2014 00d - Generators, Transformers, Per Unit System PDF

EE
252
Load Flow Studies
Generator and Transformer

Models
Generator Model
Generalized Machine Model
ConstrucMonal Details of Synchronous Machine
Axis of b
d-‐axis Stator:
q-‐axis
Phase b distributed three-‐
Phase c phase winding
winding
winding (a, b, c)

Field Rotor:
Axis of a
winding F
DC field winding (F)
Damper
Damper and short-‐circuited
winding D damper windings
winding Q
(D, Q)
Phase a
winding
Axis of c
PrimiMve Coil RepresentaMon
phase b
q-‐axis
d-‐axis
ib
b
-‐
D θe
iQ
Q iD
F
iF a
phase a
ia
+ Va -‐
ωm
ic dλ
c v = Ri +
phase c
dt
Voltage EquaMons for the PrimiMve Coils
For the stator windings For the rotor windings
d! a dλF
v a = R aia + vF = RF iF +
dt dt
dλb dλD
vb = Rb ib + vD = RD iD +
dt dt
dλc dλQ
vc = Rc ic + vQ = RQ iQ +
dt dt
Note: The D and Q windings are shorted (i.e. v
D v
= 0
=
Q ).
⎡ v abc ⎤ ⎡ Rabc ⎤ ⎡ i abc ⎤ ⎡ λ abc ⎤

⎢v ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + p ⎢ ⎥ λ = Li
⎣ FDQ ⎦ ⎣ RFDQ ⎦ ⎣iFDQ ⎦ ⎣λ FDQ ⎦
The flux linkage equaMons are:
⎡ λa ⎤ ⎡L aa L ab L ac L aF L aD L aQ ⎤ ⎡ia ⎤
⎢ λ ⎥ ⎢L L bb L bc L bF L bD L bQ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ib ⎥⎥
⎢ b ⎥ ⎢ ba
⎢ λc ⎥ ⎢L ca L cb L cc L cF L cD L cQ ⎥ ⎢ic ⎥
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢λF ⎥ ⎢L Fa L Fb L Fc L FF L FD L FQ ⎥ ⎢iF ⎥
⎢λD ⎥ ⎢L Da L Db L Dc L DF L DD L DQ ⎥ ⎢iD ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣λQ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣L Qa L Qb L Qc L QF L QD L QQ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣iQ ⎥⎦
or
⎡ λ abc ⎤ ⎡[LSS ] [LSR ]⎤ ⎡ i abc ⎤

⎢λ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢i ⎥
⎣ FDQ ⎦ ⎣[LRS ] [LRR ]⎦ ⎣ FDQ ⎦
COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator Self Inductances
Laa = Ls + Lm cos 2θ e
Lbb = Ls + Lm cos( 2θ e + 120  )

Lcc = Ls + Lm cos( 2θ e − 120 )
Stator-‐to-‐Stator Mutual Inductances
Lab = Lba = − M s + Lm cos( 2θ e − 120  )
Lbc = Lcb = −M s + Lm cos 2θ e
Lca = Lac = − M s + Lm cos( 2θ e + 120  )
COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator-‐to-‐Rotor Mutual Inductances
LaF = LFa = LaF cos θ e

