CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 SELF-LUBRICATING BEARINGS:

Self - lubricating bearings are the permanently lubricated porous

powder metallurgical bearings. These have so many advantages over
the conventional sleeve bearings. By sacrificing some mechanical
properties like hardness and strength, one can get the structure with
lesser density and the pores in it can be used as oil reservoirs.
Thus a constant supply of lubricant by itself is maintained. When the
bearings get hot while in use, the oil expands and flows to the bearing
surface because of the greater coefficient of expansion of the oil
compared to that of the metal and also because of the existence of
the differential hydrodynamic pressure in the oil film between journal
and bearing. On cooling it is drawn back into the pores by capillary
action. Thus the routine oiling is eliminated [1] . In the case of
conventional sleeve bearings, the bearings are equipped with oil filled
porous wicks, located on the outside diameter of the bearings which
feed additional oil through the bearing wall. Self - lubricating bearings
are suited to those situations in assembly where lubrication is not
possible and oil leakage or splash is undesirable. The use of self-
lubricating bearings is much favoured in machinery dealing
with food stuffs or delicate textiles because there are least chances
of the contamination of food stuffs orspoilage of textiles by the
lubricant from the bearings. For many self - lubricating bearings the
lubricant contained in the pores of the bearing suffices for the life
time of the bearing. Thus the self - lubricating feature simplifies the
machine design. Due to mass production these bearings aregenerally
less expensive than bearings machined from castings. Self - lubricating
bearings with an iron powder basis are generally stronger than copper
base bearings but are considered inferior because of their bearing
properties particularly under conditions of starved lubrication.
 2

Self - lubricating sintered bronze bearings are widely used in

automotive components like starters, oil and water pumps, wind shield
wipers, home appliances like clothes dryers, sewing machines, washing
machines, food mixers and refrigerators. Further, these are also used
in tape recorders, electric clocks, electric fans, packaging machines
and textilemachines. These are most popular in applications involving
high velocities and light loads. These are less useful under conditions
of impact or fatigue loading. Eventhough the selflubricating action
is obtained from porosity of the bearings, the porosity reduces the
thermalconductivity so that allowable maximum frictional losses are
lower than those of non-porous bearings.

1.2 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE EARLIER WORK RELATED TO THE

PRESENT STUDY:

Mac Donald and Pearson [2,3] studied experimentally, the

effect of impurities like Sn, C, Pb, Ni, Zn and Fe in copper alloys
from castings. G.Hoffman and D.Kapoor [ 4 ] studied the mechanical
properties of powder metallurgical stainless steel filters. H.E.Hall
[ 5 ] studied the sintering of powdered copper-tin mixtures and predicted
that when tin melts, the diffusion of tin into copper takes place
when the sintering temperature is in between 800 and 830°C.
K. Watanabe [6 ] gave the metallographic evidence of the formation
of pores in the place oftin particles in the green compacts which
have melted and been drawn into voids.

The mechanical properties like hardness and tensile strength

of sintered powder metallurgical steels have been studied by
L. Pease [ 7 ] and he found that ideal sintering conditions lower the
tolerable fine pearlite content and that the heat treated bars with
15 to 30% fine pearlite in the martensite have highest tensile strength.
Further he found that powder metallurgical steels have low hardenability.
Extensive studies, like the effect of sintering temperature, the effect
of sintering time, theeffect of atmospheric composition and the effect
of cooling rate have been carried out for iron based powder metallurgical
 3

components [8] . Recently the mechanical properties of powder

metallurgical ferrous parts are evaluated non-destructively by the
determination of ultrasonic velocity in the test bars [9,10,11] . From
these ultrasonic studies, it is found that there is a linear relationship
between ultrasonic velocity and ultimate tensile strength or tensile
yield strength in the ferrous test bars [12].

The degree of homogeneity of sintered compacts of blended

powders using X-ray compositional line broadening has also been studied
[13, 14 ]. These studies reveal that the later stages of homogenization
(high sintering temperatures and long sintering times) result in the formation
of a single peak at a diffraction angle between those of components.
During sintering the formation of Kirkendall expansion in Cu-Ni powder
compacts has been found by B.Fisher and P.S.Rudman [15] .
The theoretical explanation for the formation of Kirkendall expansion
during sintering was given by P.C. Eloff and F.V.Lenel [16 ].

Sometheoretical work has also been done to evaluate the

properties of alloys. Most of the properties of alloys are evaluated
through the determination of Debyetemperature of the alloy. Giri
and Mitra [17 ] calculated the value of Debye temperature of the
Fe - Cr - Ni ternary alloys. Using the Debye temperature, they calculated
the bulk modulus of those alloys. The agreementbetween the calculated
and reported values of the bulk modulus is found to be good. Similarly
they have evaluated the single crystal elastic constants of substitutional
binary cubic alloys using Debye temperature [18] . H.M.Ledbetter
predicted the single crystal elastic constants of 304-type stainless
steel using polycrystalline bulk and shear moduli [19] . Hisayosi Niu
and Masao Shimizu [ 20 ] studied the concentration dependences of elastic
constants and Debye temperatures for binary alloys by the lattice theory
of Born and Von Karman and finally compared the theoretical values
with experimental values.
 4

1.3 POWDER METALLURGY:

Powder metallurgy is an art of producing commercial products

from metal powders and has expanded to become a very pervasive
technology. Using that process, one can fabricate the metal articles
with super strength, high corrosion resistance and high resistance to
stress corrosion cracking. Further one can get better electrical and
thermal conductivities. It is well known that one can combine the
unalloyable metals and non-metals by this process and fabricate the
products with unique structural properties like self - lubricating bearings.
There are four important operations involved in the fabrication of a
powder metallurgical product:

i. Mixing and blending of metal powders

ii. Powder consolidation
iii. Sintering and
iv. Sizing and finishing.

1.3.1 Mixing and blending ofmetal powders:

Generally blending is necessary if two or more metal powders

are used. Mixing and blending are necessary when the powders are
alloped or when nonmetallic powders are added. The pure metal powders
are selected with a particular grain size and that are mixed in the
required composition of the alloy.Mixing or blending of the powder
is done in an uniform manner without oxidation. Normally lubricants
are added in the blending operation to reduce the die wall friction
and aid in ejection. The lubricants are powdered graphite, stearic acid,
zinc stearate and lithium stearate. The lubricants add to the porosity
and permit a much increasedproduction. Further that are necessary
in automatic feed process.

1.3.2 Powder consolidation:

Blended powder ispoured into adie and pressed into a compact

by the mechanical press or hydraulic press. The compact has less
 5

strength and density; it has approximately the same dimensions as it

will have when finished. Pressing causes an intimate contact between
the particles so that the diffusion process can easily take place across
the boundaries between one particle and another during the sintering
and results into a homogeneous compact. The density of the pressed
compact is called green density. The green density depends upon the
2
compacting pressure. When the applied pressure is about 2 tonnes/cm ,
the plastic deformation of powder takes place. Further cold welding
and interlocking of neighbouring grain takes place as well as filling
of voids by material squeezed into them. When the pressure is increased
further, the density also increases. Heckel [ 21 ] developed one relation
for the densification of a green compact under hydrostatic pressure as

F * ■— (In * B) • ...(1.1)

where P is the applied pressure (MPa) andD is the relative density

of the compact (ratio of the green density to solid density); C and
B are constants for a given metal powder mixture. Pressure required
to compact is determined by the nature of the material, its particle
size and shape and added lubricants. Single action compression where
the pressure is applied in one direction and double action compression
where the pressure is applied vertically from the top and bottom sides
are the two methods commonly employed for compacting the powders.

1.3.3 Sintering:

Heat treatment of powder compacts in a furnace under a controlled

atmosphere (usually hydrogen or vacuum) at a temperature just below
the melting point of the metal is called sintering. Powder compacts
are sintered at high temperatures to obtain maximum densification
usually with minimum grain growth. The sintering temperature and
soaking time vary with the compressive load used, the type of powder
and the strength required of the finished parts. Usually the aluminium
alloys require 24 hours soaking time at a temperature 370°C to 500°C.
 6

Meanwhile the copper alloys require 30 minutes at a temperature

800°C to 900°C [ 22 ] . Sintering is a complex process. The driving
force for sintering lies in the excess free energy present in the powder
compact. During sintering this excess energy is reduced. The lowering
of the free energy in the sintered product is due to reduction in the
surface area of particles. At elevated temperatures the surface tension
of the particles creates chemical potential gradients which cause the
matter to flow. This leads to the decrease of the total free energy
of the system.

