CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS OF RELATIONAL

DATA BASES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL GIS

By Amr A. Oloufa,1 C. S. Papacostas, 2 Members, ASCE, and
Reynaldo Espino, 3 Associate Member, ASCE
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ABSTRACT: A geographic information system (GIS) is a hybrid between computer-

assisted drafting and data-base programs, where geographically characterized in-
formation retrieved from the data base is displayed on a graphical representation
of a site. GISs, however, have been developed by specializations interested mainly
in two-dimensional land surface applications, and they generally lack three-dimen-
sional capabilities. By contrast, many civil engineering applications require three-
dimensional characterization of a site. This paper describes a method of extending
the PC Arc/Info GIS to represent boreholes as complex three-dimensional objects
and to include such borehole data in a regional geotechnical data base. Borehole
data in the form of boring logs can be graphically displayed entirely within the Arc/
Info environment through the creation of pseudo-coverages using the Arc/Info
drawing and annotation capabilities. For more advanced engineering analyses, it
is necessary to interface data contained within the data base with external programs.
This paper illustrates this possibility by an interface to HOOPS, an object-oriented
graphics library, to construct a three-dimensional representation of soil strata.

INTRODUCTION

Data in a typical geotechnical study of a construction project may come

from a variety of sources, such as site investigations, field instrumentation,
model studies, and lab tests. The vast quantities of data are used by a variety
of individuals, some of whom may not be directly related to the project.
Moreover, as the project progresses, new data become available and have
to be continuously assimilated with the information gathered at the earlier
stages of the project. Additionally, there is often a need for the construction
team to review information related to parcels in the general vicinity of their
project. This information is most often found only in hard-copy reports of
earlier geotechnical studies that are difficult to locate and retrieve. It is
therefore advantageous to store this information in an automated format
suited for manipulation by the many individuals interested in it. Special-
purpose geotechnical data management systems have been commercially
developed and general-purpose data-base systems have been tailored to
specific geotechnical engineering needs. For example, gINT is a commercial
program that allows the user to input, review, and modify boreholes or soil
tests obtained from a single project in both text and graphics formats. Lee
et al. (1990) have investigated the use of dBase III, a general-purpose
relational data base, for the management of soil data and test results. The
system was used to capture and manage an extensive set of instrument

'Asst. Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Hawaii, 2540 Dole St., Holmes 383,
Honolulu, H I 96822.
2
Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Hawaii, 2540 Dole St., Holmes 383, Hon-
olulu, H I .
3
Res. Asst., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Hawaii, 2540 Dole St., Holmes 383,
Honolulu, H I .
Note. Discussion open until June 1, 1992. To extend the closing date one month,
a written request must be filed with the A S C E Manager of Journals. The manuscript
for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on September 19,
1990. This paper is part of the Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, Vol. 6,
No. 1, January, 1992. © A S C E , ISSN 0887-3801/92/0001-0072/$!.00 + $.15 per page.
Paper No. 465.

72

J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 readings and test results generated from a project in Singapore. These data
management systems suffer from the following disadvantages.

1. The information stored does not have any locational specification, i.e.,
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information related to the geographic location of the data in relation to data

taken at different locations. For example, in determining a foundation type, the
designer has to consider a variety of inputs, such as soil type, structure, and
type and nature of surrounding buildings. It is desirable for the designer to be
able to view a map of the area containing the project, zoom to a specific site,
view the locations of earlier geotechnical investigations in the area, and retrieve
relevant data from these sources.
2. Relational data bases used to store and manage information do not have
the capability to exploit the data connections to space and geometry. This
relation to space and geometry is important to consider, since there exist geo-
metric and topological relations between the different data elements. For ex-
ample, a building may be situated on a parcel that is adjacent to a lot that has
pockets of compressible soils and a fault.
3. Usual queries for data in commercial data bases yield one or more data
elements in the form of a list, such as: "List all engineers earning more than
$80,000." In construction applications, however, a typical query might be, "List
all areas with a sandy-clay soil that exist within a particular area." It is important
for this type of query to be answered fast. The storage structure should therefore
support speedy access to data in the neighborhood of an area or parcel. More-
over, expressing topological conditions (e.g., "A is within B") or geometrical
attributes (e.g., "A is nearer to B than C") in relational calculus is extremely
difficult, if not impossible (Frank 1982).

QIS CAPABILITIES

Geographic information systems (GIS) represent an attempt to address

some of these problems. A GIS is a technology that stores and displays both
spatial and nonspatial data. Some commercially available GIS programs also
have been augmented by various data analysis capabilities. The shortcom-
ings listed in the previous section are addressed by GIS programs as follows.

1. GISs bring forward the notion of spatial data processing, as opposed to

only textual or numeric data processing. Spatial data are used to represent
elements that have physical dimensions as one of their major attributes. For
example, the shape, size, and location of a land parcel constitutes spatial data,
whereas the name of its owner is a nonspatial descriptor. Spatial data may be
points, lines, or polygons. GIS programs are therefore hybrid programs com-
prising a data-base engine and a geometric modeling (CAD) engine. Coordinate
data from the data base can be retrieved by the data base engine, then displayed
(with relation to other objects) using the geometric modeling engine. A major
advantage of GIS software is the ability to maintain data associated with different
elements (or factors) in separate layers (or coverages) that are based on the
same geographic referencing system, which can be superimposed spatially to
support data queries and analysis. For example, traffic accidents involving heavy
vehicles from an accident layer may be combined with highway curves with low
superelevation from a transportation network layer and saved on a third layer
for further analysis. In addition, commercially available GISs provide certain
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 tools for additional analysis. For example, minimum path algorithms incorpo-
rated in the GIS may be used to calculate the fastest route between two points,
taking into account the roadway capacities, road conditions, prevailing speeds,
and so on. The result can be saved and subsequently used as a layer or a front
end to a different query. For special-purpose engineering analyses not inter-
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nalized in the GIS, interfaces with application-specific modules that process the
information generated by the GIS program can be designed.
2. In the GIS software used for this research (Arc/Info), a hybrid data model
that combines the strengths of locational and thematic data structures was used.
Locational data are represented using a topological data model (USGS Digital
1984; Morehouse 1985), whereas thematic data are represented using the re-
lational data model, thereby creating a georelational data model. A digital map
therefore becomes a model comprising the combination'of a topological model
to represent feature locations and topology and the relational model to represent
feature attributes. An example of a feature is a town where locational data may
be its longitude or latitude and thematic information may be its size, population,
employment, etc.

GIS LIMITATIONS

The GIS technology, however, was developed by specializations that are

primarily interested in two-dimensional processing, such as vegetation types,
right-of-way, toxic cloud coverage, and political boundaries, to name a few.
By contrast, many engineering applications demand three-dimensional pro-
cessing. In selecting a foundation type, the type of soil is not enough. The
designer typically needs the depth of soil, level of water table, and strati-
fication of different soil types. These attributes cannot be adequately mod-
eled in two dimensions. The term "spatial," in geographic information sys-
tems, refers to land surface two-dimensional, and not three-dimensional,
representation. Thus, application of this technology to construction requires
an extension of this system to the third dimension. Currently, the third
dimension can be handled only through an attribute of the data fields in
the data base. This technique is typically used in specifying the elevation
of control points and contour lines for applications in terrain analysis via
interfaces to three-dimensional visualization software. An expanded appli-
cation of this technique, to the representation of more complex three-di-
mensional objects (such as boreholes) within GIS software running on plat-
forms that are accessible to typical engineering and construction firms, has
not been attempted prior to the research reported in this paper. Such in-
formation technology is of prime importance to most construction projects,
since subsurface conditions within and in the vicinity of the construction
site influence the choice of equipment and construction methods, and pro-
ductivity.

PROPOSED APPROACH

This paper describes a method of extending the PC Arc/Info GIS to

represent boreholes as complex three-dimensional objects, and to include
such borehole data in a regional geotechnical data base containing entries
from a variety of construction projects within a geographical region. Thus,
GIS technology is extended to include the results of subsurface investi-
gations. Individual boreholes are represented by their geographic location
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 (x-, ^-coordinates) and, through a special-purpose logical data model de-
veloped in this research, by their soil layer structure and soil sample locations
in the third dimension (z-coordinate). The attributes of layers and soil
samples are included in the Info relational data base that forms an integral
part of Arc/Info. The locations of individual boreholes are maintained on
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a regular GIS layer and can be used, in combination with other layers, to
perform the typical types of analyses supported by the GIS. In the current
application, a street map layer is included to aid the quick identification
and retrieval of borehole data needed by each user. At-depth borehole data
in the form of boring logs can be graphically displayed entirely within the
Arc/Info environment through the creation of pseudocoverages, using the
Arc/Info drawing and annotation capabilities and its SML macro language.
A user interface for data-base editing and data retrieval also was developed
using the SML.
For more advanced engineering analyses not currently supported by gen-
eral-purpose GIS software, it is necessary to interface data contained within
the data base with external programs. This paper illustrates this possibility
by an interface to HOOPS, an object-oriented graphics library, for the
purpose of constructing a three-dimensional representation of soil strata
using information contained in the data base relating to boreholes that can
be selected via the borehole and street map layers. The related program
was written in FORTRAN, linked with the three-dimensional object-ori-
ented graphics library running on a high-end graphics card. The work in-
volved in this paper was done using an 80386 PC equipped with an Nth
three-dimensional engine graphics card.
Following a brief description of the PC Arc/Info GIS, the remainder of
the paper describes the development of the borehole logical data model
based on requirements provided by practicing engineers in Hawaii, the
development of the pseudocoverage graphical representation of borehole
logs, and the user interface for input, modification, display, and retrieval
of data within the GIS environment. Finally, the interface of the GIS with
the external program using HOOPS routines is described.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

Arc/Info is a vector- (as opposed to a raster-) based GIS that comes in

two versions, a workstation and a PC version. The microcomputer version
of the PC Arc/Info software package was used for creating, managing,
analyzing, and displaying the geographical data pertaining to the project
(Oloufa et al. 1990). The package consists of a set of software products that
run on IBM-compatible PCs. Arc/Info was designed as a georelational data
model, consisting of a topological data model (based on USGS digital line
graph cartographic data standards) to represent locational data on an
(x, y) coordinate system (Arc) and a conventional relational data-base model
(Info) to represent thematic information. Thus, Arc/Info uses a hybrid model
resulting from the merging of two existing data models (Morehouse 1990).
Essentially, the topological model is based on two simple coordinate fea-
tures—the arc and the label point. Arcs form the core of the system and
are defined directionally, numbered sequentially, and stored as ordered
sequences of (x, y) coordinate pairs to reflect spatial geometry of the arc.
The beginning and ending coordinate pairs ("from" and "to" nodes) of the
ordered sequence of coordinate points defining an arc also are numbered.
Nodes are topologically related to all arcs that share them and can be used
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 to represent geographical line features, such as roadways, rivers, etc. Iso-
lated points are represented as "label points" that can be used to represent
geographical point features, such as wells or, in the case of a large map,
cities. A polygon is defined by the number and sequence of arcs that com-
prise its border. The corresponding internally assigned arc numbers are
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specified as pointers to the definition of each arc, so that each arc is defined
only once. The contiguity between polygons is represented via the topology
of the border arcs, taking advantage of the fact that arcs are directionally
defined: The internal polygon numbers to the right and left of an arc are
associated with the arc. When arcs are used to describe line features (rather
than polygons), the "left-polygon" and "right-polygon" entries are set to
zero. The PC Arc/Info GIS provides a macro language, called SML, which
is very useful in automating frequently used commands. The macro language
was used to create a program that automates the input; retrieval processes
for the application described here are explained in a later section of this
paper.

