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Lecture Outline
• Cardiovascular System Function
• Functional Anatomy of the Heart
• Properties of Myocardium
• Cardiac Cycle
• Cardiac Output
• Blood Pressure
Cardiovascular system
1. Heart
2. Blood Vessels
3. Blood
What Are the Parts of the Circulatory
System?
• Two pathways come from the heart:
• The pulmonary circulation is a short loop
from the heart to the lungs, where blood is
oxygenatedand.
• The systemic circulation carries blood
from the heart to all the other parts of the
body.
Pulmonary circulation
• In pulmonary circulation:
• The pulmonary artery is
a big artery that comes
from the heart. It brings
blood from the heart to
the lungs. At the lungs,
the blood picks up
oxygen and drops off
carbon dioxide. The
blood then returns to the
heart through the
pulmonary veins.
Systemic circulation
The left side of the heart
pumps blood to the rest of the
tissues of the body through the
systemic circulation: Blood
pumped from left ventricle
passes through a series of
blood vessels, arterial system
and reaches the tissues.
Exchange of various
substances between blood and
the tissues occurs at the
capillaries. After exchange of
materials, blood enters the
venous system and returns to
right atrium of the heart. From
right atrium, blood enters the
right ventricle.
The Circulatory System
HEART
• The heart is a muscular organ about
the size of a closed fist that functions
as a body’s circulatory pump.
Functional anatomy of the heart
• Characteristics of
Pacemaker Cells
– Smaller than conduction myofibers
contractile cells
– Don’t contain many normal contractile
myocardial cell
myofibrils
– No organized
sarcomere structure
• do not contribute to SA node cell
the contractile force AV node cells
of the heart
Automaticity
Autorhythmic Cells (Pacemaker Cells)
•Characteristics of Pacemaker Cells: They
have unstable membrane potential
•“bottoms out” at -60mV
•“drifts upward” to -40mV, forming
a pacemaker potential
•The upward “drift” allows the membrane
to reach threshold potential (-40mV) by Ca2+ in K+out
itself
•This is due to:
1.Leakage Na+ causes slow depolarization Ca2+ in
2.Ca2+ voltage-gated channels opening as Na+in
membrane approaches threshold (Ca2+
goes in)
At threshold additional Ca2+ voltage-gated
channels open causing more rapid
depolarization
3. Slow K+ voltage-gated channels open
causing an efflux of K+ (K+ goes out) and
The RMP in different cell types
Excitability
Contractile Cells
• Special aspects
– Intercalated discs
•Highly convoluted and
interdigitated junctions
–Joint adjacent cells with
»Desmosomes & fascia adherens
–Allow for synticial activity
»With gap junctions
–More mitochondria than skeletal
muscle
–Less sarcoplasmic reticulum
•Ca2+ also influxes from ECF reducing
storage need
–Larger t-tubules
•Internally branching
–Myocardial contractions are
graded!
EXCITABILITY
Phases of action potential of contractile
cells
Excitability
Action potential of contractile cells
• Phase 0
(depolarization)begins when
the membrane potential
reaches threshold (–40 mV).
Similar to nerve and skeletal
muscle, mediated by the
opening of voltage-gated, fast
Na+ channels
• Phase 1 (initial
repolarization) Slight
repolarization mediated by a
transient potassium current.
Sodium channels are in the
inactivated state.
Excitability
Action potential of contractile cells
• Phase 2 (plateau)
Depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
and voltage-gated K+ channels
• Phase 3 (repolarization)
At this point, the Ca++ channels close and K+
channels open. The resulting efflux of K+ ions
causes the repolarization phase of the action
potential.
• Phase 4 Resting membrane potential
Excitability
Action potential of contractile cells
• As in neurons, cardiac muscle
cells undergo an absolute or
effective refractory period in
which, at the peak of the action
potential, the voltage-gated fast
Na+ channels become inactivated
and incapable of opening
regardless of further stimulation.
As a result, the absolute refractory
period lasts almost as long as the
duration of the associated
contraction — about 250 msec.
The physiological significance of The effective refractory period is followed by
a relative refractory period that lasts for the
this phenomenon is that it remaining 50 msec of the ventricular action
prevents the development of potential. During this period, action
potentials may be generated; however, the
tetanus or spasm of the myocardium is more difficult than normal to
ventricular myocardium. excite.