The chemical potential of atoms subjected to a hydrostatic

pressure P is given by

ua=ya + ft a P + RT 1 n (aa) ...(1.2)

where Hg is the chemical potential of atom at zero pressure and

unit activity; ft „ is the atomic volume and aQ is the activity of
a o
the atom. If an atom is situated on a smooth spherical surface, the
excess pressure AP, beneath the spherical surface is given by

AP = —21 .
r r

where Y is the surface tension and r is the radius of the sphere.

Therefore atoms on concave surfaces experience lower chemical potential
than those on convex surfaces. This difference in chemical potential
drives the atoms from the convex to concave parts of a powder compact.
This mechanism is termed surface diffusion. Vapour transport is another
mechanism which operates in sintering at high temperatures. The
increase in chemical potential under convex surfaces increases the vapour
pressure and causes the material to flow from convex to concave surfaces.
Both the surface diffusion and the vapour transport reduce the surface
area but do not lead to densification. Volume diffusion causes sintering
by the diffusion of the atoms both from the particle surface to the
neck surface as well as from the grain boundary to the neck surface.
 7

This process occurs through vacancy mechanism and accounts for the
densification of the powder compacts [23]. Thus the sintering increases
the rate of diffusion and results in increased density with minimum
grain growth.

Porosity of the sintered compacts can be written as

(1 Apparent density j x 100%

Porosity
Theoretical density

Solid state sintering is also called as solid state crystal growth.

1.3.4 Sizing and finishing:

Sizing and finishing are the final operations which include the
repressing the sintered parts in precision die, during which the surface
finish and dimensional accuracy are improved. These include coining,
hot pressing and swaging. These operations increase the density of
the product by closing the pores and give added strength to that product.

1.4 ELASTIC CONSTANTS:

The elastic properties describe the mechanical behaviour of

materials. Particularly they govern the behaviour of a material subjected
to load over a region of strain where the material behaves elastically.
Therefore their measurements are very important for purposes of engineering
design.

Within the elastic limit, for small stresses the stress is directly
proportional to strain. So we can write each stress component at a
given point as a linear function of six strain components. Thus we
have 124 ],
 8

* C11 exx + C12 eyy + C13 ezz + C14 eyz + C15 ezx + C16 exy
xx

= C21 exx + C22 eyy + C23 ezz + C24 eyz + C25 ezx + C26 exy
yy

= C31 exx + C32 eyy + C33 ezz + C34 eyz + C35 ezx + C36 exy
zz

= C41 exx + C42 eyy + C43 ezz + C44 eyz + C45 ezx + C46 exy
yz

= C51 exx + C52 eyy + C53 ezz + C54 eyz + C55 ezx + C56 exy
zx

= C61 exx + C62 eyy + C63 ezz + C64 eyz + C65 ezx + C66 exy
xy
...(1.3)

Here C..s are called elastic stiffness constants or moduli of

ij
elasticity , o ^s are the stress components in which first subscript
denotes the direction in which stress acts and the second subscript
denotes the plane on which it is acting and e.^s are strain components
in which each of the subscript can be x, y or z and denote the directions
in which the strain occurs. When i * j we have longitudinal or tensile
strain like e , e or e . When i ^ j we have shear strain,
xx yy zz

For an isotropic body, equation (1.3) must not alter under any
transformations of coordinates whatsoever. Since * Cjj, the 36
elastic stiffness constants are reduced to 21. In thecase of isotropic
body the normal stress is not connected with shear transformations.
Therefore the rotation of axes through 180° gives

C14 = C15 = C16 = C24 = C25 = C26 " C34 = C35 = C36 = 0

Hence 21 elastic stiffness constants are reduced to 12. Now we employ

a rotation of axes through 90°. This gives

C12 = C21 = C13 = C31 = C23 = C32 ’

 9

Therefore the 12 elastic stiffness constants are reduced to

9. Finally, replacing one axis by another axis successively and keeping
in mind that the form of equations must not be altered due to isotropy,
one can find,

C11 = c22 = C33

- C55 U
II

C44
CO
CD

Thus for an isotropic body the equation (1.3) can be written as

0 XX = clf e XX + c10 (e + e )
11 12 yy zz
0 = c,, e (e + e )
yy 11 yy + Cto12 zz xx'

0 = c.. e + C,„ (e + e )
zz 11 zz 12 xx yy

0 = c.. e • •• (1.4)
yz 44 yz
U
ii

azx e zx

0
xy = c.A
44 e xy

Thus the elastic stiffness constants are only Cj|, Cjj and for
an isotropic body.

Further one can find that for isotropic body,

C 2 C ...(1.5)
11 12 44

Therefore there are only two independent constants which can be denoted
by X and y (Lame's constants) such that

X C12 = C13 = C21 = C31 ' C32 " C23

U C44 = C55 = C66

...(1.6)
C11 = C22 = C33
 10

1.5 RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND ACOUSTICS;

We know that acoustic or sound (sonic) waves are weak disturbances

propagated in an elastic medium. These are all mechanical vibrations
of small amplitude. When the motion of the particles of the medium
conveying a mechanical wave is back and forth along the direction
of propagation we then have a longitudinal wave or dilatational wave.
If the motionof the matter particles conveying the wave is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave itself we then have a transverse
wave or wave of distortion. Thus the elastic constants and the acoustical
wave velocities are interrelated. Consider an infinitesimal rectangular
parallelepiped, situated somewhere within the solid material with sides
of length 6x, 6 y, and 6z which are parallel to the set of
rectangularaxes x, y and z respectively. When the material is
stressed, the parallelepiped is displaced from its original position and
is simultaneously deformed. The most general displacement can be
regarded as the vector sum of three displacements, each of which is
parallel to one of the axes, plus a rotation while the deformation can
be regarded as being compounded of changesin length of each side
of the parallelepiped allied with a shear. To set up a plane wave equation
[24] one can assume that only those stresses which act in the x
direction are unbalanced; stresses acting on the parallelepiped are
very small and the dimensions of the parallelepiped remain unchanged.
Then the net force acting on parallelepiped in the x direction is given by

3oxx 3oxv 3ax_

3 x $x Sy 6z + <Ty~ ^ 6z + —3z— 6? 6x 6y

If d is the density of the medium when it is unstressed, then

d 6x6y 6z is the mass of the parallelepiped, Using Newton’s
second law,
2
3o 3o 3o
xx
**.
EL xz JLix_ .(1.7)
n at2
 11

From the equations (1.4) and (1.6), we get

= ( X + -yy ZZ'
Cxx xx
0 = ye
xy xy
0 = ye
zx xz

Expressing the strain '1J

can be written as
35 35 35.
0 = ( X + X (
XX 3y 3z

35y 35x *
0 xy = y (-—z_ - --------- )
3x 3y

3 5V 35,
0 = y(
xz 3z 3x

Substituting the values of o , a vv and o in the equation (1.7),

xx' xy
we get
325, 325 2
3 CX , ( Hy
(X + 2 U) + M + y r— + (x + y) --------*-
3x2 3y2 3 Z‘ 3x 3y

32£x
3 £.
+ (X+ y) = d 3t2
3x 9z

Since the displacement is only in x direction,

5 and 5 are zero. Therefore,

y *
325x 32£ 32 £
(X + 2 y) 3x2 + y* ——
3y2 + y * d
3 z' 3t

The above equation indicates that two types of wave motion

can exist eventhough the medium displacement is in one direction only.
 12

In one type of wave motion, E A

is the function of x and
t. Such waves for which the displacement is parallel to the direction
of propagation are termed longitudinal waves and are described by
the following equation,

x ( X + 2 u
2 d ...(1.8)
at

For other type of wave motion Ex is the function of either y or z

and t. Such waves for which the displacement is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation are transverse waves and are described by the
following equation,
32C

...(1.9)
3y
The standard wave equation is given by

a2?. 32C
...(1.10)
at ax
Comparing equations (1.8) and (1.9) with (1.10), we get
2 V
R ..(1.11)

R
where v^ and vf are the longitudinal and transverse elastic
...(1.12)

wave
velocities respectively in the solid medium.