LbF = LFb = LaF cos( θ e − 120  )
LaD = LDa = LaD cos θ e
LcF = LFc = LaF cos( θ e + 120  )
LbD = LDb = LaD cos( θ e − 120  )
LcD = LDc = LaD cos( θ e + 120  )
LaQ = LQa = − LaQ sin θ e
LbQ = LQb = − LaQ sin( θ e − 120  )
LcQ = LQc = − LaQ sin( θ e + 120  )
COIL INDUCTANCES
Rotor Self Inductances
LFF = LFF
LDD = LDD
LQQ = LQQ
Rotor-‐to-‐Rotor Mutual Inductances
L FD = L DF = LFD
L FQ = L QF = 0
L DQ = L QD = 0
Equivalent Coil RepresentaMon
q-‐axis
b-‐axis
-‐
Q iQ vQ
+
Rotor coils FDQ staMonary
Stator coils abc rotaMng b ib
F D
a d-‐axis
ic iF iD
ia
+ Va -‐ + vF a-‐axis
-‐ + vD -‐
c
ωm
c-‐axis
TransformaMon from abc to Odq q-‐axis
q-‐axis
b-‐axis
ib q i
q
d-‐axis d
ic
c-‐axis ω id d-‐axis
m
ia
θe
a-‐axis
Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-‐staMonary. The O axis is perpendicular
to the d and q axes.
Park’s TransformaMon Matrix
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥
2 ⎢
[P ] = cosθ e cos(θ e − 120) cos(θ e + 120) ⎥
3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ − sin θ e − sin (θ e − 120) − sin (θ e + 120)⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ cos θ − sin θ e ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
2 ⎢ 1
[P ]−1 = cos(θ e − 120) − sin (θ e − 120)⎥
3 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ cos(θ e + 120) − sin (θ e + 120)⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
AZer Park’s TransformaMon
Voltage EquaMons Flux Linkages
(1) vo = Raio + pλo (1) λo = Looio

(2) vd = Raid + pλd −ωmλq (2) λd = Lddid +LdFiF +LdDiD
(3) vq = Raiq + pλq + ωmλd (3) λq = Lqqiq +LqQiQ
(4) vF = RFiF + pλF (4) λF = LFdid +LFFiF +LFDiD
(5) vD = RdiD + pλD = 0 (5) λD = LDdid +LDFiF +LDDiD
(6) vQ = RQiQ + pλQ = 0 (6) λQ = LQqiq +LQQiQ
Loo = LS −2MS
3
Ldd = LS + MS + Lm
2
3
Lqq = LS + MS − Lm
2
3 3 3
LdF = LaF LdD = LaD LqQ = LaQ
2 2 2
3 3 3
LFd = LaF LDd = LaD LQq = LaQ
2 2 2
Note: All inductances are constant.
Steady–State Analysis
Using Park’s transformaMon of balance 3-‐phase voltage and
currents of generators
( )
V a = Ra − I a + jX s − I a + E g ( )
E g = Ra I a + jX s I a + V a
Ra + jXs
+ +
Ia
Eg Va
-‐
-‐
Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator

Equivalent Circuit of Generators
Positive-Sequence Impedance:
Xd”=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance
Xd’=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance
Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance
Negative-Sequence Impedance:
X2 = 12 (X d "+X q " ) for a salient-pole machine

X2 = Xd " for a cylindrical-rotor machine
Zero-Sequence Impedance:
0.15Xd" ≤ X0 ≤ 0.6Xd"
Grounded-‐Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-‐wye generator are
shown below.
P1 P2 P0
jZ1
 + jZ2 jZ0
Eg
-‐
N1 N2 N0
PosiMve NegaMve Zero Sequence
Sequence Sequence
Grounded-‐Wye through an Impedance
If the generator neutral is grounded through an impedance Zg,
the zero-‐sequence impedance is modified as shown below.
P1 P2 P0
jZ1 jZ0
 + jZ2
Eg 3Zg
-‐
N1 N2 N0

Sequence Sequence
Ungrounded-‐Wye Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-‐wye or delta, no zero-‐
sequence current can flow. The sequence networks for the
generator are shown below.
P1 P2 P0
jZ1
 + jZ2 jZ0
Eg
-‐
N1 N2 N0
Sequence Sequence
Transformer Model
Two-‐Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polarity-‐marked
terminal to the non-‐polarity-‐marked terminal of
the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop
from the polarity-‐marked terminal to the non-‐
polarity-‐marked terminal of the X winding.
NH NX
Voltage EquaMon:
 +   +
 IH IX 
VH NH VH
 = VX
VX NX _ _
NH NX
+   + Current Equa=on:
 IH IX 
VH VX  
_ _ NH IH = NX IX
The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-‐

marked terminal is in phase with the current that leaves the
X winding through the polarity-‐marked terminal.
Note: Balancing ampere-‐turns must be saMsfied at all Mmes.

Referred Values
From the TransformaMon RaMo,

VH  
a=  V H = aV X
VX
 
IX  IX
a=  IH =
IH a
Dividing VH by IH,
 
VH 2 VX
 =a  ZH = a2Z X
IH IX
PracMcal Transformer
1.  The H and X coils have a small resistance.
2.  There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils.
3.  There is resistance loss in the iron core.
4.  The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH φm iX
+ +
vH eH eX vX
-‐ NH NX -‐
iron
core
Equivalent Circuit

RH + jX H I ex NH NX R X + jX X
+  + +  +
 IH R   IX 
VH c jX m EH EX VX
-‐ -‐ -‐ -‐
H winding Ideal X winding
RH, XH = resistance and leakage reactance of H coil

RX, XX = resistance and leakage reactance of X coil
Rc, Xm = core resistance and magneMzing reactance
Referring secondary quanMMes to the primary side,
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X

+  I ex +
 + +
 IH R IX   
VH c jX m aV X EH EX
a
-‐ -‐ -‐ -‐
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X

I ex
+   +
 IH R IX 
VH c jX m aV X
a
-‐ -‐
The transformer equivalent circuit can be approximated by
Req + jX eq
 Req = R H + a 2 R X
+  Iex  +
a IX 
1
 IH R X eq = X H + a 2 X X
VH c jX m aV X
-‐ -‐ Req + jX eq

+
 Iex  +
 IH a IX
1

V H Rc jX m aV X
-‐ -‐
For large power transformers, shunt impedance and resistance can be
neglected
Req + jX eq jX eq
+   + +   +
 I H = a1 I X   I H = a1 I X 
VH aV X VH aV X
-‐ -‐ -‐ -‐
Transformer Tests:
Short-‐Circuit Test
Conducted to determine series impedance
With the secondary (Low-‐voltage side) short-‐circuited, apply a
primary voltage (usually 2 to 12% of rated value) so that full
load current flows.
H1 x1
A
W
V
H2 x2
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I SC I1 Ie ≈ 0
VSC Rc jX m I sc = I 1
-‐
PSC VSC
Req = 2 Z eq = X eq = 2
Z eq 2
! Req
I SC I SC
Transformer Tests:
Open-‐Circuit Test
Conducted to determine shunt impedance

With the secondary (High-‐voltage side) open-‐circuited,
apply rated voltage to the primary.
x1 H1
A
W
V
x2 H2
Open-‐Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I OC
jX m I OC = I e
VOC Rc
-‐
2 2
V OC 1 ! I OC $ 1
Rc = = # & ' 2
POC Xm " VOC % Rc
Short-‐Circuit and Open-‐Circuit
Tests
Example:
50 kVA, 2400/240V, single-‐phase transformer

Short-‐Circuit Test: HV side energized

VSC = 48 volts I SC = 20.8 amps PSC = 617 watts

Open-‐Circuit Test: LV side energized

VOC = 240 volts I OC = 5.41 amps POC = 186 watts
Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the transformer.
What is %Z and X/R of the transformer?
Tests
SoluMon:
From the short-‐circuit test
617
Req ,H = 2 = 1.42 ohm
48 (20.8 )
Z eq ,H = = 2.31 ohm 2
20.8 X eq ,H = 2.31 − 1.42 = 1.82 ohm
2
From the open-‐circuit test

2
Rcq ,L =
(240 )
= 310 ohm
186
2 2
1 ⎡ 5.41 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ X m ,L = 45 ohm
= ⎢ −
⎣ 240 ⎥⎦
Xm ⎢⎣ 310 ⎥⎦
Tests
Referred to the HV side
Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm
X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R
Z BASE =
[2.4 ]2 = 115.2 ohm
50 / 1000
⎛ 2.31 ⎞ 1.82
% Z = ⎜ ⎟ x100 = 2% X/R= = 1.28
⎝ 115.2 ⎠ 1.42
X/R RaMos of Transformers
Three-‐Phase Transformers
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-‐WYE (Y-‐Y)
Three Phase Transformer Bank

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-‐DELTA (Δ-‐Δ)

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-‐DELTA (Y-‐Δ)