Myocardial Physiology
Contractile Cells
• Consists of
“pacemaker”
cells and
conduction
pathways
– Coordinate the
contraction of the
atria and
ventricles
Contractility
• Initiation
– Action potential via pacemaker
cells to conduction fibers
• Excitation-Contraction Coupling
1. AP spreads along sarcolemma
• T-tubules contain voltage gated L-
type Ca2+ channels which open upon
depolarization
• Ca2+ entrance into myocardial cell
and opens RyR (ryanodine receptors)
Ca2+ release channels
2. Ca2+ (Ca2+ from SR and ECF) binds
to troponin to initiate myosin head
attachment to actin
• Contraction
Contractility
• Relaxation
– Ca2+ is transported back
into the SR and
– Ca2+ is transported out of
the cell by a facilitated
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX)
– As ICF Ca2+ levels drop,
interactions between
myosin/actin are stopped
– Sarcomere lengthens
Electrocardiography
• is the recording of the electrical activity
of the heart.
• It is based on recording of
electric potentials generated by heart on
different body parts (mostly on body
surface)
Electrocardiogram is graphic record
of the electrocardiography
Elements of ECG
1.Waves
2.Segments
3.Intervals
Elements of ECG
• Waves are parts of ECG, which are
located above or below the isoline.
• Segments are parts of ECG, which are
located on the isoline.
• Intervals include waves and segments.
Waves of ECG
Waves of ECG
• P wave represents atrial depolarization
• QRS complex represents ventricular
depolarization
• T wave represents ventricular
repolarization
• U wave represents repolarization of the
papillary muscles or Purkinje fibers.
Blood Vessels
Over 80,000 miles of blood vessels transport your blood throughout your body.
There are 3 types of blood vessels.
– Smallest vessel
– Microscopic
– Wall one cell thin
– Nutrients and
gases diffuse here
Veins:
Carries blood to heart
– influenced by
• Stroke Volume (SV)
EDV – ESV = SV
135ml – 65ml = 70ml
• Heart Rate (HR) bpm
– CO = SV x HR
(70ml/b x 72bpm = 5040 ml/min
=5.04L/min)
Blood Vessel Structure
– Capillaries
• Allow for exchange
– Venules
• Collect and direct
blood to the veins
– Veins
• Return blood to heart
and act as a blood
reservoir
Physical Characteristics of the
Circulation
• Hemodynamics is the description of the
laws which govern blood flow within the
vasculature.
• Ultimately, all blood flow between two
points within the vasculature is actuated
by differences in the pressure of blood
between those two points.
Interrelationships Among
Pressure, Flow, and
Resistance
Blood flow through a vessel is
determined by 2 factors:
• pressure gradient along the vessel
(pressure difference of the blood between
the two ends of the vessel)
• vascular resistance (impediment to blood
flow through the vessel)
The flow through the vessel can be
calculated by the following formula, which is
called Ohm’s law :
Q = (P1 - P2) / R
– Systolic Pressure
• The pressure that is created when the ventricles
contract
• Usually around 120 mm Hg
Blood Pressure
– Diastolic Pressure
• The pressure that is created by the recoil of the
aorta AND the closure of the aortic semilunar valve
• Usually around 80 mm Hg
Blood Pressure
Pulse Pressure
• Pulse Pressure=Systolic Pressure - Diastolic
Pressure
• The difference between the systolic and diastolic
pressures
– Usually 40 mm Hg (120 mm Hg – 80 mm Hg)
• Only applies to arteries
Mean Arterial Pressure
• We can determine the average pressure within the
arterial system = Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
MAP = Diastolic Pressure + 1/3 Pulse
Pressure
MAP = 80 mm Hg + 1/3( 120 mm Hg – 80 mm
Hg)
MAP = 93 mm Hg
QUESTIONS
1. The cardiovascular system. Functions. The pulmonary and systemic circuits.
2. The heart muscle cells. Structure.
3. Properties of the cardiac muscle.
4. Automaticity of the heart. Pasemaker cells.
5. Conductivity of the heart. Conductive system of the heart.
6. Excitability of the heart. Cardiac Action potential . The refractory periods of the cardiac muscle.
7. Contractility of the heart. Mechanism of cardiac muscle cell contraction.
8. The normal electrocardiogram.
9. Elements of ECG.
10. Mechanical events in the heart: cardiac cycle . Steps of the cardiac cycle .
11. Electrical events of cardiac cycle.
12. The origin of the heart sounds.
13. Ventricular volume-pressure loop.
14. Stroke volume. Control of stroke volume. Ejection fraction.
15. Cardiac output (CO). Regulation of CO .
16. Types and characteristics of blood vessels.
17. Relationship between blood flow, pressure and resistance.
18. Pressures in the cardiovascular system. Arterial pressure in the systemic circulation: diastolic,
systolic, pulse and mean arterial pressures.
19. Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure.