disadvantages

(a) need specialized electric logs

(b) requires much special attention

(c) low mud weights cannot be maintained without oil

 (d) hard to increase viscosity

(e) salt destroys natural filter cake building properties of clays

Gypsum Base Muds

1. A specialized inhibited mud

(a) contained large amounts of calcium sulfate

(b) add 2 lb/bbl gypsum to mud system

(c) filtration controlled by organic colloids

2. Advantages

(a) mud is stable

(b) economical to maintain

(c) filtrate does not hydrate clays

(d) high gel strength

3. Disadvantages

(a) fine abrasives remain in mud

(b) retains gas in mud

Oil Based Muds

1. Oil instead of water used as the dispersant

2. Additives must be oil soluble

3. Generally pre-mixed and taken to the wellsite

4. To increase aniline value, blown asphalt and unslaked lime maybe added

5. Advantages

(a) will not hydrate clays

(b) good lubricating properties

(c) normally higher drill rates

6. Disadvantages
 (a) expensive

(b) dirty to work with

(c) requires special electric logs

(d) viscosity varies with temperature

Salt Water Muds

1. Can be used either completely or partly saturated

2. Weight can vary up to 10 lb/gal when saturated

3. No filter cake building properties, easily lost to porousformations

Silicate Muds

1. Composed of sodium silicate and saturated salt water

2. Has a pickling effect on shales which prevents heaving orsloughing

3. Will be 12 lb/gal or higher

4. Corrosive, expensive and gives poor electric log results

Low Solids Muds

1. Keeps amounts of clays in the mud at a minimum, whichpromotes faster and safer drilling

2. Three ways to remove solids from mud

(a) water dilution

(b) centrifuging

(c) circulate through large surface area pits

3. When clays are removed, a minimum of viscosity controlchemicals are needed

4. When viscosity and gel strength become too low, clay solids arereplaced by organic or
suspended material - polymers

5. Other advantages

(a) good for drilling with large pumps and high mud volumes

(b) always give faster drilling

6. Problems

(a) excessive dilution a problem

(b) can become expensive

Drilling Fluid Classification Systems

Non-Dispersed System

This mud system consists of spud muds, “natural” muds, and other lightlytreated systems.
Generally used in the shallower portions of a well.

Dispersed Mud Systems

These mud systems are “dispersed” with deflocculants and filtratereducers. Normally used on
deeper wells or where problems with viscosityoccur. The main dispersed mud is a
“lignosulfonate” system, though otherproducts are used. Lignite and other chemicals are added to
maintainspecific mud properties.

Calcium-Treated Mud Systems

This mud system uses calcium and magnesium to inhibit the hydration offormation clays/shales.
Hydrated lime, gypsum and calcium chloride arethe main components of this type of system.

Polymer Mud Systems

Polymers are long-chained, high molecular-weight compounds, which areused to increase the
viscosity, flocculate clays, reduce filtrate and stabilizethe borehole. Bio-polymers and cross-
linked polymers, which have goodshear-thinning properties, are also used.

Low Solids Mud System

This type of mud system controls the solids content and type. Total solidsshould not be higher
than 6% to 10%. Clay content should not be greaterthan 3%. Drilled solids to bentonite ratio
should be less than 2:1.

Saturated Salt Mud Systems

A saturated salt system will have a chloride content of 189,000 ppm. Insaltwater systems, the
chloride content can range from 6,000 to 189,000ppm. Those at the lower end are normally
called “seawater” systems.These muds can be prepared with fresh or salt water, then sodium
chlorideor other salts (potassium, etc.) are added. Attapulgite clay, CMC or starchis added to
maintain viscosity.
Oil-Based Mud Systems

There are two types of systems: 1) invert emulsion, where water is thedispersed phase
and oil the continuous phase (water-in-oil mud), and 2)emulsion muds, where oil is the dispersed
phase and water is thecontinuous phase (oil-in-water mud). Emulsifiers are added to control
therheological properties (water increases viscosity, oil decreases viscosity).

Air, Mist, Foam-Based Mud Systems

These “lower than hydrostatic pressure” systems are of four types:

1) dryair or gas is injected into the borehole to remove cuttings and can be useduntil appreciable
amounts of water are encountered,

2) mist drilling is thenused, which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream,

3) foamdrilling is used when large amounts of water is encountered, which useschemical

detergents and polymers to form the foam, and

4) aerated fluids isa mud system injected with air to reduce the hydrostatic pressure.

Drilling Fluid Additives

Many substances, both reactive and inert, are added to drilling fluids toperform specialized
functions. The most common functions are:

Alkalinity and pH Control

Designed to control the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the drilling fluid.Most common
are lime, caustic soda and bicarbonate of soda.

Bactericides

Used to reduce the bacteria count. Paraformaldehyde, caustic soda, limeand starch
preservatives are the most common.

Calcium Reducers

These are used to prevent, reduce and overcome the contamination effectsof calcium
sulfates (anhydrite and gypsum). The most common are causticsoda, soda ash, bicarbonate of
soda and certain polyphosphates.

Corrosion Inhibitors

Used to control the effects of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide corrosion.Hydrated lime and
amine salts are often added to check this type ofcorrosion. Oil-based muds have excellent
corrosion inhibition properties.
Defoamers

These are used to reduce the foaming action in salt and saturated saltwatermud systems,
by reducing the surface tension.

Emulsifiers

Added to a mud system to create a homogeneous mixture of two liquids(oil and water).
The most common are modified lignosulfonates, fatty acidsand amine derivatives.

Filtrate Reducers

These are used to reduce the amount of water lost to the formations. Themost common
are bentonite clays, CMC (sodium carboxymethylcellulose)and pre-gelatinized starch.

Flocculants

These are used to cause the colloidal particles in suspension to form intobunches, causing
solids to settle out. The most common are salt, hydratedlime, gypsum and sodium
tetraphosphates.

Foaming Agents

Most commonly used in air drilling operations. They act as surfactants, tofoam in the presence of
water.