The Young's modulus of the material 'E' is defined as the ratio between
unidirectional stress and the resultant strain provided the material is
free at its lateral surfaces.

i.e. xx with the remaining stresses equated to zero.

'xx
V (3 X+ 2 U) C44 (2 C12 * C11 *
(or) E ...(1.13)
( X + y) C12 + C44
 13

The Poisson's ratio ' v 1 is defined as the ratio between the lateral
strain and longitudinal strain.

e Xy
vv ...(1.14)
i.e. v =
e XX 2 y( X + y)

C
(or) v = X 12

2( X+u) 2 (C12*C44>

The bulk modulus of the material TO is defined as the ratio between

the bulk stress and the bulk strain.

i.e. X
(e
' xx + e yy + e-,?)
zz'
2 C
X + -§ U- c12 + I" C44 = T1 12 ...(1.15)
(or) X

The rigidity modulus of the material 'N 1 is defined as the ratio between
shearing stress and the angle of shear.

a
i.e. N = ____
e
xy

(or) N ji = C44 ...(1.16)

Equations (1.13), (1.15) and (1.16) indicate the three elastic moduli of
the material in terms of Lame’s constants and elastic stiffness constants.

The ratio between the longitudinally applied stress and the longidutinal
strain is called longitudinal modulus 'L\
o.

i.e. xx with eyy = ezz

XX

(or) L * (X + 2 y ) ■ Cj j ...(1.17)
 14

Thus the longitudinal modulus 'L' and Young's modulus 'E' are different.
Young's modulus 'E' relates a flexural stress to the resultant strain
whereas the longitudinal modulus relates the longitudinally applied
stress to the longitudinal strain. Thus

E(1 - v )
...(1.18)
( 1 +v) (1 - 2 v )

From acoustics, we get the values of L and N. From longitudinal wave

propagation, longitudinal modulus 'L' is obtained as follows:

L
X

3t2 " d 3x2

l¥
(or) v* *

From transverse wave (shear wave) propagation, we get

2 2
3^x N Ux
3t2 d W2

(or) N
vt = , d

Expressing the elastic constants in terms of ultrasonic velocities, we get

(v£2 - 2 v 2)
Poisson's ratio v = 1— ...(1.21)
2 (v/ - vt2)

Young's modulus, E = d v^2 ^ ~2 j

3 vt2 V - < VlJ
lvt2 - v.2>
...(1.22)
 15

Shear modulus, N = d v ^ ...(1.23)

and
Bulk modulus, *K = d [ v^2 - 1 J ...(1.24)

Thus one can calculate the values of v , E, N and K using the values
of v^ and vt>

1.6 ESTIMATION OF DEBYE TEMPERATURE FROM ELASTIC

CONSTANTS:

According to lattice dynamics, at sufficiently low temperatures

the optical vibrations of a solid are quiescent and the vibrational
energy arises solely from acoustic vibrations. Thus the isotropic
shear velocity 'vt' of an inorganic material can be estimated from
its low temperature specific heat. This approach promises to be very
useful because one can determine the velocity with which shear waves
propagate through a material independently of the state of aggregation
of the sample.This correspondence between acoustics and colorimetry
is conveniently stated in terms of the Debye temperature.

Debye temperature '9 ' is a characteristic temperature which

is related to the maximum frequency of vibration by the following
expression:

k 0 = h fD ...(1.25)

where k = Boltzmann's constant

h = Planck's constant

and fj-> = maximum frequency of vibration (or) cut off frequency which
is common toboth transverse andlongitudinal modes. For each
frequency, there are two transverse modes corresponding to the two
independent components of the displacement perpendicular to the direction
of propagationand one longitudinal mode because the displacement
in this case is along the direction of propagation. According to
 16

Debye’s theory of specific heats, the possible modes of vibration in

the frequency range f and f + df [25 ] is given by

Z(f) df = 4 tt V ( —V + —) f2 df ...(1.26)
W Vo

where V is the volume of the solid.