BOREHOLE LOGICAL DATA MODEL

Logical data modeling is a technique used for the representation of in-

formation structures and rules used in the data-base design. Included among
the desirable characteristics of any data-base design is a format that is
correct, consistent, shareable, and flexible. A correct model provides an
accurate representation of the physical system being modeled. A consistent
model contains no contradictions in the way that data elements are named,
defined, related, and documented. A shareable model is accessible by a
variety of applications and users to meet varying access requirements. A
flexible model facilitates convenient additions and changes to the existing
data structure. The process of logical data modeling involves a series of
steps, as described by Fleming and von Halle (1989). These steps were
followed in designing the logical data model for the geotechnical data base
described in this paper. Important definitions include the following.
An entity is an object (e.g., thing, person, place, or concept) about which
information is recorded. The properties or characteristics of each entity are
described by a set of attributes, each of which is an item of descriptive
information. The set of valid values for an attribute constitute that attribute's
domain. A relationship is an association that exists between two entities.
The term primary key designates an attribute or a set of attributes that
specifies a unique occurrence of an entity. Business rules are specifications
that preserve the integrity of the logical data model by governing the ac-
ceptable values that an attribute may assume. The logical data model de-
scribed in this paper is shown in Fig. 1. At the developmental stage, the
model was limited to six entities, namely (geotechnical) project, (explora-
tion) point, (soil) layer, (soil) sample, consolidation test, and (other) test.
More entities can be easily added into the existing model as needed. The
data model entities, attributes, and relationships were determined based on
requirements and concerns specified by local practicing engineers, who would
be future users of the system.
The project entity refers to the undertaking for which the soil investigation
was conducted. Each project is uniquely identified by a project identification
number and described in terms of the attributes shown in Fig. 1. The need
for explicitly specifying each project, rather than merely the boreholes as-
sociated with it, was deemed to be very important to potential users of the
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 PROJECT POINT
Project Number Project Number
Borehole ID
Name
Location North Coordinate
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Tax Map Key 1 : N East Coordinate

Project Manager Date Drilled
S u n Date Bottom Depth
End Date Hole Diameter
Client Drilling Method
Supervisor Drilling Equipment
Soil Classification Number Of Layers
Description Number Of Samples
Foundation Type
Soil Bearing Capacity SAMPLE
Project Number
LAYER Borehole ID
Layer Number
Sample Number
Project Number
Borehole ID Layer Number
Layer Number Sample Length
Sample Top Depth
Layer Top Depth Sampler Type
Layer Bottom Depth Sample Recovery
Layer Top East 1 : N Sample Blow Count
Layer Bottom East Components Of Blow Count
Layer Height Rock Quality Designation
Layer Soil Code Sample Core Recovery
Layer Soil type Description
Layer Description
Layer Color
CONSOLIDATION TEST
OTHER TESTS Project Number
Project Number Borehole ID
Borehole ID Layer Number
Layer Number Sample Number
Sample Number C-Tcst Number
O-Test Number
Layer Number
Layer Number Sample Height
Wet Density Sample Diameter
Dry Density Initial Void Ratio
Water Content Specific Gravity
Cohesion Water Content After Test
Friction Angle Dry Density After Test
Liquid Limit Max. Past Overburden Pressure
Plastic Limit Present Effective Overburden
Plasticity Index Compression Index
Recompression Index

FIG. 1. Model Entities and Attributes

system for several reasons. Among them was the fact that project infor-
mation, such as the year when it was undertaken and the identification of
the investigating team, would be invaluable in assessing the quality of the
associated data. Another reason was the potential to selectively include or
exclude boreholes associated with particular projects, based on criteria sys-
tem users considered applicable to different application contexts. The geo-
graphical extent of individual projects can range from a single parcel where
a building was constructed to corridors cutting across the larger region for
projects such as highways or underground utility lines.
The point entity refers to a single boring or exploration point associated
with a particular project. It is described in terms of the attributes shown.
The primary key for the point entity is a combination of the associated
project number and a unique borehole ID. The borehole location is digitized
and the coordinates of this location are saved by the system. The layer entity
refers to a uniform soil layer within a particular borehole. A single layer
within a borehole is uniquely defined by the combination of the project
number, borehole ID, and layer number. The layer attributes are further
subdivided into geometrical attributes and descriptive attributes. Combined
with the borehole coordinates, the geometrical attributes define the physical
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 location and dimensions of a layer and impart to it a three-dimensional
definition. This approach allows for the inclusion of inclined and irregularly
sloped boring holes. The descriptive attributes consist of typical soil des-
ignations, as shown in Fig. 1. The sample entity refers to a soil sample taken
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from a layer and described in terms of its location within the layer, its
physical dimensions, the sampling device used, and other attributes. As
shown in Fig. 1, the consolidation test and the other tests entities bear a
one-to-one association with the sample entity.
The aforementioned logical model was implemented in the Info data base
and tested in a real-world context: Several geotechnical reports for projects
in the Honolulu area were obtained from major geotechnical consulting
firms. Borehole data, including soil layer information, samples, and test
results, were taken from these hard-copy reports and inputted to the data
base. Since the basic objectives of the research required the association of
borehole information with borehole location, the GIS technology was used.

INPUT OF BOREHOLE LOCATIONS

A digitized map of the island of Oahu was purchased from ETAK Corp.,
Menlo Park, California. Through Arc/Info utilities, a coverage containing
street, stream, and shoreline features was generated. A separate coverage
was created to display borehole locations, represented as point features.
The two coverages were overlaid and displayed on the computer monitor.
Adding a point into the borehole coverage involves two steps: Digitizing
the point and adding its borehole ID. The latter links the borehole to a
unique record in the Info data base created earlier.

USER INTERFACE

The F.C Arc/Info macro language SML was used to create a program to
automate the borehole coverage editing and viewing operations, as well as
to aid the process of data-base maintenance, as shown in Fig. 2. This in-
terface insulates users from having to deal with the complexities of the GIS
commands and syntax. A typical viewing session begins with the user viewing
the geographical area of interest, as shown in Fig. 3, where borehole lo-
cations are seen as clusters of points. The user may choose to zoom in on
a specific cluster of boreholes for a closer view, as shown in Fig. 4. The
user has the option of displaying street names in the area of interest.
The user can then select to view a specific borehole, as shown in Fig. 5.
The display of boreholes is generated entirely within the Arc/Info environ-
ment via a procedure developed as part of this research and described next.

BOREHOLE LOG PSEUDOCOVERAGE

The graphical display of boring logs is generated within the Arc/Info

environment using its graphics capabilities to develop the bore-log repre-
sentation. After the user selects a bore-log to view, the Info data base is
accessed and the pertinent information belonging to the bore log is retrieved.
This is accomplished with the aid of a program written in the SML macro
language. The program then proceeds to create a pseudocoverage, which
is an Arc/Info coverage (with no underlying geographic map) created using
the drawing and annotation capabilities of the Arc/Info package, namely
line, box, and text commands. Each soil layer retrieved from the Info data
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 Program Organization
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Data Input Data Retrieval

Kdii Retrieve In Retrieve In

Mip f'ir.ijjIliC'. l'onn TCM I'nim

View
View 3D View Map
Boring Log

FIG. 2. SML Program Organization

UIEU HAP HENU

<F1> - Zooa (da not use this option to start an AUCPLOT session)
<F2> - Reset
<F3> - Select Borehole to vieu
<F4> - Quit
ENTER YOUR SELECTION:

FIG. 3. Map with Borehole Cluster

base is represented as a box, as shown in Fig. 5. The height of this box is

proportional to its corresponding layer's height. Layer identification num-
bers also are written next to their corresponding boxes, with text explaining
the general layer characteristics. The SML program was designed to scale
the bore-log dimensions to fit the dimensions of the computer screen. Sum-
mary project information is also outputted above the bore log. The program
also displays the major features of the selected bore log while retaining the
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 UIEW MAP MENU
<F1> - Zoora (do not use this option to start an ARCPLOT session)
<F2> - Reset
<F3> - Select Borehole to ulew
<F4> - Quit
ENTER VOUR SELECTION:
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FIG. 4. Detailed View of Borehole Cluster

Do you yish to get More Infornatioii about the borehole? (Y/N)?

