Accepted Manuscript

Environmental impacts and mechanical properties of lightweight concrete containing

bauxite residue (red mud)

I.M. Nikbin, M. Aliaghazadeh, S.H. Charkhtab, A. Fathollahpour

PII: S0959-6526(17)32816-0
DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.143
Reference: JCLP 11282

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 18 June 2017

Revised Date: 24 September 2017
Accepted Date: 19 November 2017

Please cite this article as: Nikbin IM, Aliaghazadeh M, Charkhtab SH, Fathollahpour A, Environmental
impacts and mechanical properties of lightweight concrete containing bauxite residue (red mud), Journal
of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.143.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Environmental impacts and mechanical properties of lightweight

concrete containing bauxite residue (red mud)

I.M. Nikbin*
Department of Civil Engineering, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran

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Tel.:+98 (13) 423221132, E-mail address: Nikbin@iaurasht.ac.ir ,
Nikbin_c_eng2007@yahoo.com

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M. Aliaghazadeh
Department of Civil Engineering, Deylaman Institute of Higher Education, Iran

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Tel.:+98 (13) 423221132, E-mail address: mohsen.aliaghazadeh@deylaman.ac.ir

SH. Charkhtab

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Department of Civil Engineering, Deylaman Institute of Higher Education, Iran
Tel.:+98 (13) 423221132, E-mail address: charkhtab.shahin@deylaman.ac.ir
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A. Fathollahpour
Department of Civil Engineering, Deylaman Institute of Higher Education, Iran
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Tel.:+98 (13) 423221132, E-mail address: ahmad.fathollahpour@deylaman.ac.ir

*Corresponding author. Tel .:+98 (13) 423221132

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E-mail address: nikbin@iaurasht.ac.ir

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ABSTRACT
Bauxite residue (Red mud) is one ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
of the industrial caustic waste materials obtained from
alumina production. Because of high annual production, it requires high costs and vast landfills
to dispose it. In addition, due to high alkalinity, disposal of red mud (RM) may cause serious
environmental problems. Considering use of concrete beside economic and environmental
issues of cement production, replacing cement by industrial waste seems inevitable. In this
study, RM has been used as high as 25% replacement of cement mass in order to study the
performance of this waste material on lightweight concrete (LWC) in terms of their mechanical
properties, global warming potential (GWP), cumulative energy demand (CED) and major
criteria air pollutants (CO, NOX, Pb, SO2). For the quantification of overall environmental

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impacts of LWC production, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) approach has been conducted. The
results indicated that RM can be used to produce LWC with convenient mechanical properties
and densities of 1685-1789 (kg/m3). Moreover, the environmental impacts of LWC

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incorporating 25% of RM reduced in terms of CED, GWP, CO, NOX, Pb and SO2. Consequently,
reusing RM waste which is otherwise disposed in landfills is an environmental- friendly

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alternative.

Keywords: Environmental impacts, Lightweight concrete, Industrial waste, Red mud,

Mechanical properties.

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1. Introduction
Cement is a vital material for any kind of construction and is widely used in many countries.
The main constituents of cement are: limestone, silica, magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, and
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iron oxide. Theoretically, any material containing all these ingredients can potentially be used
as a raw material to produce cement(El-Rahman et al., 2011). Cement industry is one of the
main sources of greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2. It is estimated that to produce a ton
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of clinker, a ton of CO2 is released. This has made cement production industry responsible for
7% of whole CO2 emission of the world(Ali et al., 2011). Excessive increase of CO2
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concentration can account for climate changes and global warming (Nabavi-Pelesaraei et al.,
2017b), (Nabavi-Pelesaraei et al., 2017a). According to official reports, production of cement in
2013 was 4000 million tons worldwide showing an 8% increase compared to 2012
production. Scientists believe that global emission of CO2, due to rapid increase of cement
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production will rise up to 50% in 2030(Szabó et al., 2006). Everyday, enormous quantities of
industrial waste such as RM is produced. Considering global sustainable development,
depletion of the existing raw material and also in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse
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gases and adopt a cheaper, more environmentally friendly approach to produce cement,
replacement of cement by solid industrial wastes with pozzolanic properties seems to be a fact.
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RM is a solid industrial waste produced as a by-product of Bayer process of alumina

production which due to large annual production, is considered as a serious environmental
issue (Manfroi et al., 2014). Because of alkali nature and chemical composition of RM, this
material has considerable effect on the environment and disposal of RM is a huge challenge in
alumina production industry (Díaz et al., 2015). RM, with PH between 10.5 and 12.5 is strongly
alkali and needs for high costs and vast landfills for disposal. Annually 120 tons of RM is
produced worldwide (Power et al., 2011). In Iran, annually significant quantities of RM are
stored in areas adjoining the alumina plants (Fig. 1). Inappropriate disposal of RM can
contaminate the soil severely impairing the soil fertility. It can also lead to groundwater
resources pollution and besides it has significantly negative effect on living organisms [(He et
al., 2013),(Barbhuiya et al., 2011)]. The composition of RM, depending on the bauxite source
can vary while it always contains the six main oxides namely SiO2 ،Fe2O3 ،Al2O3 ،TiO2 and
Na2O.