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-‐WYE (Δ-‐Y)

H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
OPEN DELTA – OPEN DELTA


Transformer ConnecMon
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
OPEN WYE -‐ OPEN DELTA


Three-‐Phase Transformer
Windings are connected Wye or Delta internally

Phase ShiZs in Three-‐Phase
Transformers
Phase ShiZs in Three-‐Phase
Transformers
Equivalent Circuit of Transformers
PosiMve & NegaMve Sequence Networks
Y-‐Y and Δ-Δ connected transformers
Z1 Z2
+  + +  +
Primary
I1 Secondary Primary
I2 Secondary
Side Side Side Side
-‐ -‐ -‐ -‐
Posi9ve Nega9ve
Sequence Z1 = Z 2 Sequence
Network Network
Transformer Core
3-‐Legged Core Type
Shell Type
Note: Only the X windings

4-‐Legged Core Type are shown.
Three-‐Legged Transformer Core
The 3-‐legged core type three-‐phase transformer uses the
minimum amount of core material. For balanced three-‐phase
condiMon, the sum of the fluxes is zero.
Note: For posiMve-‐ or negaMve-‐

sequence flux,
φa φb φc φa + φb + φc = 0
The 3-‐legged core type three-‐phase transformer does not
provide a path for zero-‐sequence flux. On the other hand, a
bank of single-‐phase units, the 4-‐legged core type and the
shell-‐type three-‐phase transformer provide a path for zero-‐
sequence flux.
Zero-‐Sequence Network
Ic0
ZERO-‐SEQUENCE CURRENTS:
c
Ia0
a Ia0
a b
3Io Ib0
b
c
Ic0
Ib0 Zero-‐sequence currents circulates in the
The neutral return carries the in-‐ delta-‐connected transformers. There is
phase zero-‐sequence currents. “balancing ampere turns” for the zero-‐
sequence currents.
Zero Sequence Network*
Transformer ConnecMon Zero-‐Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐
*Excluding 3-‐phase unit with a 3-‐legged core.
Zero Sequence Network *
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐

Zero Sequence Network *
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐
Z0 = Z1
+
 +

VH VX
-‐ -‐

A Mnemonic Zero-‐Sequence Equivalent Circuit of
Z0 = Z1
+ +
 
VH VX
-‐ -‐
-‐ normally-‐open switch that closes when the transformer has the
illustrated connecMon on the corresponding side (H or X)
Referred Impedances (3-‐phase transformers)
Consider a 3-‐phase wye-‐connected load, 0.6-‐Ω/phase. Three

single-‐phase transformers are used, each rated 25 MVA,
38.1/3.81 kV, connected wye-‐wye, to serve the 3-‐phase load.
a
A
38.1 kV 3.81 kV 0.6 Ω

38.1 kV 3.81 kV 0.6 Ω

B n n b n’
38.1 kV 3.81 kV 0.6 Ω

C c
Assuming we have a balanced system, we can consider each 0.6-‐
Ω resistor to be directly connected across 3.81-‐kV winding, with
or without the neutral conductor. On the high-‐voltage side the
impedance measured from line to neutral is:
2 2
⎛ 38.1 kV ⎞ ⎛ 66 kV ⎞
0.6Ω ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6 Ω ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 60Ω
⎝ 3.81 kV ⎠ ⎝ 6.6 kV ⎠
Note: 66-‐kV line-‐to-‐line = 38.1-‐kV line-‐to-‐neutral,

and 6.6-‐kV line-‐to-‐line = 3.81-‐kV line-‐to-‐neutral.
Let us consider the same 3-‐phase wye-‐connected load, 0.6-‐Ω/

phase, and the same 3 single-‐phase transformer (25 MVA,
38.1/3.81 kV). If we connect the transformers wye-‐delta:
a
A 3.81 kV
38.1 kV 0.6 Ω