Lost Circulation Materials

These inert solids are used to plug large openings in the formations, toprevent the loss of whole
drilling fluid. Nut plug (nut shells), and micaflakes are commonly used.

Lubricants

These are used to reduce torque at the bit by reducing the coefficient offriction. Certain oils and
soaps are commonly used.

Pipe-Freeing Agents

Used as spotting fluids in areas of stuck pipe to reduce friction, increaselubricity and inhibit
formation hydration. Commonly used are oils,detergents, surfactants and soaps.

Surfactants

These are used to reduce the interfacial tension between contactingsurfaces (oil/water,
water/solids, water/air, etc.).
Weighting Agents

Used to provide a weighted fluid higher than the fluids specific gravity.Materials are barite,
hematite, calcium carbonate and galena.

Crosslinked frac fluids that have a high viscosity to carry the propping agents when
pumped down the well can be used. Medium and hard formations are best for fracturing, as loose
formations do not permit the propping agents to hold open the fractures. A frac job using
propping agents is often called a frac/pack.

All the equipment used during the frac job is driven onto the site. The frac fluid is mixed
and stored in frac tanks. The frac fluid is mixed with proppants in a blender. Pump trucks are
connected to a manifold to pressurize the pad and the slurry and pump them down the well. A
wellhead isolation tool can be connected to the top of the well to protect the wellhead from the
high pressures and abrasive propping agents. The frac job is monitored and regulated from the
frac van.

Frac jobs are described by the amount of frac fluid and proppants used. A typical frac job
would use 43,000 gallons of frac fluid and 68,000 pounds of sand.

Hydraulic fracturing is a very common well stimulation technique that increases both the
rate of production and ultimate production. It increases the production rate from 12 to 30 times
the initial rate with the highest increases in tight reservoirs. Ultimate production is increased
from 5 to 15%. A well can be fraced several times during its life.
 UNIT V

OFF – SHORE TECHNOLOGY

IMPROVED OIL RECOVERY/ ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

Primary production is the oil produced by the original reservoir drive energy. It depends
on the type of reservoir drive, oil viscosity, and reservoir permeability but averages 30 to 35% of
the oil in place can not be taken out by alone artificial lift. This leaves a considerable amount of
oil in the reservoir after the pressure has been depleted. Because of this, improved oil recovery
(engineering techniques that include waterflood and enhanced oil recovery) is often used to
recover more oil. Ultimate oil recovery is the total production from a well or field by primary
production, water flood(secondary) and enhanced oil recovery(Tertiary), if justified by economic
conditions. A typical gas reservoir will produce 80% of the gas by primary production. Because
so little gas is left in the depleted reservoir, gas fields are plugged and abandoned after primary
production.

Waterflood :

A water flood involves injecting water through injection wells (Fig. 27-1) into the
depleted oil reservoir It can be initiated either before or after the reservoir drive has been fully
depleted. The water sweeps some of the remaining oil through the reservoir to producing wells.
A water flood can recover 5 to 50% of the remaining oil in place.
 The injected water is often oilfield brine from the separators but can also be water from
other sources that has been treated. The injected water must be compatible with the producing
formations and not cause reactions that decrease the permeability of the formation being flooded.
Suspended solids that can plug the pores are removed from the injection water by filtration.

Organic matter and bacteria that produce slimes are neutralized by biocides. Oxygen is
removed from the water to prevent corrosion. The water is either pumped under pressure down
the well or is fed by gravity from storage tanks on a higher elevation such as a hill. The injection
wells can be either drilled or converted from producing wells.

Waterfloods are described by the aerial pattern of the wells and are either spot or line
drives. The common five-spot pattern has four water-injecting wells located at the corners of a
square with a producing well at the center (Fig. 27—2a), The pattern is repeated in the field so
that four injection wells surround each producing well and four producing wells surround each
injection well. A seven-spot pattern has six injector wells surrounding a producer (Fig. 27-2b);
whereas an inverted seven-spot pattern has six producer wells surrounding an injector (Fig. 27-
2c).

A line drive has alternating lines of producers and injectors and can be either direct (Fig.
27—2d) or staggered (Fig. 27-2e). An edge waterflood uses injection wells along the margin of
the field.
 The injected water drives oil up and toward the producing wells in the center. The
waterflood usually becomes uneconomical and is abandoned when the water cut reaches 90 to
99%. Waterfloods are most effective in solution- gas drive reservoirs where there is relatively
little primary production.

In many oilfields, however, the reservoir is not homogenous, and the waterflood is not
efficient. Fluids such as water will always flow along the route of least resistance. A reservoir
rock might have a zone of high permeability, such as a well-sorted bed of sandstone or a porous
or fractured zone in limestone. As the water sweeps through the reservoir, the injected water
flows fastest through the most permeable zone (a thief zone) and reaches the producing well to
cause a breakthrough. Once a breakthrough occurs, the rest of the water will tend to flow
through that permeable zone bypassing oil in the less permeable portions of the reservoir. The
sooner the water breaks through, the less efficient the waterflood.

Gravity also affects waterflooding. Because the water is heavier than oil, water tends to
flow furthest along the bottom of the reservoir because of gravity segregation. This leaves oil
untouched in the top of the reservoir.

In one variation of a waterflood, heated water is injected to make the oil more fluid. The
water can also be treated with polymers (long, chain-like, high-weight molecules) that increase
the viscosity of the water. Alkaline or caustic flooding uses an alkaline chemical such as sodium
hydroxide mixed with the injected water. The chemicals react with the oil in the reservoir to
improve the amount of recovery.

Enhanced Oil Recovery

During enhanced oil recovery (EOR), substances that are not naturally found in the reservoir are
injected into the reservoir. Enhanced oil recovery includes Thermal, Chemical, and Gas
miscible Processes. It can be initiated after either primary production or water flooding.

Miscible Gas Drive

A gas miscible process involves injecting a gas into the reservoir that dis- solves in the oil. Inert
gas injection uses either Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen, or Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).

The injected gas

a) Should not corrode metal equipment in the well,
b) Should not mix with natural gas in the reservoir to form an explosive combination,
c) Should be relatively inexpensive.
 During a carbon dioxide flood, carbon dioxide gas is usually brought to the project by
pipeline from carbon dioxide wells or trucked in as a liquid. Large, natural reservoirs of carbon
dioxide gas occur in many areas. It is also available as a byproduct of power, chemical and
fertilizer plants, and coal gasification. When carbon dioxide is injected into the reservoir, it is
miscible with the oil (dissolving in the oil), making the oil more fluid. The carbon dioxide gas
then pushes the fluid oil through the reservoir toward producing wells. It can often recover about
35% of the remaining oil.
Because of the very low viscosity of the carbon dioxide, it tends to finger and break
through to producing wells leaving unswept areas in the reservoir. To prevent this, alternating
volumes of water and gas can be injected into the reservoir in a water-alternating-gas (WAG)
process.
Liquefied petroleum gas is also miscible with oil and is used in a LPG drive. The source
of the LPG (propane, or propane-butane mixture) is usually wet gas.
Under some reservoir conditions, nitrogen is used to flood the reservoir.
Chemical Flood
A chemical flood is a process in which different fluids are injected into the depleted
reservoir in separate batches (slugs). The fluids, each serving a different purpose, move as
separate fronts from the injection wells, through the reservoir rock toward the producing wells
(Fig. 27-3).
 In a rnicellar-polymer flood, a slug of reservoir water is first injected to condition the
reservoir as it moves ahead of other slugs of injected chemicals. Next, a slug of surfactant
solution is injected into the reservoir. The surfactant acts as a detergent, reducing the surface
tension of the oil and washing the oil out of the reservoir pore spaces. The oil forms small
droplets suspended in the water called a microemulsion. The next slug is water thickened by
polymers. Pressure on the polymer water from the injection well drives the surfactant and oil
microemulsion front ahead through the reservoir rock toward producing wells (Fig. 27-3).

A chemical flood can be used only for sandstone reservoirs because carbonates absorb
the surfactants. It can recover about 40% of the remaining oil but is an expensive process.

Thermal Recovery
Thermal recovery techniques utilize heat to make heavy oil (< 20°API) more fluid for
recovery. Cyclic steam injection or the ‘huff and puff" method uses single wells to inject steam
into the heavy oil reservoir for a period of time such as two weeks during the injection
period'(Fig, 27-4a). During the following soak period, the well is shut in for several days to allow
the steam to heat the heavy oil and make it more fluid. The same well is then used to produce the
heated heavy oil with a sucker-rod pump during the production period for a similar period of
time to the injection period (Fig. 27-4b).Steam injection and pumping are alternated for up to 20
cycles until it becomes ineffective.
 A steamflood or steam drive uses both injection and production wells. The superheated
steam in pumped down injection wells into a heavy oil reservoir. The steam heats the heavy oil
to greatly reduce its viscosity. As the steam gives up its heat, it condenses into hot water that
drives the oil toward producing wells. The pattern of injection and producing wells in a steam
flood is similar to that of a waterflood but are very closely spaced. The recovery will vary
between 25 to 65% of the oil in place.

A fireflood or in situ combustion involves setting the subsurface oil on fire. If the well is
shallow, the fire can be started with either a phosphorous bomb or a gas burner lowered down
the well. Pumping air into the reservoir to start the fire by spontaneous combustion works in
deeper reservoirs. Once the oil is burning, large volumes of air must by injected into the reservoir
to sustain the fire. Air pumping is a large expense in a fireflood and increases with depth of the
producing formation as more and bigger compressors are required.

The fire generates heat, causing the oil to become more fluid. The large volume of hot
gasses generated by the fire drives the heated oil toward producing wells (Fig. 27-5). A fireflood
will fail if there is not enough oil in place to sustain the fire.

The most common fireflood is forward combustion in which the fire and injected air originate at
the injection well. The oil flows toward the producing wells. In dry combustion, only air is
injected. In wet combustion or combination of forward combustion and waterflooding
(COFCAW), water and air are injected either together or alternately. The generated steam from
water helps drive the oil.
 The recovery from a fireflood can be 30 to 40% of the oil in place. Corrosion of
equipment is a problem because of the high temperatures and corrosive gasses that are generated.
Time-lapse seismic methods can be used to trace the movement of the subsurface fire front.

DRILLING PROBLEMS

There are two outcomes after drilling and testing a well. The well could be a dry hole that
did not encounter commercial amount of gas and oil and is plugged and abandoned. The well
could also encounter commercial amounts of gas and oil and be completed as a producer.

Problems While Drilling:

Fishing:
A common drilling problem is that something breaks in or falls down the well during drilling.
For example, the drillstring twists off and falls to bottom. A cone can break off the tricone bit or
a tool such as a pipe wrench falls from the rig floor into the well. This is called a fish or junk
and can not be drilled with a normal drill bit. Drilling is suspended and special tools called
fishing tools are leased from a service company to grapple for the fish in a process called fishing.

Stuck Pipe:
The drillstring can become stuck in a well due to either mechanical problems or
differential wall pipe sticking. This is called stuck pipe. During differential wall pipe sticking,
the drillpipe adheres to the well walls due to suction.

The driller first tries to free the pipe by sudden jarring. The impact can be provided by a
jar in the drillstring. A lubricant called a spotting fluid, often a mixture of diesel or mineral oil
and a surfactant, can be applied along the well walls. The drilling mud can also be made lighter
to decrease the suction.