The total number of vibrational modes of a solid are considered to

be limited to 3n where n is the total number of atoms in the
solid. Hence

4 Tr v ...(1.27)

Evaluating the integral, we get

9n
f ...(1.28)
4W v

In terms of Debye temperature, the above equation can be written as,

6 ...(1.29)

Now the ratio

n _ Total number of atoms in the solid

V Volume of the solid

35
Avagadro’s number for a kilogram atom
Volume of one kilogram atom
 17

where is the Avagadro's number for a kilogram atom (6.023 x 10 26 )

and M is the mean atomic weight of the solid in kilograms.

Hence 0
— f 9NAdl1^3
k Utr MJ
...(1.30)

Thus the Debye temperature of the solid ’©1 is calculated using the
equation (1.30).
The mean sound velocity ' vrnf is defined as

3 2 1 ...(1.31)
n

vt3

and
e
h
k CM'" ...(1.32)

Using the equations (1.21) and (1.24), we get

> >

d Vt* -
i

3% . ...(1.33 a)
+

and
CM

| _ 9V
(Hr- ..... )
•o

3% ...(1.33b)
>

ii
4J

2. + 2 v

Substituting the values of v^ and v given in equations (1.33 a) and

(1.33 b) in equation (1.31), we get

/3
3 i
vm
2 v )/3(l- 2vjJ 3/2 [(1+ v)/3(l- V
-1/3 rKni
(or) v
m f(v>ff] ...(1.34)
 18

where f ( v ) =
-2 [(2+2 v)/3 (1-2 v) ] 3/2 + [(1+ v)/3 (1- v)f/2
■]

(or) f (v) .*.(1.35)

The dimensionless parameter f( v ) is a function of Poisson's ratio.

The bulk modulus TO is written in terms of f (v ) as

2/3 2/3
*K (IT)
,k0 ; ( 4 n M
3 NA
) f (v )
..(1.36)

Thus using the value of Debye temperature from calorimetry experiments

one can find the values of elastic constants. Otherwise using the
elastic constants from the experimental values of transverse and
longitudinal velocities of ultrasonic waves in the solid, one can
find the value of the Debye temperature of the solid. Further
using the Debye temperature, one can also calculate other properties
like specific heat, resistivity, thermal conductivity, etc.

1.7 PHASE DIAGRAM OF Cu-Sn AND EFFECT OF ALLOY COMPOSITION:

Normally the bronze bearings are manufactured from elemental

premixes of tin and copper. The phase diagram of Cu-Sn system
is given in figure 1.1. The analysis of the sintering process for compacts
from a mixture of copper and tin at a temperature below the
solidus temperature of the solid solution is made difficult by the
complexity of the copper-tin phase diagram. The compacts are formed
from a mixture of approximately 90% copper and 10% tin powder
because this composition gives a homogeneous alpha bronze face
centred cubic solid solution of tin in copper after sintering process.
 19

°c
1300

1200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

* I J—tlU—i—Iitl i i
10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 Sn
WEIGHT PERCENTAGE TIN

FIG.11: THE Cu-Sn PHASE DIAGRAM.

 20

F.J.Esper and R.Zeller [26] studied the sintering process of 90% copper
and 10% tin compacts. They found that just above the melting point
of tin, the rearrangement of particles is not taking place in compacts
pressed at higher pressures whereas it takes place in compacts pressed
at lower pressures. Further E.Peissker [27] confirmed the occurence
of abnormal expansion or Kirkendall expansion in the compact at
798°C. This expansion indicates that the self lubricating bearings
grow during sintering. It is directly related to the appearance of
a liquid phase due to peritectic reaction, 8 L + a which occurs
at 798°C. If much of the tin has already diffused into the a-solid
solution before the compacts have reached 798°C this expansion is
found to be small at this temperature. Therefore in producing self
lubricating bearings the sintering temperature is generally above 800°C
because in this temperature range the rate of homogenization is
considerably faster than at lower temperatures and is accompanied
by grain growth. A coarse grained structure is desirable for the bearings.
The growth or shrinkage of compacts during sintering can be altered
by the addition of carbon in the form of graphite. In the
copper-tin-carbon system the sintering is inhibited by mechanical
separation of the constituents and as a result,expansion increases.
When the sintering time is small the addition of graphite decreases
slightly the tensile strength. Generally graphite is added mainly to
increase the lubrication properties of the bronze bearings.