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Several studies have been done on the properties of RM waste and its utilizations for different
applications. Pera et al. (Pera et ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
al., 1997) concluded that 700 oc is the optimum temperature
for thermal treatment of RM to reach required pozzolanic properties. They showed that
Portland cement can be replaced by as high as 25% of preheated RM. Many investigations have
also been conducted on the use of RM in concrete and mortar. Senff et al. (Senff et al., 2011b)
used RM as much as 50% cement replacement in mortar and showed that increasing the RM
content, compressive and tensile strength decrease. In another research, Yao et al. (Yao et al.,
2013)investigated the possibility of mixing RM and by-products of coal industry. Their results
showed that this combination satisfies the physical and mechanical requirements of concrete.
Manfroi et al. (Manfroi et al., 2014)studied the properties of cement paste containing over 15%
dry or calcined RM in temperatures of 600-900 oc. Their results showed that RM waste can be

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used as cement replacement with suitable mechanical properties for construction. Ribeiro et
al. (Ribeiro et al., 2011a)showed that the filling effect of RM can reduce the chloride
penetration in concrete.
On the other hand, LWC is a topic of interest in construction industry and civil engineering

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applications. Since seismic forces acting on structures is directly related to the structure
weight, reduction of the structure weight is of vital importance. In concrete structures, a large
proportion of the total dead load is due to concrete weight. Thus, the best way to reduce

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structure weight is decrease the concrete weight by using LWC. Application of lightweight
structural concrete has increased in many construction projects such as off-shore structures
and towers due to its advantages over normal weight concrete such as higher strength to

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weight ratio, use of smaller cross sections and providing more free space in the structure,
easier concrete transportation and providing suitable thermal and sound insulation (Kayali,
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2008).
Until now, most studies have focused on the effect of RM on cement mortars. Thus, regarding
lack of sufficient studies on RM and the effects of adding such waste material on different
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properties of the concrete, especially in LWC, in this paper, mechanical properties

(compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, density, the
ultrasonic test, water absorption) as well as environmental impacts of structural lightweight
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concrete have been studied for varying RM contents. For comparison of different LWC mixes,
GWP (measured in CO2-equivalent), CED and major criteria air pollutants (CO, Pb, PM10, NOX,
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SO2) are considered as environmental metrics. In order to achieve this purpose, the Green
Concrete Life-Cycle assessment tool introduced by researchers at University of California,
Berkeley(Gursel and Horvath, 2012) is considered. In addition, in order to verify the results, a
series of predictive models proposed in different international codes were used to predict the
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mechanical properties.

2. Experimental and analytical procedure

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2.1 Experimental program

2.1.1 Concrete mixture, materials and mixing procedure
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In this study, Portland cement type II made by Deylaman cement factory (Lahijan, Iran) with a
specific gravity of 3.15 was used. RM waste material provided from Iran alumina company
(Jajarm, Iran) with a specific gravity of 1.96 was used. The chemical composition of cement and
RM is given in Table 1. The fine aggregate used was natural river sand with a fineness modulus
of 2.85 with a specific gravity of 2.65 and water absorption rate of 0.8% . Moreover, the coarse
aggregate used had a maximum size of 19 mm, a specific gravity of 2.6, and a water absorption
rate of 1%. Specific gravity and water absorption rate of fine and coarse aggregates
determined based on ASTM C128 (ASTM C128-15, 2015) and ASTM C127 (ASTM C127-15,
2015)respectively. The size distributions of fine and coarse aggregates are shown in Fig. 2. The
lightweight aggregate (LWA)was expanded clay (Leca) which is a product of Leca factory
(Saveh, Iran) with a specific gravity of 0.8 and 24 h water absorption rate of 16%. LWA was
used as partial replacement for sand. Ultra-fine limestone powder as a mineral admixture,
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provided by Negin factory (Neka, Iran) with a specific gravity of 2.56 was used to enhance
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viscosity and reduction of segregation. Also a MANUSCRIPT
superplasticizer of the third generation (Paya
Ultra 210M) was used. To investigate the different levels of RM addition, six basic LWC mixes
with RM addition levels of 0, 5, 10,15,20 and 25% (ratio of RM to cement by mass) were
considered. More detailed information of mix materials and contents are provided in Table 2.

2.1.2. Test methods

In order to determine compressive strength, fc, three standard 100 × 100 × 100 mm cube
specimens were prepared according to BS EN 12390 (BS EN 12390, 2000) and three standard

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cubes 100 × 100 × 100 mm were also cast from each mix to obtain specific gravity and water
absorption based on ASTM C642 (ASTM C642-13, 2013). Also, for determination of modulus of
elasticity, E, and splitting tensile strength, ft, six standards 150 × 300 mm cylinders were made

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from each mix according to ASTM C469 (ASTM C469, 2011)and ASTM C496 (C496/C496M,
2004)respectively. In addition, three standards beam specimens 500×100×100 mm were used

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to measure flexural strength of the concrete according to ASTM C293 (ASTM C293/C293M,
2010). Then the cube, cylindrical and beam specimens were cured under water at about 20 oc
until the day of the test. An ultrasonic device (PUNDIT) with accuracy of 0.1 µs was used to

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measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves according to ASTM C597 (ASTM C597, 2016). For
each test, all specimens were tested and the average values accompanied by the corresponding
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standard deviation and variation coefficient were reported.
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2.1.3 Description of the estimating models

A series of estimating models in different international codes was used to assess the accuracy
of different models in prediction of mechanical properties of LWC. The estimating models used
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to predict mechanical properties of different mixes are illustrated in Table 3. These estimating
models vary in complexity and precision in the predictions. It should be noted that it is
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essential to adopt some of them to predict the same mechanical properties in all the estimating
models.
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2.2. Analytical procedures for life cycle assessment approach in concrete manufacturing
The environmental impacts of concrete on humans and nature systematically investigated by
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means of a LCA through the quantification of resource inputs and environmental burdens. LCA
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detects areas where improvement strategies are feasible. Therefore, LCA framework is
particularly vital for a methodical analysis of the cradle-to-gate environmental impacts of both
conventional and green concrete production (Gursel et al., 2016). As a consequence, decision
makers such as policy makers and urban planners, developers of green building standards and
construction/engineering companies interested in understanding and lowering the
environmental burdens of concrete to eventually develop sustainable buildings.