3.81 kV
0.6 Ω

38.1 kV
B n b n’
3.81 kV
38.1 kV 0.6 Ω

C c
With the same assumpMons as before, we can convert the low-‐
voltage side of the transformer from delta-‐ to wye-‐connected;
the secondary voltage will change from 3.81 kVLL to 2.2 kVLN =
(3.81 kV / √3).
2 2
⎛ 38.1 kV ⎞ ⎛ 66 kV ⎞
0.6Ω ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 0.6 Ω ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 180Ω
⎝ 2.2 kV ⎠ ⎝ 3.81 kV ⎠
Note: To transfer the ohmic value of impedances from one side

of a three-‐phase transformer to the other side, the mulMplying
factor is the square of the raMos of the line-‐to-‐line voltage,
regardless of transformer connecMon.
Per Unit QuanMMes
Per-‐Unit QuanMty
Per-‐Unit Value is a dimensionless real quanMty.

Per-‐Unit QuanMty
Per-‐Unit QuanMty
Example
I
+
+ Zline = 1.4 ∠75° Ω

Zload = 20 ∠30° Ω

2540 ∠0° V
Vs = ?
-‐
-‐
Determine Vs using the per-‐unit system. Use 20 ohms

as base impedance and 2540 V as base voltage
Example
Choose: Base Impedance = 20 Ω (single phase)
Base Voltage = 2540 V (single phase)
PU Impedance of the load = 20∠30°/20 = ______ p.u.
PU Impedance of the line = 1.4∠75°/20 = ______ p.u.
PU Voltage at the load = 2540∠0° /2540 = ______ p.u.

Line Current in PU = PU voltage / PU impedance of the
load
= ______ / ______ = ______ p.u.

PU Voltage at the SubstaMon = Vload(pu) + IpuZLine(pu)
= ________ + _______ x _______ = _______ p.u.
Example
1.0 ∠-‐30° p.u.
+ 0.07 ∠75° p.u. +
1.05∠2.70° 1.0∠30° p.u. 1.0∠0° p.u.
-‐ -‐
The magnitude of the voltage at the substaMon is

1.05 p.u. x 2540 Volts = _______ Volts

Establishing Base Values
•  Must comply with fundamental electrical laws (e.g.,

Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s Laws).

•  Vbase, Ibase, Sbase, and Zbase are related such that
selecMon of base values for any two of them
determines the base values for the remaining two.

Normally, the base voltage (Vbase) and power (Sbase)
are specified, and the base current (Ibase) and base
impedance (Zbase) are derived.

Base values can be established from either single-‐phase

or three-‐phase quanMMes:
1
Base MVA1φ = Base MVA3φ
3
Base kVLL
Base kV1φ =
3

•  The Base MVA is the same value for the Apparent (S), AcMve
(P), and ReacMve (Q) power.
•  The Base Z is the same value for the Impedance (Z), Resistance
(R), and Reactance (X).
Example:
Base kVA3φ = 30,000 kVA Base kVA1φ = 10,000 kVA
= 30 MVA = 10 MVA
Base kVLL = 120 kV Base kVLN = 69.282 kV
Base Z = (120)2/30 Base Z = (69.282)2/10

= 480 ohms = 480 ohms

30 x1000 10 x1000
Base Current = Base Current =
3 ( 120 ) 69.282
= 144.34 Amps
= 144.34 Amps
Per Unit Impedance
Generators
•  Manufacturers specify the following impedances in per unit:
}
1.  Armature Resistance, Ra PosiMve
2.  Direct-‐axis Reactances, Xd”, Xd’, and Xd Sequence
3.  Quadrature-‐axis Reactances, Xq”, Xq’, and Xq Impedances
4.  NegaMve Sequence Reactance, X2
{}
5.  Zero Sequence Reactance, X0
•  The Base Values used by manufacturers are:
1.  Rated Capacity (MVA, KVA, or VA)
2.  Rated Voltage (kV or V)
Per Unit Impedance
Transmission and Distribu9on Lines
R(!)
R(pu) =
Zbase
XL(!)
XL(pu) =
Zbase
XC(!)
XC(pu) =
Zbase
Per Unit Impedance
Transformers
•  The ohmic values of resistance and leakage reactance of a
transformer depends on whether they are measured on the
high-‐ or low-‐tension side of the transformer.
•  The impedance of the transformer is in percent or per unit
with the Rated Capacity and Rated Voltages taken as base
Power and Base Voltages, respecMvely.
•  The per unit impedance of the transformer is the same
regardless of whether it is referred to the high-‐voltage or low-‐
voltage side.
•  The per unit impedance of the three-‐phase transformer is the
same regardless of the connecMon.
Per Unit Impedance
Example
A single-‐phase transformer is rated 110/440 V, 2.5 kVA.
The impedance of the transformer measured from the
low-‐voltage side is 0.06 ohms. Determine the impedance
in per unit (a) when referred to low-‐voltage side and (b)
when referred to high-‐voltage side
SoluMon
1102
Low-‐voltage Zbase = = 4.84!
2500
0.06
PU Impedance, Zpu = = 0.0124 p.u.
4.84
Per Unit Impedance
If impedance had been measured on the high-‐voltage