Mechanical pipe sticking is often caused by a dogleg in the well. A dog

Leg is any deviation in the well greater than 3° per 100 ft. (30 m). Doglegs are caused by dipping
hard rock layers or a change in the weight on the bit during drilling. A dogleg can result in
keyseating, the formation of a well- bore cross section in the form of a key hole. lt is caused by
the drillpipe abrading a groove in the side of the well that is smaller that the hole drilled by the
bit. Larger diameter drill collars cannot pass through the key seat. the well has to be enlarged by
reamers.
Sloughing Shale :
Sloughing shale is soft shale along the wellbore that adsorbs water from the drilling mud.
It expands out into the well and falls to the bottom of the well in large balls that are not easily
removed by the drilling mud. Chemicals such as potassium salts added to the drilling mud or oil-
base drilling muds are used to inhibit sloughing shales.

Lost Circulation :
If a very porous, cavernous or highly fractured zone is encountered while drilling, an
excessive amount of drilling mud is lost to that zone during lost circulation. The zone is called a
thief or lost circulation zone. A pill of lost circulation additive or control agent can be mixed
with the drilling mud and pumped down the well to clog up the lost circulation zone.

Lost circulation additives are fibers, flakes, granular masses, or mixtures. They include
ground pecan hulls, redwood and cedar shavings, hay, pig hairs, shredded leather, mica flakes,
laminated plastic, cellophane, sugar cane hulls, ground pecan nut hulls, ground coal, ground
tires, and asbestos. After the lost circulation zone has been drilled, it can be isolated by running
and cementing a string of protection casing into the well

Formation Damage :
When drilling a well with overbalance, part of the drilling mud liquid with some fines
called mud filtrate is forced into any permeable rock adjacent to the wellbore. The mud filtrate
can decrease or destroy the permeability of a reservoir rock near the wellbore {formation damage
or skin damage). Formation damage in a well can be treated by well stimulation such as
acidizing (wash job) or hydraulic fracturing.

Formation damage can be prevented by drilling the formation using brine (very salty
water) or an oil-base, emulsion or synthetic-base drilling mud. It can also be avoided by drilling
with a light-weight drilling mud that exerts less pressure than formation pressure {underbalance
drilling). The well can be drilled faster using underbalanced drilling but it will not prevent fluids
from flowing out of the rocks and into the well. To maintain pressure control during
underbalanced drilling, a rotating control head is used on the rotating table.

It has a rotating inner seal assembly that fits around the kelly in a stationary outer
housing. Underbalanced drilling is usually done only during part of the entire drilling operation.
The well has to be killed by filling with heavier drilling mud before tripping out when drilling
with underbalance.

Corrosive Gasses :
In some areas, corrosive gasses such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) can flow out of the rocks and into the well as it is being drilled. These gasses can weaken
the steel drillstring and cause hydrogen sulfide embrittlement To prevent corrosion, a drillstring
made of more resistant and expensive steel can be used, and chemicals can be added to the
drilling mud.

Abnormal High Pressure:

Unexpected abnormal high pressure in the subsurface can cause a blowout, an
uncontrolled flow of fluids up the well. Natural gas flowing out the well can catch fire, causing
the loss of the drilling rig. Abnormal high pressure is fluid pressure that is higher than expected
hydrostatic pressure for that depth (Fig. 17-2). The drilling mud pressure may not be able to
contain the formation fluids. Fluids flow out of the subsurface rocks into the well in what is
called a kick As the water, gas, or oil flows into the well, it mixes with the drilling mud, causing
it to become even lighter and exert less pressure on the bottom of the well. The diluted drilling
mud is called gas cut, water cut, and oil cut, A kick and possible blowout can be detected by
several different methods during drilling. As subsurface fluids flow into the well during a kick,
more fluids will be flowing out of the top of the well than are being pumpedinto the well.

The sudden increase of fluid flow out of the well and the rise of fluid level in the mud pit
are detected by an instrument called a pit-volume totalizer. The pit-volume totalizer uses floats in
the mud tanks to continuously monitor and record drilling mud volume. It sounds an alarm if the
mud volume decreases due to lost circulation or increases due to a kick.

The drilling mud can also be continuously monitored for sudden changes in weight,
temperature, or electrical resistivity that would indicate the mud is being cut by subsurface
fluids. Another detection method is based n the principle that shale should become more dense
and less porous with depth as it is compacted. The density and porosity of shale can be
determined from both well cuttings and well logs. If the shale density increase and porosity
decrease are less than predicted from computations based on normal conditions, abnormally high
pressures can be expected.

The drilling rate of penetration also increases in undercompacted shales. Abnormal high
pressures often occur in isolated reservoirs of limited
extent. As a reservoir of large, aerial extent is buried in the subsurface, it reacts to increased
overburden pressure by compacting. The reservoir compacts by decreasing porosity and
squeezing some of the fluids out of the pore spaces.

This maintains normal, hydrostatic pressure. If the reservoir is isolated and limited in
extent, such as encased in shale or cut by sealing faults, it cannot compact because fluids cannot
be expelled from the reservoir. The pressure on the overlying rocks is then transferred to the
pressure on the fluids.
EOR TECHNIQUES:

CHEMICAL FLOODING PROCESS

Introduction
New discoveries of conventional oil fields are declining while demand for oil is estimated
to increase approximately 1.5% per year. Water flood is commonly used as an economic and
effective method in secondary recovery after primary methods have been exhausted. Many of
sandstone or carbonate reservoirs have low primary and waterflood recovery due to poor sweep
efficiency as the result of bypassed or unswept oil. In general, water flood still leaves 50-70% oil
in the formation and oil cannot be further removed without the use of chemical, thermal or gas
injection processes.
Chemical processes have been shown to be effective in recovering unswept oil by
improving the mobility ratio (polymer flooding), or by reducing residual oil saturation (micellar
or surfactant polymer flooding (SP), alkaline/surfactant/polymer (ASP)). Parameters such as
mineralogy, permeability and viscosity ranges, temperature, salinity, have an impact on the
feasibility of the process and also on the economics.
Polymer flooding is the most important EOR process, improving the water-oil mobility
ratio. The polymers act basically increasing the viscosity of the injected water and reducing the
swept zone permeability, allowing an increase in the vertical and areal sweep efficiency of the
water injection, and, consequently, increasing the oil recovery. The polymer is almost always
hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM). Economic and technical successes are reported for
polymer floods in both sandstones and carbonates.
Processes using surfactant are classified as SP (Surfactant-Polymer), MP (Micellar-
Polymer) and ASP (Alkaline Surfactant Polymer). Basically, the method consists in injecting the
surface-active agent (surfactant) to reduce the interfacial tension and mobilize the residual oil
saturation The addition of an alkaline agent increases the process efficiency by decreasing the
surfactant retention. Additional surface active agents may be produced in the case of acidic
crude.
The ASP method can be applied as an improved waterflooding with large slug of low
surfactant concentration. Chemicals used in the ASP flood are an alkali (NaOH or Na2CO3), a
surfactant and a polymer. The alkali washes residual oil from the reservoir mainly by reducing
interfacial tension between the oil and the water. The surfactant is mixed with the alkali and
enhances the ability of the alkaline to lower interfacial tension. The polymer injected after the
AS slug is added to improve sweep efficiency.

Chemical flooding,
An EOR processes involve injection of specific liquid chemicals such as surfactants and
alkaline agents. They also require phase-behaviour properties that results in decrease in
interfacial tension (IFT) between the displacing liquid and oil. The process has the potential to
increase both microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiency due presence of polymer
mobility buffer.
Chemical flooding is further subdivided into
I. Polymer Flooding,

II. Surfactant Flooding,

III. Alkaline Flooding,

IV. Miscellar Flooding,

V. Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymer (Asp) Flooding.

Surfactant Flooding
Surfactant flooding represents one of the most promising methods in EOR, to recover the
capillary trapped residual oil after water flooding. These microscopic oil droplets usually
constitute more than half the residual oil. By the injection of surfactant solution, the residual oil
can be mobilized through a strong reduction in the interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and
water. The addition of an alkaline agent increases the process efficiency by decreasing the
surfactant retention. Additional surface active agents may be produced in the case of acidic
crude.

Interfacial tension
Low interfacial tension (IFT) between crude oil and water is significant for successful
enhanced oil recovery by surfactant flooding. Generally, main requirement of alkaline/surfactant
processes is targeting of ultralow interfacial tensions. For this purpose, the right surfactant
should be selected and evaluated at low and economic concentrations. On the other hand,
maintaining low IFT during the displacement process is a critical challenge because of dilution
and adsorption effects in the reservoir. Consequently, oil displacement efficiency will be handled
by IFT change from the static equilibrium value. The effect of changing IFT on the in-situ
behavior of given oil/brine system was studied by carrying out IFT measurements with two
surfactants using pre-equilibrated oil/brine/surfactant solutions.

Structure of Surfactant
Hydrophilic head group and a lipophilic tail together contains surfactant molecule. The
head refers to the solubilizing group – the lyophilic or hydrophilic group in aqueous systems and
the tail refers to the lyophobic or hydrophobic group in water. The whole molecule is called an
amphiphile telling a dual-nature which makes the surfactant reside at the interface between
the aqueous and organic phases, lowering the interfacial tension.

Surfactants types and some materials

During surfactant flooding process general types and some materials in use are follows:
  Anionic Surfactants
 Non-Ionic Surfactants
 Solubilizer
 Chelating Agent
 Cosolvents
 Polymer
 Large Hydrophobe Surfactants
 Hydrophobes

Classification of surfactants
Surfactants are classified to some specific types in terms of Ionic nature of surfactants.
These species are anionic, nonionic, cationic and amphoteric chemicals. Description for each
group is given below.
Anionic
The charge on the molecular head group can be negative, positive and neutral. Anionic
surfactants are defined due to negative charge on the head group. This kind of chemicals have
some specifications such as stability, reducing IFT, low adsorption character. That is why they
can be considered effective chemical EOR components. Some examples can be shown as anionic
surfactants like carboxyl (RCOO-M+) and sulfonate (RS03-M+)
Cationic
Cationic surfactants have positive charge compared to anionic surfactants. Addition of
cationic surfactants to polymer flooding can increase efficiency by changing wettability.
Nonionic
Due to neutral charge on the head group some surfactant types are called nonionic. For
salinity stability analyses nonionic surfactants are highly used
Amphoterics
Amphoterics class consists of two or more of the other classes. The composition of these
surfactants can be mixture of anionic, cationic and others.

Polymer Flooding
Polymer flooding is an enhanced oil recovery method that uses polymer solutions to
increase oil recovery by increasing the viscosity of the displacing water to decrease the water/oil
mobility ratio. During polymer flooding, a water-soluble polymer is added to the injected water
in order to increase water viscosity. Depending on the type of polymer used, the effective
permeability to water can be reduced in the swept zones to different degrees. It is believed that
polymer flooding cannot reduce the Sor, but it is still an efficient way to reach the Sor more
quickly or/and more economically. Adding a water-soluble polymer to the water-flood allows the
water to move through more of the reservoir rock, resulting in a larger percentage of oil
recovery. Polymer gel is also used to shut off high-permeability zones. In the process, the
volumetric sweep is improved, and the oil is more effectively produced. Often, infectivity is one
of the critical factors. The polymer solution should therefore be a non- Newtonian and shear
thinning fluid, i.e., the viscosity of the fluid decreases with increasing shear rate.
There are three potential ways in which polymer flooding makes the oil recovery process more
efficient:
 Through the effects of polymers on fractional flow.
 By decreasing the water/oil mobility ratio.
 By diverting injected water from zones that have been swept.

The most important preconditions for polymer flooding are reservoir temperature and the
chemical properties of reservoir water. At high temperature or with high salinity in reservoir
water, the polymer cannot be kept stabile, and polymer concentration will lose most of its
viscosity.

Polymer Types
Polymer is a term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units and
repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds. The term is derived from the Greek
words: polys meaning many, and “meros” meaning parts. The key feature that distinguishes
polymers form other molecules is the repetition of many identical, similar, or complementary
molecular units. There are mainly two types of polymers which might be effective in reduction
of mobility ratio:

Polyacrylamides- condensation polymers and their performance depend on the molecular

weight and degree of hydrolysis. When partially hydrolyzed, some of the acryl amide is replaced
by or converted into acrylic acid. This tends to increase the viscosity of fresh water but reduces
the viscosity of hard waters. Polyacrylamides can absorb many times of its mass in water while
ionic substances like salt cause the polymer to release some of its water. They are relatively
cheap, develop good viscosities in fresh water, and adsorb on the rock surface to give a long-
term permeability reduction. The main disadvantages are their tendency to shear degradation at
high flow rates, and their poor performance in high salinity brine.

Biopolymers- A biopolymers are derived from a fermentation process. It has a smaller molecular
weight than polyacrylamide. Its molecular structure gives the molecule great stiffness, a
characteristic that gives the biopolymer excellent viscosifying power in high salinity water.
However, they have less viscosifying power than polyacrylamide in fresh waters. They have
good viscosifying power in high salinity water and good resistance to shear degradation. Also,
they are not retained on the rock surface and thus easily propagate into the formation than
polyacrylamide, which can reduce the amount of polymer required for a flood. One of the key
parameters which need to be considered in polymer selection are:
• Injectability into the reservoir
• Ability to move through the formation
• Provide required viscosity

Alkaline Flooding

Alkaline flooding is an enhanced oil recovery method in which an alkaline chemical such
as sodium hydroxide, sodium orthosilicate or sodium carbonate is added to injected water.
The alkaline chemical reacts with certain types of oils and forms surfactants inside the reservoir.
Eventually, the surfactants play a big role to increase oil recovery by reducing interfacial tension
between oil and water.
The alkaline agents lead to the displacement of crude oil by raising the pH of the flooding
water. The reaction between alkaline and acidic components in crude oil forms in situ surfactant
at the oil-brine interface. Then the crude oil is mobilized by the mixture and the mixture removes
oil from the pore spaces in the reservoir. Normally, alkaline flooding has been used only in
reservoirs containing specific types of high-acid crude oils.
The process can be modified by the addition of surfactant and polymer to the alkali which
gives an alkaline-surfactant polymer (ASP) enhanced oil recovery method, essentially a less
costly form of micellar-polymer flooding.
Chemical EOR is commercially available under limited conditions such as reservoir
characteristics, depth, salinity, and pH level.
The high cost of chemicals and reservoir characterization studies needs to be reduced to
allow expanded use of chemical enhanced oil recovery methods before full implementation can
take place. The addition of silicates is an enhancement to alkaline flooding. The silicates have
two main functions:

I. It is as a buffer, maintaining a stable high pH level to produce a minimum interfacial tension

II. It improves surfactant efficiency through the removal of hardness ions from reservoir brines,
thus reducing adsorption of surfactants on rock surfaces.

On the other hand, alkaline flooding is not recommended for carbonate reservoirs
because of the profusion of calcium and the mixture between the alkaline chemical and the
calcium ions can produce hydroxide precipitation that may damage the formation.
The main profits of alkaline are lowering interfacial tension and reducing adsorption of
anionic surfactants that decrease costs and make ASP a very smart enhanced oil recovery process
provided the consumption is not too large. By numerical simulation process, the alkaline model
can be planned and optimized to ensure the proper propagation of alkali, effective soap and
surfactant concentrations to promote low interfacial tension and an encouraging salinity gradient.
Alkaline flooding is a complex process where interfacial tension reduction is not always
the key mechanism. Depending on the rock and crude properties, emulsification and wettability
alteration can play a major role in oil recovery from mixed-wet naturally fractured carbonates.
Mechanisms of Alkaline

Application of alkaline flooding has four mechanisms

a. “Emulsification and Entrainment” in which flowing alkali entrains the crude oil.

b. “Wettability Reversal” (Oil-Wet to Water-Wet) in which change of wettability affects change

in permeability that makes increase in oil production.

c. “Wettability Reversal” (Water-Wet Oil-Wet to) in which we get low residual oil saturation
through low interfacial tension.

d. “Emulsification and Entrapment” in which movement of emulsified oil improves sweep

efficiency.

Right alkali is chosen based on some factors such as price and availability at the flooding area,
the PH level, the temperature and mineralogy of the reservoir and composition of the mixed
water

ASP Flooding
This process, as the name suggests, is a combination of the three processes namely alkaline,
surfactant and polymer flooding in which the three slugs are used in sequence. Alternatively, the
three fluids could be mixed together and injected as a single slug. The objective of the ASP
flooding process is to reduce the amount of chemical consumed per unit volume of oil required
and invariable a reduction in cost.

Drilling

The entire technology of today’s drilling industry is focused on the ideal of drilling safely and
economically into the pressurized underground formations, without allowing any uncontrolled
flow of fluids out of the well.

Drilling into the Earth in the hopes of uncovering valuable resources is nothing new. In 1859, oil
came spurting out of the ground for the first time from a well 69.5 feet deep in Titusville,
Pennsylvania.

Drilling is operated onshore as well as offshore.

A. Onshore Drilling: There are two main types of onshore drilling:

1. Percussion or Cable tool drilling:

All boreholes in the olden days, including Drake’s, were drilled using the cable system
(Fig.1). Cable tool drilling is usually used for shallow, low pressure formations. It consists of
raising and dropping a heavy metal bit into the ground, effectively punching a hole down
through the earth where a massive bit with an edge similar to a
2. Rotary Drilling:
The second drilling method is known as rotary drilling (Fig.2), and consists of a sharp,
rotating metal bit used to drill through the Earth’s crust. This type of drilling is used
primarily for deeper wells that may be under high down hole pressure. While the concept for
rotary drilling - using a sharp, spinning drill bit to delve into rock - is quite simple, the actual
mechanics of modern rigs are quite complicated. In addition, technology advances so rapidly
that new innovations are being introduced constantly. The basic rotary drilling system
consists of four groups of components viz.