2.2.1 LCA methodology

The LCA is a convenient analytical approach that considers all attributes and aspects of the
environmental burdens and resources at their different phases including raw materials,
energy, transportation of inputs and product transportation used throughout a product’s life-
cycle from raw material acquisition via production, use, maintenance, recycling, ultimate
disposal and reuse phases (Fig.3). To provide reliable and credible LCA studies as providing a

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consensus framework and some methodological alternatives, ISO 14040 (ISO, 2006)series of
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standards are developed worldwide.
The Green Concrete LCA tool (Gursel and Horvath, 2012)has been designed, based on the
user’s purpose, to assess environmental life-cycle burdens of concrete mixes containing
different ingredients. The system boundary in Green Concrete LCA tool starts with the
traditional cement manufacturing processes (cradle). The system boundary also consists of
other main material production and preparation processes, transportation of the selected
materials to the batching plant, mixing of concrete materials at the batching plant and
transportation of concrete to the construction site (plant gate) (Gursel et al., 2014). In this
study, authors quantify GWP (in CO2-eq), CED and major criteria air pollutants (CO, NOX, PM10,
and SO2).

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2.2.2 Environmental assessment of concrete mixtures
In this study, Green Concrete LCA tool used (Gursel and Horvath, 2012)to assess the

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environmental impacts of concrete mixes. This tool determines both direct and supply-chain
environmental impacts of each production process during the production of concrete. As a
matter of fact, when a process involves the consumption of electricity, total emissions for each

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mixture, evaluated by Green Concrete LCA tool, are the sum of direct electricity generation
burdens and supply-chain emissions associated with the construction and operation of a
power plant, the life-cycle impacts of the main resources applied in the construction of the

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plant, the operation of the plant that take place within the system boundary. Table 4 shows the
LCA inputs assumptions introduced in the Green Concrete LCA tool, based on a real case
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condition, consist of the production technologies, geographic locations, transportation data
include haul distance and mode selection, as well as type of material choices.
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3. Experimental results and discussion

3.1. Compressive strength
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Variations of compressive strength versus content of cement replacement by RM at ages 3, 7

and 28 days are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 4. It can be seen that compressive strength tends to
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decrease as the content of RM is increased showing strength reduction of 3.5, 8.3, 15, 19.7 and
29.5% for specimens containing respectively 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% RM at the age of 28 days.
The reasons for compressive strength reduction are lower pozzolanic properties of RM
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compared to cement and also higher water absorption as RM content is increased. Although
RM has good filling capacity due to smaller particle size, this effect is not enough to
compensate for lower chemical reactivity and hydration of RM compared to cement and
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consequently compressive strength of specimens decrease as the RM content is increase. The

same trend has been reported by other researchers as well [(Senff et al., 2011b),(Senff et al.,
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2014),(Sawant et al., 2013),(Kang and Kwon, 2017)]. Sawant et al. (Sawant et al., 2013)
showed that increasing RM content as cement replacement in concrete caused the compressive
strength to decrease. Their results showed that the compressive strength of the specimens
containing 25% RM is decreased by 11% and 21% at ages of 7 and 28 days respectively. In the
present study, at the same ages, the decrease in compressive strength was measured to be 18
and 29% respectively. Using different w/c ratios, Senff et al. (Senff et al., 2011b) replaced
cement with RM up to 50% and their results showed a 20% decrease of the 28 days
compressive strength for the specimen containing 15% RM compared to the reference mix.
The results reported in the present research for LWC are in good agreement with their results.
Based on their reported results the mortars containing 20, 30, 40 and 50% RM were
considerably weaker than the reference specimen containing no RM. In another research, Senff

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et al. (Senff et al., 2014)used RM as cement replacement in mortar up to 40% and two different
w/c ratios. In their study, a 15%ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
reduction of 28 days compressive strength was reported for
sample containing 20% RM as compared to the reference specimens. In the same conditions in
the present study, 19.6% strength reduction was detected. Ribeiro et al. (Ribeiro et al., 2011b)
reported 18% and 36% compressive strength reduction at the age of 28 days for mortar
specimens containing 25% and 50% RM replacement respectively, compared to the reference
mix. In addition, Ribeiro et al. (Ribeiro et al., 2010) showed that the 28 days compressive
strength of mortar is improved for up to 15% RM as cement replacement while it is decreased
for RM contents of over 15% cement replacement. In this study, the increasing trend of
compressive strength development for mixes with different RM contents is shown in Fig. 5.

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According to Fig. 5, the strength gain rate of specimens at early ages is higher for mixes with
higher contents of RM. As it can be seen that, concrete mixes without RM gained 65% and 70%
of their 28-day compressive strength at the ages of 3 and 7 days respectively while the

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specimens containing 25% RM as cement replacement gained about 70% and 85% of their 28-
day compressive strength at the ages of 3 and 7 days respectively. It indicates that with

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increase of RM content, hydration rate at early ages is increased. Senff et al. (Senff et al.,
2011a)showed that utilizing RM increases the hydration rate. Tsakirdis et al. (Tsakiridis et al.,
2004)also reported accelerated hydration at early ages when RM is introduced to the mix. This

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can be due to high filling effect of RM particles in accelerating the hydration process. It has
been reported that filling effect of mineral compositions is more significant than their
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pozzolanic properties (Isaia et al., 2003).
In different codes, there are predictive relations that can estimate the compressive strength at
different ages, fc(t), in relation to 28-day compressive strength, fc(28). In the present study, in
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order to predict the compressive strength of LWC containing RM at different ages, fc(t), an
௙೎ (୲)
approximate relation for has been proposed using experimental data and regression
௙೎ (ଶ଼)
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analysis as:
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f c (t )
= ( 0.1558Ln (t ) ) + 0.4815 R 2 = 0.97 (1)
f c (28)
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Where fc(t) is the compressive strength at age (t) in days, fc(28) is the compressive strength at
28 days of age and t is the concrete age (in days).
In Fig. 6, relations in other codes (ACI 209R-92, 1997),(JCI, 2011), (JSCE, 2002),(CEB-FIP,
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2010)are compared with results of the present study. Fig. 6 shows that the relation provided
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by CEB-FIP (CEB-FIP, 2010) can make acceptable estimation with lowest error for fc(t)/fc(28)
in LWC containing RM.