side, the ohmic value would be
2
! 440 $
Z = 0.06 # & = 0.96'
" 110 %
4402
High voltage Zbase = = 77.44!
2500
0.96
per unit impedance = = 0.0124 p.u.
77.44
Note: PU value of impedance referred to any side of the
transformer is the same
Per Unit Impedance
Example:
Consider a three-‐phase transformer rated 20 MVA, 69 kV/13.2
kV voltage raMo and a reactance of 7%. The resistance is
negligible.

a)  What is the equivalent reactance in ohms referred to the
high voltage side?
b)  What is the equivalent reactance in ohms referred to the
low voltage side?
c)  Calculate the per unit values both in the high voltage and
low voltage side at 100 MVA.
Ans: (a) 16.66 Ω, (b) 0.610 Ω, (c) 0.35 p.u., 0.35 p.u.
Change in Base Values
•  Usually, the nameplate of each component gives the

component impedance in per unit, using rated power and
rated voltage as base power and base voltage.
•  Different components will have different raMngs, hence,
different base values.
•  To perform per unit calculaMons that will be consistent with
calculaMons using actual values, there must be a consistent
per unit representaMon of the power system.
Change in Base Values
The actual value of impedance for any power system component
is constant, i.e., it is independent of the chosen base values.
old 2
old (V ) Z actual
Using old base values: Zbase = old ! Z pu,old = old
base
Sbase Zbase
new 2
new (V ) Z actual
Using new base values: Zbase = new ! Z pu,new = new
base
Sbase Zbase
!
2
Zbase,old ! (V old )2 $ ! S new $ " V old % S
base,new
Z pu,new = Z pu,old ! = Z pu,old ! ## base
old
& ' # base
& = Z ! $ base
'
& # (V new )2 & pu,old $ V new ' S!
Zbase,new S
" base % " base % # base & base,old
Per-‐Unit RepresentaMon
(Impedance Diagram)
Procedure:
a)  Establish Base Power and Base Voltages
•  Declare Base Power for the whole Power System
•  Declare Base Voltage for any one of the Power System
components
•  Compute the Base Voltages for the rest of the Power
System Components using the voltage raMo of the
transformers
Note: Define each subsystem with unique Base Voltage based on separa9on due to
magne9c coupling, i.e., by transformer windings.
b) Compute Base Impedance and Base Current

•  Using the Declared Base Power and Base Voltages,
compute the Base Impedances and Base Currents for
each Subsystem
c) Compute Per Unit Impedance
•  Using the declared and computed Base Values,
compute the Per Unit values of the impedance by:
§  Dividing Actual Values by Base Values
§  Changing Per Unit Impedance with change in
Base Values
Use Base Power = 100 MVA

T1 T2
B G2
L1
A G1 C
G3
Generator 1 (G1): 300 MVA; 20 kV; 3φ; Xd = 20 %

Transmission Line(L1): 64 km; XL = 0.5 Ω / km
Transformer 1 (T1): 3φ; 350 MVA; 20 / 230 kV; XT1 = 10 %
Transformer 2 (T2): 3-‐1φ; 100 MVA; 127 / 13.2 kV; XT2 = 10 %
Generator 2 (G2): 200 MVA; 13.8kV, Xd = 20 %
Generator 3 (G3): 100 MVA; 13.8kV, Xd = 20 %
a)  Establish Base Power, Base Voltages, Base Impedance, and
Base Current
Base Power:
Sub-‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)