Instead of pure copper bearings the bronzes are prepared

for making self lubricating bearings because of its higher corrosion
and wear resistance. Further the addition of tin in bearing alloys
increases their ductility, lubricating properties and strength. A small
addition of lead in copperbase bearing alloy increases its lubrication
properties and machinability. The addition ofIron increases its
mechanical strength. Meanwhile it lowers the conductivity. The
addition of zinc improves the lubrication properties like tin [28].
 21

Table 1.1 shows the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF)

standard composition of the commercially available bronze self
lubricating bearings [29].

Table 1.1: Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) standard for ppwder
metallurgical Bronze bearings

Element Composition %
(by weight)

Copper 86.3 - 90.5

Tin 9.5 - 10.5
Carbon (max) 1.75
Iron (max) 1.0
Total other elements (max) 0.5

From the above table 1.1 we know that except tin, the other
elemental powders are added in small quantities so as to maintain
homogenization of the compact after sintering. The organic dry
lubricants like stearic acid, zinc stearate, lithium stearate, etc. are
added to the metal powders during mixing. They increase the sinterability
of the metal powders. During sintering, they are all evaporated.
Therefore they may result in spotty or speckled superficial stains
on sintered surfaces. To avoid staining the organic lubricants are
added in small quantities (0.5 to 0.75%). Among the organic lubricants,
lithium stearate allows the highest electrical conductivity in the
sintered compacts [ 1 ].The electrical conductivity reached a maximum
with 0.6% lithium stearate in compacts pressed at 275 MPa and with
0.5% at 415 MPa.

1.8 AIM AND SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK:

The author has planned a detailed study on powder metallurgical

Cu-Sn system, since most of the earlier works on bronze bearings
 22

are related to mechanical properties and microstructural studies.

The present study aims to evaluate the elastic, electrical and thermal
properties of porous bronze sintered compacts theoretically and
experimentally and then to compare the theoretical and experimental
values. The details of the present work carried out by the author
are given below:

a) Preparation of sintered bronze compacts with different

compositions of other impurities like Fe, Ni, Pb, C and Si.

b) Extending the method adopted by Giri and Mitra [17] for

four component bronze system including all possible central and non­
central interatomic force constants and electron gas participation
to evaluate the elastic constants and thermal properties at room
temperature through Debye temperature of the systems.

c) Studying the variation of the above said properties

theoretically with different porosities. Calculation of maximum
theoretical density is based on Retger's law [30 ].

d) Measuring the transverse and longitudinal ultrasonic

velocities in the prepared samples using pulse echo ultrasonic
interferometer and evaluating the elastic constants and Debye
temperature of the sintered Cu-Sn compacts.

e) Studying theagreement between the theoretical and

experimental values of elastic constants and Debye temperature of
the sintered Cu-Sn compacts.

f) Evaluating the electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity

of the sintered bronze compacts with different porosities
theoretically by changing the electron-phonon interaction energy term
in the resistivity expression given by Bloch [ 311 such that the addition
of small percentage of impurities changes the value of the interaction
energy term in an exponential way .
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g) Measuring the electrical conductivity of the sintered

Cu-Sn compacts at room temperature by normal 4-probe method.

h) Studying the variation of electrical conductivity with

different porosities experimentally and theoretically in the prepared
samples.

i) Measuring the microhardness of prepared samples using

Vicker's hardness tester.

j) Studying the effect of sintering time on the properties

of sintered compacts using X-ray powder diffraction method.

The author hopes that the above studies on self lubricating

bronze bearings may lead to better design of porous bearings with
the required mechanical and electrical properties. Further that may
bring a better view regarding the effect of addition of various
impurities in the powder metallurgical Cu-Sn system.