3.2. Splitting tensile strength

Variations of tensile strength versus RM content at ages of 3, 7 and 28 days are shown in Table
5 and Fig. 7. It can be observed that tensile strength of concrete decreases with increase of RM
content. At RM content of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% RM as cement replacement, the 28-day tensile
strength is decreased by 7.3, 15, 19.9, 24.7 and 35% respectively. As discussed earlier, the
reason can conceivably be lower pozzolanic properties of RM compared to cement. Fig. 8
shows increasing trend of tensile strength of concrete specimens containing different contents

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of RM as the concrete is aging. Based on Fig. 8, the higher the RM content, the more rapid the
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strength gain at early ages. At older MANUSCRIPT
ages, strength development is slow. For instance, the
specimens with no RM gained 55% and 65% of their 28-day tensile strength at ages of 3 and 7
days respectively while this value for specimens with 25% RM content as cement replacement
was 70% and 80% respectively showing that presence of RM accelerates hydration at early
ages. The reason mentioned for compressive strength is also true for tensile strength.
Variations of compressive strength versus tensile strength of LWC containing different content
of RM at different ages are shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the tensile strength increases
with increase of compressive strength. Fig. 10 shows the proportion of tensile strength
obtained from the results of the present study for all mixes to the predicted values based on

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relations proposed by well-known international codes[(Committee et al., 2008),(JSCE,
2007),(CEB-FIB, 1990),(JCI, 2011);(AIJ, 2008);(NZS 3101, 2006).(NEN 6722, 2000), (EC-2,
2010);(JSCE, 2002)].

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Considering small difference between the tensile strength predicted from relations in codes
and experimental data, it can be said that predictive models are suitable for LWC containing

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RM. It can be observed that NZS 3101 (NZS 3101, 2006)and ACI 318 (Committee et al.,
2008)code specifications have precision of 20% compared to experimental results. To be more
precise, in lower contents of RM, predictive equation of code NZS 3101 (NZS 3101, 2006) is

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more accurate while for higher contents of RM, predictive equation of ACI 318 (Committee et
al., 2008) can be given more valid.
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3.3. Modulus of elasticity
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Variations of modulus of elasticity versus cement replacement with RM in concrete at the age
of 28 days is shown in Table 6 and Fig. 11. It can be seen that modulus of elasticity is also
decreased by adding RM. At RM contents of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% as cement replacement,
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modulus of elasticity of concrete was decreased by 3, 11, 12, 18 and 26% as compared to the
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reference specimen. The reason for this reduction in modulus of elasticity may be attributed to
the fact that RM addition lead to decrease of aggregate volume in mixture and consequently
lower stiffness in concrete mixture.
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Fig. 12 shows the relation between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity at 28 days
for LWC. It can be seen that modulus of elasticity increases when compressive strength is
increased.
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Fig. 13 shows the ratio of 28-day modulus of elasticity obtained from experimental value to the
28-day modulus of elasticity predicted from compressive strength and specific gravity of
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concrete in international codes [(BS: 8110: Part 2, 1985);(ACI 363, 1992);(NZS 3101,
2006);(NS3473, 1992)]for different contents of RM. According to Fig. 13, modulus of elasticity
of concrete containing RM at the age of 28 predicted by all codes has at most 10% difference
from the modulus of elasticity obtained from experimental value indicating that the predictive
equations in codes give acceptable results for LWC containing RM. It can also be seen that the
values of modulus of elasticity obtained from BS 8110 (BS: 8110: Part 2, 1985)are closest to
experimental values obtained for the concrete containing RM in the present research.

3.4. Flexural strength

The variations in flexural strength at the age of 28 days in terms of replacement percentage of
RM is shown in Table 6 and Fig. 14. It can be observed that flexural strength decreases with

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increasing content of RM. Results showed that at RM contents of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%
replacement, the flexural strengthACCEPTED
of concreteMANUSCRIPT
decreased by 1.6, 10.7, 17, 17.6 and 28.4%
compared to the reference sample which has no RM. Tang (Tang, 2014) showed the same
result for flexural strength reduction with increase of RM content as cement replacement. Fig.
15 shows the relation between compressive strength and flexural strength of LWC containing
different contents of RM.

3.5. Fresh and dry density

Fig. 16 indicates the variations of specific gravity of concrete at the age of 28 days in regards

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with cement replacement by RM. The dry density is between 1685-1789 (kg/m3) while the
fresh density is between 1752-1844 (kg/m3). It can be observed that the specific gravity is
decreases when RM content in concrete is increased. According to the results, the specific

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gravity of the concrete specimen containing 25% RM is roughly 5% lower than the reference
specimen which has no RM.

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3.6. Water absorption
Water absorption of LWC containing various contents of RM as cement replacement is shown
in Table 6 and Fig. 17. It can be seen that increasing the RM content, water absorption is

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increased. Results showed that 15, 20 and 25% RM content as cement replacement, lead to 23,
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26 and 30% growth of water absorption compared to the reference specimen which has no
RM. The main reason why water absorption is increased is the increase of porosity due to use
of RM as reported by other researchers ((Senff et al., 2011b);(Kang and Kwon, 2017)). CEB-FIP
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(CEB-FIP, 1989)categorizes concrete, in terms of quality, into three levels namely poor,
average and good with water absorption of 0-3%, 3-5% and 5% or above respectively. The
limits of these categories are display in Fig. 17. All concrete specimens studied in the present
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research had water absorptions of above 3% and below 5% which introduced the concrete in
average absorption level. In another research by Kosmatka et al.(Kosmatka et al., 2002), it is
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reported that a concrete with high quality has water absorption lower than 5%.