A
B
C
a)  Establish Base Power, Base Voltages, Base Impedance, and
Base Current
Base Power: 100 MVA
Sub-‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)

A 20 4 2886.8
B 230 529 251.0
C 13.8 1.9044 4183.7
b) Compute Per Unit Impedance

2
" 20 % 100
G1: 0.2 ! $ ' = 0.0667 p.u.
# 20 & 300
One-‐line diagram:
T1 T2
Transmission Line G2
G1
G3
Impedance diagram:
XT1 XLINE XT2
XG1 XG2 XG3
E1 E2 E3
Per Unit Impedance
Three parts of an electric system are designated A, B
and C and are connected to each other through transformers,
as shown in the figure. The transformer are rated as follows:

A-‐B 10 MVA, 3φ, 13.8/138 kV, leakage reactance 10%
B-‐C 10 MVA, 3φ, 138/69 kV, leakage reactance 8%
300 Ω/ φ

SOURCE A B C LOAD PF=100 %
A-‐B B-‐C
Determine the voltage regulaMon if the voltage at the load is
66 kV.
Advantages of Per-‐Unit
1.  Manufacturers usually specify impedances of equipment in
percent or per-‐unit on the base of the nameplate raMng.

2.  The per-‐unit impedance of machines of the same type but
widely different raMngs lie within a narrow range. When the
impedance is unknown, it is generally possible to select from
tabulated average values.

3.  When working in the per-‐unit system, we can select the base
voltages such that the per-‐unit turns raMo of transformers in
the system is 1:1.
Advantages of Per-‐Unit
1.  Three-‐phase transformer connecMon does not affect the per-‐
unit impedances of the equivalent circuit, although transformer
connecMon does determine the relaMon between the voltage
bases on the two sides of the transformer.

2.  Per unit representaMon yields more meaningful and easily
correlated data.

3.  Network calculaMons are done in a much more handier fashion
with less chance of mix-‐up:
•  between phase and line voltages
•  between single-‐phase and three-‐phase powers, and
•  between primary and secondary voltages.
Bus Admizance Matrix
Equivalence of Sources
VL VL
Zg
+

Eg = ISZP
Zg = Zp
Eg Is Zp
IL IL
-‐
The two sources will be equivalent if VL and IL are the
same for both circuits.
One-‐Line Diagram
a c b
Bus Gen Line 1 3 2
1 a 1 -‐ 3
2 b 2 -‐ 3
3 c 1 -‐ 4
4 2 -‐ 4
3 -‐ 4
4
Impedance Diagram
0
Ea za Ea Ec Eb
1 za zc zb
Generator
1 3 2
0 zd ze
z13 zf zh zg
1 3
Line
4
0
Admizance Diagram
0
I1 = Ea /za
I1 I3 I2
y01 = 1 / za
y01 y03 y02
I2 = Eb / zb
y02 = 1 / zb
1 3 2
2
I3 = Ec / zc y13 y23

y03 = 1 / zc y14 y24
y13 = 1 / zd y14 = 1 / zf
y23 = 1 / ze y24 = 1 / zg 4
y34 = 1 / zh
Nodal Analysis
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
at node 1:
at node 2:
at node 3:
at node 4:
Bus Admizance Matrix
Rearranging the equa9ons,
In matrix form,
Bus AdmiTance Matrix
The standard form of n independent equa@ons:
[ I ] = [Ybus][V] [ y ] = [A][x]
Ybus is also called Bus Admizance Matrix
Bus AdmiTance
Matrix
⎡ Y11 Y12 Y13  Y1n ⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎢ Y21 Y22 Y23  Y2n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
[YBUS] = ⎢ Y31 Y32 Y33  Y3n ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢     ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Yn1 Yn 2 Yn3  Ynn ⎥
⎦
Yii = self-‐admizance, the sum of all admizances terminaMng on the node
(diagonal elements)
Yij = mutual admizance, the negaMve of the admizances connected directly
between the nodes idenMfied by the double subscripts
Example
Find the Y-‐bus for the following power system:

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Generator and Transformer

⎡ v abc ⎤ ⎡ Rabc ⎤ ⎡ i abc ⎤ ⎡ λ abc ⎤

⎡ λ abc ⎤ ⎡[LSS ] [LSR ]⎤ ⎡ i abc ⎤

LaF = LFa = LaF cos θ e

(1) vo = Raio + pλo (1) λo = Looio

Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator

X2 = 12 (X d "+X q " ) for a salient-pole machine

PosiMve NegaMve Zero Sequence

The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-­‐

Note: Balancing ampere-­‐turns must be saMsﬁed at all Mmes.

RH, XH = resistance and leakage reactance of H coil

From the open-­‐circuit test

Three Phase Transformer Bank

Three Phase Transformer Bank

Three Phase Transformer Bank

Three Phase Transformer Bank

OPEN DELTA – OPEN DELTA

Three Phase Transformer Bank

OPEN WYE -­‐ OPEN DELTA

Three Phase Transformer Bank

Windings are connected Wye or Delta internally

3-­‐Legged Core Type

Note: Only the X windings

Note: For posiMve-­‐ or negaMve-­‐

*Excluding 3-­‐phase unit with a 3-­‐legged core.

*Excluding 3-­‐phase unit with a 3-­‐legged core.

Consider a 3-­‐phase wye-­‐connected load, 0.6-­‐Ω/phase. Three

38.1 kV 3.81 kV 0.6 Ω

Note: 66-­‐kV line-­‐to-­‐line = 38.1-­‐kV line-­‐to-­‐neutral,

Let us consider the same 3-­‐phase wye-­‐connected load, 0.6-­‐Ω/

Note: To transfer the ohmic value of impedances from one side

Per-­‐Unit Value is a dimensionless real quanMty.

Zload = 20 ∠30° Ω

Determine Vs using the per-­‐unit system. Use 20 ohms

+ 0.07 ∠75° p.u. +

1.05∠2.70° 1.0∠30° p.u. 1.0∠0° p.u.

1.05 p.u. x 2540 Volts = _______ Volts

• Must comply with fundamental electrical laws (e.g.,

Base values can be established from either single-­‐phase

Base Z = (120)2/30 Base Z = (69.282)2/10

If impedance had been measured on the high-­‐voltage

• Usually, the nameplate of each component gives the

b) Compute Base Impedance and Base Current

Use Base Power = 100 MVA

Generator 1 (G1): 300 MVA; 20 kV; 3φ; Xd = 20 %

Sub-­‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)

Base Power: 100 MVA

Sub-­‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)

b) Compute Per Unit Impedance

XG1 XG2 XG3

I3 = Ec / zc y13 y23

⎡ Y11 Y12 Y13  Y1n ⎤

S-ar putea să vă placă și

The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-‐

Note: Balancing ampere-‐turns must be saMsﬁed at all Mmes.

From the open-‐circuit test

OPEN WYE -‐ OPEN DELTA

3-‐Legged Core Type

Note: For posiMve-‐ or negaMve-‐

*Excluding 3-‐phase unit with a 3-‐legged core.

*Excluding 3-‐phase unit with a 3-‐legged core.

Consider a 3-‐phase wye-‐connected load, 0.6-‐Ω/phase. Three

Note: 66-‐kV line-‐to-‐line = 38.1-‐kV line-‐to-‐neutral,

Let us consider the same 3-‐phase wye-‐connected load, 0.6-‐Ω/

Per-‐Unit Value is a dimensionless real quanMty.

Determine Vs using the per-‐unit system. Use 20 ohms

•  Must comply with fundamental electrical laws (e.g.,

Base values can be established from either single-‐phase

If impedance had been measured on the high-‐voltage

•  Usually, the nameplate of each component gives the

Sub-‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)

Sub-‐System Vbase (kV) Zbase (Ohm) Ibase (Amp)