(1) The prime movers

(2) Hoisting equipment

(3) Rotating equipment

(4) Circulating equipment - all combine to make rotary drilling possible.

i) Prime Movers: The prime movers in a rotary drilling rig are those pieces of equipment that
provide the power to the entire rig. Diesel engines are used the majority of power sources on
rotary rigs, other types of engines are also in use. Most rotary rigs these days

require 1,000 to 3,000 horsepower, while shallow drilling rigs may require as little as 500
horsepower. Rotary rigs designed to drill in excess of 20,000 feet below surface may require
much more than 3,000 horsepower.

ii) Hoisting Equipment: The hoisting equipment on a rotary rig consists of the tools used to
raise and lower whatever other equipment may go into or come out of the well. The most visible
part of the hoisting equipment is the derrick, the tall tower-like structure that

extends vertically from the well hole. This structure serves as a support for the cables (drilling
lines) and pulleys (draw works) that serve to lower or raise the equipment in the well.
iii) Rotating Equipment: The rotating equipment on a rotary drilling rig consists of the
components that actually serve to rotate the drill bit, which in turn digs the hole deeper and
deeper into the ground. The prime mover supplies power to the rotary, which is the device that
turns the drillpipe, which in turn is attached to the drill bit. A component called the swivel, which
is attached to the hoisting equipment, carries the entire weight of the drillstring, but allows it to
rotate freely. The drillpipe (which, when joined together, forms the drillstring) consists of 30ft
sections of heavy steel pipe. The pipes are threaded so that they can interlock together. The drill
bit (Fig.3) is located at the bottom end of the drillstring, and is responsible for actually making
contact with the subsurface layers, and drilling through them. The drill bit is responsible for
breaking up and dislodging rock, sediment, and anything else that may be encountered while
drilling.

There are four main types of drill bits, each suited for particular conditions.

1. Steel Tooth Rotary Bits are the most basic type of drill bit used today.

2. Insert Bits are steel tooth bits with tungsten carbide inserts.

3. Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bits have polycrystalline diamond inserts attached to the
carbide inserts found in Insert Bits.

4. Diamond Bits have industrial diamonds implanted in them, to drill through extremely hard
rock formations. Diamond bits are forty to fifty times harder than traditional steel bits, and can
thus be used to drill through extremely hard rock without dulling overly quickly.

iv) Circulating System: The final component of rotary drilling consists of the circulating
system. There are a number of main objectives of this system, including cooling and lubricating
the drill bit, controlling well pressure, removing debris and cuttings, and coating the walls of the
well with a mud type-cake. The circulating system consists of drilling fluid, which is circulated
down through the well hole throughout the drilling process.
Drilling Techniques

Drilling contracts often have a clause stipulating that the well deviates no more than 3°
per 100 ft(30m) and is contained within a cone with a maximum angle of 5° . This is called a
straight hole.

Directional Drilling

For many decades the only way we could extract hydrocarbon was to drill a well straight
down into the ground. However, in many instances, this is not possible, not economically
feasible, or simply not efficient. Technological advances now allow us to efficiently deviate from
‘straight line’ drilling, Directional drilling is the process of drilling a curved well, in order to
reach a target that is not directly beneath the drill site. This is useful in many circumstances
where the area above the targeted deposit is inaccessible. For example, to reach reservoirs that
exist under shallow lakes, protected areas, railroads, or any other area on which the rig cannot be
set up, directional drilling is employed. It is also useful for long, thin reservoirs. Directional
drilling is especially useful for offshore locations. The cost of offshore drilling rigs can make it
uneconomical to drill a single well.

Horizontal Drilling

The difference between traditional directional or slant drilling and modern day horizontal
drilling, is that with directional drilling it can take up to 2,000 feet for the well to bend from
drilling at a vertical to drilling horizontally. The ability of horizontal drilling to reach and extract
petroleum from formations that are not accessible with vertical drilling has made it an invaluable
technology. Horizontal drilling allows for an increase in the recoverable petroleum in a given
formation, and even increases the production in fields previously thought of as marginal or
mature. Horizontal drilling also allows for more economical drilling, and less impact on
environmentally sensitive areas. In fact, in some areas in which drilling are not allowed for
environmental reasons, it is possible to drill horizontal wells to the targeted deposit without
harming the environment above.
OFFSHORE DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

Drilling for hydrocarbon offshore, in some instances hundreds of miles away from the
nearest landmass, poses a number of different challenges over drilling onshore. The actual
drilling mechanism used to delve into the sea floor is much the same as can be found on an
onshore rig. However, with drilling at sea, the sea floor can sometimes be thousands of feet
below sea level. Therefore, while with onshore drilling the ground provides a platform from
which to drill, at sea an artificial drilling platform must be constructed.

Since the land that is going to be drilled through cannot provide a base for offshore
drilling as it does for onshore drilling, an artificial platform must be created. This artificial
platform can take many forms, depending on the characteristics of the well to be drilled,
including how far underwater the drilling target is.

There are two basic types of offshore drilling rigs: those that can be moved from place to
place, allowing for drilling in multiple locations, and those rigs that are permanently placed.

Moveable rigs are often used for exploratory purposes because they are much cheaper to
use than permanent platforms. Once large deposits of hydrocarbons have been found, a
permanent platform is built to allow their extraction. The movables offshore drilling rigs are
many types like; Drilling Barges, Jack-Up Rigs, Submersible Rigs, Semisubmersible Rigs,
Drillships.