3.7. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

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Variation of ultrasonic wave velocity passing through the LWC specimens in regard to percent
of RM as cement replacement at the ages of 3, 7 and 28 days are displayed in Fig. 18. It can be
seen that the velocity of ultrasonic waves is reduced with increase of RM content. In quality
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classification of concrete, based on BIS 11331-92 (BIS: 11331, 1992), the titles excellent, good,
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medium and doubtful as introduced to have UPV of respectively 4500 (m/s) or above, 3500-
4500 (m/s), 3000-3500 (m/s) and finally 3000 (m/s) and lower. In Fig. 18, quality ranges
corresponding to ultrasonic wave velocities are shown with a dotted line. It can be seen that all
specimens with various RM contents lie in the good region of the graph. Fig. 19 shows an
increasing trend of ultrasonic wave velocity of the specimens with varying RM contents with
age. It can be seen that UPV for all specimens increased due to aging. Fig. 20 shows a relation
between the compressive strength and the velocity of ultrasonic waves at different ages for
LWC. Based on the results, an approximate predictive relation between fc and UPV is proposed
for LWC containing RM based on experimental data and regression analysis as:

f c = 0.3828exp1.0374V R 2 = 0.84 (2)

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Where fc is the compressive strength in Mpa and V is the velocity of ultrasonic waves passing
through the specimen in (km/s). ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

In order to evaluate the proposed relation between the compressive strength and the
ultrasonic wave velocity for LWC containing RM, the values for compressive strength obtained
from experimental data are compared with the values predicted from Eq.2 and the results are
shown in Table 7. It can be seen that the predicted values are in a range of -10.72% to +11.29%
error compared to actual compressive strength indicating that the predictive equation
between the compressive strength and UPV has acceptable accuracy.

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3.8. Environmental impact analysis
Variations of CO2-eq versus cement replacement with RM in concrete is shown in Fig.21. As can
be seen from Fig.21, an increase in the RM content from 0% to 25% results in a decrease in

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CO2-eq from 556.8 to 409.9 Kg.m-3 . Accordingly, CO2-eq increases with the quantity of cement
used in concrete mix. Generally, it can be claimed that the cement alone is responsible for the
highest CO2 emissions. Thus, the use of RM is sustainable even in the case of delivery distances

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that are remarkably longer than the delivery distance of the cement. Figs 22 and 23 presented
the determined intensity of CO2-eq emissions per unit volume of concrete per 28- day
mechanical properties (compressive, tensile and flexural strengths as well as modulus of

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elasticity) for the concrete mixes used in the study. The GWP (CO2-eq) intensity is defined as a
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suitable alternative of evaluating the different impacts of concrete use (Yang et al.,
2013)because this index permits for the take into of both performance (e.g., mechanical
behaviour) and contribution of concrete mixes to GWP per its unit volume and strength. As can
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be seen, intensity of CO2-eq emissions normalized by different mechanical properties for

concrete containing RM up to 20% replacement level is lower than that of reference specimen
which has no RM.
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In this study, CED indicates the energy required during the life cycle of LWC. A graphical
comparison between normalized CED in concrete with different RM contents is presented in
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Fig 24. As can be seen, with an increase in the RM content compared to 0% RM, reduction in
the value of CED is about 31%.
Fig25. presents a comparison between normalized major criteria air pollutants in concrete
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with different RM contents. As can be seen, with an increase in the RM content compared to
0% RM, reduction in the quantities of CO, NOX, Pb and SO2 is about 32.5%,17.1%, 31.8% and
22.4% respectively. generally, it should be mentioned that due to fuel combustion during pyro-
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processing stage the main criteria air pollutants of CO, NOX, Pb and SO2 augment with increase
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of cement content.

4. Conclusions
The major aim of this research study was to investigate the effect of RM on the environmental
impacts and mechanical properties of LWC. Regarding LCA tool used, and the goal, scope,
geographic limitations of the environmental impact inventory data in the LCA study, the
following conclusions can be drawn from the study:
(1) Increasing the RM content decreases the compressive strength for instance, the 28-day
compressive strength of the specimen containing 25% RM is about 29.5% lower than that
of the reference concrete.

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(2) The relation predicted in CEB-FIP can give acceptable estimate for fc(t)/fc(28) for
lightweight concrete containingACCEPTED
RM. MANUSCRIPT
(3) With increase of RM content, the tensile strength of the concrete specimen is decreased.
For instance, the 28-day tensile strength of lightweight concrete containing 25% RM is
roughly 35% lower than that of the reference concrete.
(4) Increasing the content of RM, the rate of strength gain at early ages is faster.
(5) Increasing the content of RM, modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced. For instance,
modulus of elasticity of the concrete containing 25% RM content is about 26% lower than
of the reference concrete.
(6) The predictive relation in BS 8110 can acceptably estimate the modulus of elasticity of

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lightweight concrete containing RM with an error of lower 5%.
(7) Increasing RM content, the flexural strength of the concrete is decreased. For instance, the
flexural strength of the specimen containing 25% RM is roughly 28.4% lower compared to

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the flexural strength of the reference concrete.
(8) Increasing the replacing RM content from 0% to 25%, the tensile strength undergoes the

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highest reduction while modulus of elasticity has the lowest decrease among all concrete
mechanical properties.
(9) Increasing the content of RM, the water absorption is increased. For instance, the

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lightweight concrete containing 25% RM has 30% higher water absorption than that of
reference concrete.
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(10) Increasing the RM content, the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the concrete is decreased.
(11) When RM content increases from 0% to 25%, CO2-eq, as a measure of global warming
potential decreases from 556.8 to 409.9 Kg.m-3, implying that concrete sustainability
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increases with increase of RM content.

(12) with an increase in the RM content from 0% to 25%, reduction in the quantities of CED,
CO, NOX, Pb and SO2 is about 31%,32.5%,31.8%,17.1% and 22.4% respectively.
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References
ACI 209R-92, 1997. Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in
C

Concrete Structures. ACI Comm. 209 Rep. 92, ACI Committee 209.
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AC

ACI 363, 1992. State of the Art Report on High-Strength Concrete, American
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circumstances.
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Strength of Test Specimens.” Br. Stand. Institution, London.
C496/C496M, A., 2004. 496, Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of
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M

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requirements for structural concrete (ACI 318-08) and commentary.

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cement paste containing red mud. Cem. Concr. Compos. 62, 178–186.
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standardization.
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 38–48.
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He, J., Jie, Y., Zhang, J., Yu, Y., Zhang, MANUSCRIPT
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on efflorescence in cement mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 133, 459–467.
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Ribeiro, D.V., Labrincha, J.A., Morelli, M.R., 2011b. Potential use of natural red
mud as pozzolan for Portland ACCEPTED
cement. MANUSCRIPT
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rheological behaviour and on hardened state characteristics of cement
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Influence of red mud addition on rheological behavior and hardened
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Tang, L., 2014. Study of the possibilities of using Red Mud as an additive in
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Tsakiridis, P.E., Agatzini-Leonardou, S., Oustadakis, P., 2004. Red mud addition in
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116, 103–110.
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Yang, K.-H., Song, J.-K., Song, K.-I., 2013. Assessment of CO 2 reduction of alkali-
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Yao, Y., Li, Y., Liu, X., Jiang, S., Feng, C., Rafanan, E., 2013. Characterization on a
cementitious material composed of red mud and coal industry byproducts.
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Constr. Build. Mater. 47, 496–501.

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List of tables:
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 1: Chemical composition of Portland cement and RM.

Table 2. Compositions of the mixtures.
Table 3. Estimating equations of the different models. (a) Development of compressive strength
with time, (b) splitting tensile strength, (c) modulus of elasticity.
Table 4. Assumptions for the concrete mix production LCA calculations
Table 5: Compressive and splitting tensile strength of concrete mixes.
Table 6: Flexural strength, modulus of elasticity and water absorption of concrete mixes at 28

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days.
Table 7: Verification of relationship between pulse velocity and compressive strength.

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Table 1. Chemical composition of Portland cement and RM.

Component Portland cement (wt.%) RM (wt.%)
SiO2 21.91 14.8
Al2O3 5.06 17.7
Fe2O3 3.75 27.6
CaO 64.86 14.7

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MgO 0.8 1.7
LOI 0.55 9.7
K2O 0.51 0.1

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Na2O 0.25 5.4
TiO2 - 7.2
P2O5 - 0.2

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MnO - 0.1
SO3 1.67 -

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Table 2. Compositions of the mixtures.
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RM Fine Limestone
Cement Coarse Agg. Leca Water Superplasticizer
Mix ID Agg. powder
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)
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% (kg/m3)
RM0% 450 0 0 228.3 186.8 300 180 228 4.73
RM5% 427.5 5 22.5 221.7 181.4 300 180 228 4.98
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RM10% 405 10 45 215.4 176.2 300 180 228 5.11

RM15% 382.5 15 67.5 209 171 300 180 228 5.24
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RM20% 360 20 90 202.7 165.8 300 180 228 5.35

RM25% 337.5 25 112.5 196.4 160.6 300 180 228 5.42
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Table 3. Estimating equations of the different models. (a) Development of compressive strength
with time, (b) splitting tensile strength, (c) modulus of elasticity.
Concrete property Code Estimating model Units
f cu :( M Pa )
ACI 209-82 (ACI
f cu (t ) / f cu (28) = (t / (4 + 0.85(t )))
209R-92, 1997)

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CEB–FIP 2010
Development of
f cu (t ) / f cu ( 28) = exp(0.25(1 − (28 / t ) 0.5 ))
f cu :( M Pa )
(CEB-FIP, 2010)
compressive

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strength with time f cu :( M Pa )
JSCE (JSCE, 2002)
f cu (t ) / f cu (28) = 1.11(t / (4.5 + 0.95(t )))

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JCI (JCI, 2011) f cu :( M Pa )
f cu (t ) / f cu (28) = 0.2289 Ln (t ) + 0.235
ACI 318 f ct = 0.47 f cu

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(Committee et al., f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )
2008)
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EC-2 (EC-2, 2010) f ct = 1/ 3 (f cu − 8) 2/3 × (0.4 + 0.6( ρ / 2200)) f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )

JSCE 2002 (JSCE,

f ct = 0.44 f cu f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )
2002)
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AIJ (AIJ, 2008) f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )

f ct = 0.1 8 f 0.75
cu
Tensile strength
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CEB-FIP 1990
f ct = 1.56 ( ( f cu − 8) / 10) 2 / 3 f cu :( MPa ) f ct :( MPa )
(CEB-FIB, 1990)
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JCI (JCI, 2011)
 = 0.13

f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )

JSCE 2007 (JSCE, 

( )

 = 0.23

 f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )
2007)
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NEN 6722 (NEN

 = 1 + 0.05

f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )
6722, 2000)
NZS 3101 (NZS
f ct = 0.54 f cu f cu :( M Pa ) f ct :( M Pa )
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3101, 2006)
ACI 318
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(Committee et al.,  = 0.043 . 


f cu :( M Pa ) E c :( MPa )
2008)
NZS 3101 (NZS  .
 = (6900 + 3320

) × ( ) f cu :( M Pa ) E c :( MPa )
3101, 2006) 2300

Modulus of elasticity BS 8110 (BS: 8110:

 = 1.7 


. f cu :( MPa ) E c :(GPa )

Part 2, 1985)
NS 3473 (NS3473, .
 