As mentioned, moveable rigs are commonly used to drill exploratory wells. In some
instances, when exploratory wells find commercially viable natural gas or petroleum deposits, it
is economical to build a permanent platform from which well completion, extraction, and
production can occur. These large, permanent platforms are extremely expensive, however, and
generally require large expected hydrocarbon deposits to be economical to construct. Some of
the largest offshore platforms are located in the North Sea, where because of almost constant
inclement weather, structures able to withstand high winds and large waves are necessary. There
are a number of different types of permanent offshore platforms, each useful for a particular
depth range are showing in following figure (Fig.6).
Offshore Seismic

Figure 6.7 shows how a seismic crew operates in the offshore. In this case, the aquatic
equivalent of the geophone, the hydrophone is used to detect echoes returning from the
underground layers. The hydrophones, which are essentially underwater microphones, are
attached to a buoyant cable and towed behind the ship. The shock waves are generated by a high
pressure air gun towed near the back of the ship. Although the equipment used in recording
offshore seismic is somewhat different than that used onshore, the principles involved are exactly
the same.

Since the modern oil industry began in the 1850's, hundreds of thousands of wells have
been drilled. Gradually, the most easily accessible onshore areas have been drilled up and most
of the easy-to-find fields have been found. The result is that it has now become increasingly
difficult to find new oil and gas fields in the old familiar areas. This has lead to the search for
new frontiers in which to explore for oil and gas.

As stated the drilling industry is a major industry in its own right. This being the case, the
offshore drilling industry is a major industry within the drilling industry. It is an extension of that
industry into the unfamiliar and often unfriendly setting of the open ocean.

A Hostile Environment

Offshore drilling came about gradually as explorers first built jetties out from the land
and later mounted entire rigs on barges that could drill in quiet shallow waters. Today, offshore
drilling takes place on the open ocean and, in addition to dealing with the usual difficulties
associated with drilling onshore, it must also contend with waves, currents, fog and deep water.
In some areas, there are the additional complications of cold temperatures, icebergs, pack ice,
storms that bring winds of more than 160 kilometres per hour, and waves that can be more than
30 metres high.
The Technology of Offshore Drilling :

Perhaps the most obvious difference between drilling offshore and onshore is that an
onshore rig sits directly on the surface through which it is to drill. However an offshore rig can
be floating anywhere from a few tens of meters to a couple of thousand metres above the sea
bed, and must therefore be attached to the sea floor by a large steel pipe called a marine riser
(Figure 9.2). The riser then acts as a conduit for the drill string and the drilling mud. In essence,
it is an extension of the casing that allows the drilling mud and rock cuttings to be isolated from
the water column and circulated back to the rig.

Another complication in offshore drilling is that, since the sea is seldom calm, the rig is
constantly heaving and rolling in the swell. Tensioners and motion compensators allow the riser
and drill string to remain relatively stationary, and keep a constant weight on the drill bit while
the rig moves with the swell. But what of the winds and currents that tend to move the rig off the
drilling location? It is easy to imagine the problems that even a small amount of drifting would
cause when the drill pipe is extended thousands of metres into the sea bed. The industry has
adopted two solutions to this problem. The first involves an elaborate system of 8 to 12 anchors,
each weighing up to 20 tons. Mooring lines comprised of heavy steel chains can extend a mile or
more, depending on water depth.

A second system that is being increasingly used is the dynamic positioning system or
DPS. The DPS can either supplement or replace the anchors with a computer controlled system
of propellers or thrusters. Through an array of motion sensors, the computer can immediately
detect any movement of the rig and then apply just enough power to the appropriate thrusters to
compensate and keep the rig exactly on location.

This type of system makes it possible to drill in much deeper water, where anchors would not be
feasible. Wells can now be drilled in water depths exceeding 2000 metres.

Another important advantage of DPS is that it allows the drilling rig to quickly disconnect the
riser and move off the location in case of an emergency (such as the approach of an iceberg). As
you can imagine, the retrieval of several twenty-ton anchors would be quite time consuming and
would require a lot more lead time when making the important decision to leave the drilling
location.

Types of Offshore Drilling Rigs

There have been many types of drilling rigs used since the industry took its first steps into
the offshore areas. Figure 9.1 shows some of these variations. Today, however, there are three
important types of mobile offshore drilling rigs that operate in the open marine areas. These are
the jackup, the semi-submersible and the drillship
Jackup rigs (Figure 9.3) are usually towed to the drilling location. At the site, the legs are
lowered to the seabed and the platform is jacked up to a safe level above the sea. When drilling
operations are completed, the legs are "jacked up" high enough so that the rig can float freely and
be towed to the next location. The maximum water depth in which jackup rigs are used is about
90 metres.

The semi-submersible rig (Figure 9.4) is comprised of a drilling platform mounted on columns
above two large pontoons. During rig moves, only the pontoons are submerged. At the drillsite,
the pontoons are partially flooded so that the rig rides deep in the water providing a remarkably
stable drilling platform. Most semi-submersibles in existence today are moored by anchors, but
an increasing number are adopting dynamic positioning systems.

The third type of mobile rig, the drillship (Figure 9.5), is comprised of a drilling platform
mounted on a conventional ship's hull. These drilling units have also been moored by anchors in
the past, but today most are using DPS technolo gy. The drillship experiences greater heaving
and rolling motion than the semisubmersible and, therefore, is more limited in the severity of
seas in which it can operate. On the other hand, the greater mobility of the drillship gives it
advantages in areas where it may have to move off location under short notice, such as in areas
with a high iceberg population.

Drillships and semi-submersibles have not yet reached their limits with regard to the water
depths in which they can operate. Using dynamic positioning systems, they have been able to
drill in water depths exceeding 2000 metres. Both semi-submersibles and drillships have been
used on the Grand Banks. Drillships and semi-submersibles have not yet reached their limits
with regard to the water depths in which they can operate. Using dynamic positioning systems,
they have been able to drill in water depths exceeding 2000 metres..

Costs

Drilling offshore is much more expensive than drilling onshore. The cost of drilling is very much
influenced by environmental conditions. Factors such as distance from land, water depth, well
depth, weather conditions, the presence of pack ice and icebergs all affect the cost of an offshore
well. For example, on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, in 1991, the average well takes from
60 to 70 days to drill and costs approximately $16 million. These well costs can only be justified
in areas where there is a good chance of finding very large fields. Offshore Newfoundland and
Labrador is one such area.