 = 9500

×( ) f cu :( M Pa ) E c :( MPa )
1992) 2200

ACI 363 (ACI 363,  .

 = (6900 + 3320

) × ( ) f cu :( M Pa ) E c :( MPa )
1992) 2320

fc: characteristic compressive strength of concrete fcm: Mean compressive strength of concrete. fc(t): Compressive
strength at age (t) in days. fc(28): Compressive strength at 28 days of age. t: Concrete age (in days). ρ: Unit weight of
concrete (kg/m3). Ec: Modulus of elasticity of concrete.

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Table 4. Assumptions for the concrete mix production LCA calculations*

User-Input Data: Assumption

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Type of cement Type II
Type of SCMs Red mud
Type of admixture Superplasticizer
Electricity grid mix for: Location

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Cement supplier Deylaman, Iran
Fine aggregates supplier Sangar,Iran
Coarse aggregates supplier Sangar,Iran
Gypsum supplier Semnan, Iran
Red mud supplier Jajarm,Iran

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Leca supplier Saveh, Iran
Limestone supplier Tehran,Iran
Transportation details for: Mode Distance (km)
Cement raw materials to cement plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 1

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Gypsum to cement plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 500
Cement to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 100
Fine aggregates to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 100
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Coarse aggregates to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 100
Admixture to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 500
Red mud to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 800
Leca to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 500
Limestone powder to concrete plant Truck_Class 8b (Model 2005) 400
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Technology options for: Type of technology selected Distance (m)

Cement raw materials prehomogenization Dry, raw storing, preblending
Cement raw materials grinding Dry, raw grinding, ball mill
Cement raw meal blending/homogenization Dry, raw meal blending, storage
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Preheater/Precalciner kiln with US

Clinker pyroprocessing
average kiln fuel mix
Reciprocating grate cooler
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Clinker cooling
(modern)
Cement finish milling/grinding/blending Roller press
Cement PM control technology ESP
Conveying within the cement plant Screw pump 20 m between process stations
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Concrete batching plant loading/mixing Mixer loading (central mix)

Concrete batching plant PM control Fabric filter
* For further details see GreenConcrete LCA tool (Website: http://greenconcrete.berkeley.edu/ ).
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Table 5. Compressive and splitting tensile strength of concrete mixes.

Number of specimen Compressive strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa)
Age
Mix tested (Standard (Standard
(days)
for each mixture deviation-r/mean (COV%)) deviation-r/mean (COV%))
RM0% 3 3 1.31/18.83 (6.97) 0.04/1.52 (2.34)
7 3 1.22/21.00 (5.83) 0.09/1.82 (5.21)
28 3 1.03/28.83 (3.56) 0.06/2.87 (2.21)
RM5% 3 3 1.84/18.66 (9.87) 0.05/1.52 (3.06)

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7 3 0.71/21.00 (3.37) 0.05/1.78 (2.86)
28 3 0.62/27.83 (2.24) 0.10/2.66 (3.59)
RM10% 3 3 0.82/16.50 (4.95) 0.07/1.48 (4.52)

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7 3 1.63/20.00 (8.16) 0.07/1.68 (4.18)
28 3 0.49/26.43 (1.86) 0.06/2.43 (2.62)
RM15% 3 3 0.91/15.80 (5.75) 0.07/1.46 (4.57)

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7 3 1.41/19.00 (7.44) 0.09/1.65 (5.57)
28 3 0.41/24.50 (1.67) 0.12/2.30 (5.07)
RM20% 3 3 1.22/15.00 (8.16) 0.07/1.40 (4.98)

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7 3 0.82/18.50 (4.41) 0.12/1.59 (7.67)
28 3 0.62/23.16 (2.69) 0.16/2.16 (7.17)
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RM25% 3 3 1.25/13.67 (9.13) 0.21/1.30 (16.08)
7 3 0.85/17.17 (4.95) 0.07/1.48 (4.90)
28 3 0.24/20.33 (1.16) 0.06/1.86 (3.29)
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Table 6. Flexural strength, modulus of elasticity and water absorption of concrete mixes at 28
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days.
Mix Number of Flexural strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Water absorption (%)
specimen tested (Standard deviation-r/mean (Standard deviation-r/mean (Standard deviation-r/mean
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(COV%)) (COV%)) (COV%))

RM0% 3 0.51/8.10 (6.30) 0.50/18.32 (2.75) 0.26/3.02 (8.45)

RM5% 3 0.37/7.97 (4.62) 0.39/17.70 (2.18) 0.22/2.97 (7.25)
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RM10% 3 0.52/7.23 (7.26) 0.74/16.36 (4.50) 0.24/3.53 (6.76)

RM15% 3 0.56/6.73 (8.25) 0.23/16.11 (1.42) 0.23/3.72 (6.06)
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RM20% 3 0.80/6.67 (12.02) 0.26/14.95 (1.77) 0.46/3.80 (12.10)

RM25% 3 0.83/5.80 (14.29) 0.35/13.59 (2.57) 0.45/3.94 (11.51)

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Table 7. Verification of relationship between pulse velocity and compressive strength.

Sample Pulse velocity Predicated Actual Variation (%)
(m/s) compressive strength compressive
(MPa) strength (MPa)
1 3850 20.77 18.67 +11.29
2 3940 22.81 21.00 +8.61
3 4170 28.95 27.83 +4.03

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4 3720 18.15 16.50 +10.02
5 3850 20.77 20.00 +3.87
6 4010 24.53 26.43 -7.22

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7 3650 16.88 15.80 +6.85
8 3780 19.32 19.00 +1.68

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9 3940 22.81 24.50 -6.91
10 3580 15.70 15.00 +4.67
11 3650 16.88 18.50 -8.74
12 3850 20.77 23.17 -10.32

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13 3500 14.45 13.67 +5.73
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14 3580 15.70 17.17 -8.54
15 3720 18.15 20.33 -10.72
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List of Figs:
Fig. 1. RM storage area, Jajarm, Iran.ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the aggregates.
Fig.3. Scope of the Green Concrete LCA tool: Cradle-to-gate concrete production processes and
associated life-cycle impacts
Fig. 4. Compressive strength of concrete (3, 7 and 28 days of curing) as a function of RM content
substituting Portland cement.
Fig. 5. Variation of Compressive strength at different age with different contents of RM.
Fig. 6. Comparison of fc(t)/fc(28) of the various models with the experimental values.
Fig. 7. Tensile strength of concrete (3, 7 and 28 days of curing) as a function of RM content substituting
Portland cement.
Fig. 8. Variation of tensile strength at different age with different contents of RM.

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Fig. 9. Relationship between compressive strength and tensile strength for concrete with different
contents of RM.
Fig. 10. The ratio between tensile strength of the various models to the experimental values.

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Fig. 11. Modulus of elasticity of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
Fig. 12. Relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity for concrete with
different contents of RM.

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Fig. 13. The ratio between modulus of elasticity of the various models to the experimental values.
Fig. 14. Flexural strength of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
Fig. 15. Relationship between compressive strength and flexural strength for concrete with different

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contents of RM.
Fig. 16. Fresh and dry density of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
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Fig. 17. Water absorption of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
Fig. 18. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
Fig. 19. Variation of UPV at different age with different contents of RM.
Fig. 20. Relationship between compressive strength and UPV for concrete with RM.
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Fig.21.Total GWP during concrete production (kg CO2-eq / m3 of concrete).

Fig.22. Normalized GWPs with respect to compressive and tensile strength.
Fig.23. Normalized GWPs with respect to flexural strength and elastic modulus.
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Fig.24.Variation of CED for mixes prepared with different RM content.

Fig.25.Variation of the major criteria air pollutants for mixes prepared with different RM content.
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Fig. 1. RM storage area, Jajarm, Iran.

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Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the aggregates.

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Fig.3: Scope of the Green Concrete LCA tool: Cradle-to-gate concrete production processes and
associated life-cycle impacts
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Fig. 4. Compressive strength of concrete (3, 7 and 28 days of curing) as a function of RM content
substituting Portland cement.

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Fig. 5. Variation of Compressive strength at different age with different contents of RM.
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Fig. 6. Comparison of fc(t)/fc(28) of the various models with the experimental values.

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Fig. 7. Tensile strength of concrete (3, 7 and 28 days of curing) as a function of RM content substituting
Portland cement.

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Fig. 8. Variation of tensile strength at different age with different contents of RM.
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Fig. 9. Relationship between compressive strength and tensile strength for concrete with different
contents of RM.

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Fig. 10. The ratio between tensile strength of the various models to the experimental values.

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Fig. 11. Modulus of elasticity of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
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Fig. 12. Relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity for concrete with
different contents of RM.

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Fig. 13. The ratio between modulus of elasticity of the various models to the experimental values.
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Fig. 14. Flexural strength of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.

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Fig. 15. Relationship between compressive strength and flexural strength for concrete with different
contents of RM.

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Fig. 16. Fresh and dry density of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
C EP
AC

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Fig. 17. Water absorption of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.

U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP

Fig. 18. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of concrete as a function of RM content substituting Portland cement.
C
AC

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Fig. 19. Variation of UPV at different age with different contents of RM.

U SC
AN
M
D
TE
EP

Fig. 20. Relationship between compressive strength and UPV for concrete with RM.
C
AC

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550

CO2-eq (Kg.m-3/MPa)
500

450

400

350

PT
300
RM 0% RM 5% RM 10% RM 15% RM 20% RM 25%

RI
Concrete Mix ID

SC
Fig.21.Total GWP during concrete production (kg CO2-eq / m3 of concrete)

U
AN

GWP normalized w.r.t Compressive strength

230 22
GWP normalized w.r.t Tensile strength

GWP normalized w.r.t Tensile strength

M

220 GWP normalized w.r.t Compressive strength 21

210 20
(Kg.m-3/MPa)

(Kg.m-3/MPa)
D

200 19
TE

190 18

180 17
EP

170 16
RM 0% RM 5% RM 10% RM 15% RM 20% RM 25%
C

Concrete Mix ID
AC

Fig.22. Normalized GWPs with respect to compressive and tensile strength.

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GWP normalized w.r.t Felexural strength

GWP normalized w.r.t Elastic modulus

GWP normalized w.r.t Felexural strength
70 GWP normalized w.r.t Elastic modulus 31

68 30
(Kg.m-3/MPa)

(Kg.m-3/GPa)
66 29

64 28

62 27

60 26

PT
58 25
RM 0% RM 5% RM 10% RM 15% RM 20% RM 25%

RI
Concrete Mix ID

SC
Fig.23. Normalized GWPs with respect to flexural strength and elastic modulus.

U
AN
1.2
M

1
Relative value of CED

0.8
D

0.6
TE

0.4
EP

0.2

0
RM 0% RM 5% RM 10% RM 15% RM 20% RM 25%
C
AC

Fig.24.Variation of CED for mixes prepared with different RM content.

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1.2
RM0 RM5 RM10 RM15 RM20 RM25
1

Relative value 0.8

0.6

PT
0.4

0.2

RI
0
CO Pb NOx SO2

SC
Fig.25.Variation of the major criteria air pollutants for mixes prepared

U
with different RM content.
AN
M
D
TE
C EP
AC

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HIGHLIGHTS

Red mud waste can be used as replacement of cement in LWC.

Mechanical properties of LWC were investigated.
Increase of red mud content reduces the compressive strength.
When RM content increases, CO2-eq, as an index of global warming potential decreases.

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
C EP
AC