Borahola: Bl 1
r' 23-JAN-I87S,

zee n.-Soricty
CL-311 ty clay
0 i I t ana o l a v e v
3.ee .. H--Clayiy s i l t
s.ee N SN-Sllly Sand
7.58
ie.58- |6 M--Clay«y si II
i7.eo_ S M - S l l t y »arwl
28.se_ ML-Sorwiy s i l l
23.se. 19 SW-Sond
2a.ee_ IB -Basalt

5i.ee_
FIG. 5. Borehole Pseudocoverage

option for the user to view any other specific information about the bore
log that is stored in the data base. Responses to the user queries are written
above the bore-log representation. The information about the entire bore
log can also be outputted to the display device or printed.

INTERFACE WITH SURFACE MODELING

The GIS described previously incorporates location-specific data in ad-

dition to the other attributes obtained from geotechnical reports. Data per-
taining to a borehole are stored in the data base with information describing
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 its three-dimensional coordinates. As described, the program has many
direct applications in the field of civil engineering in general, and in con-
struction in particular. The full analysis capabilities of the GIS can be called
upon and its applicability to various contexts can be easily enhanced by
introducing additional data layers relevant to these applications. However,
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because of its inherent two-dimensional limitations, it cannot internally

construct a three-dimensional representation of soil strata based on three
or more boreholes in an area. The ability to view strata, their depth, and
other characteristics is important since it provides the user with insights into
the special nature of the construction site. Advances in the development of
three-dimensional GIS systems have been reported recently (Fried and
Leonard 1990; Turner 1990), but their hardware price and performance
requirements place them well beyond the budget constraints of most en-
gineering firms. A feasible alternative is to interface the Arc/Info GIS pro-
gram described herein with other application programs, extending the sys-
tem capability to surface modeling. This approach can be illustrated by
creating a graphics program that operates on the output from the GIS to
create a solid representation of the soil layers from a group of boreholes.
Several three-dimensional visualization software packages can be chosen
for this purpose. Such a program was created, which used generic graphics
routines available in a library called HOOPS (Wiegand 1990), and which
are callable from FORTRAN. HOOPS is an object-oriented graphics library
for creating interactive graphics applications. The library is designed as a
hierarchical data base that stores information about what objects to draw,
where they should be displayed, and how they should be rendered. The
system also provides the application programs with tools for searching,
querying, and modifying the data base. The HOOPS data base is organized
as a tree-shaped hierarchy. Related elements are grouped together in seg-
ments. Each segment may have subsegments (hence the tree structure) and
can be manipulated independently of other segments and subsegments. The
tree structure of the HOOPS picture data base is shown in Fig. 6. As
implemented in this research effort, the HOOPS data base has two graphics
objects, namely the soil layers and the menu. Each of these objects belongs
to a segment bearing the same name. In the implementation shown here,
the soil layer segment consists of individual layers, each represented as a
subsegment (see Fig. 6). This gives the user the ability to view and manip-
ulate each layer independently of others. The user may, of course, choose
to view the entire group of layers at once.
The menu segment consists of two subsegments (called pages) comprising
the options available to the user. The solid modeling program developed
with HOOPS uses as its input an ASCII file generated during the Arc/Info
session. This file is created by an SML program and contains information
(retrieved from the Info data base) on a group of boreholes selected by the
user. At this stage of development, the program operates on three boreholes
and assumes that the same layers are present in all boreholes. After reading
the input file, the program connects the respective soil layers and displays
the boreholes, as shown in Fig. 7. The user can point to any layer and have
a text description of that layer, as shown at the bottom of the screen. The
user can also zoom to a specific layer, or move and rotate the three-di-
mensional solid representation, as shown by the options in the menu. The
boreholes represented are shown in two windows. One window displays a
solid model and the other a wire frame model. The wire frame model allows
the user to review layers that might be otherwise hidden. This capability

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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 . MCTURE' •
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SOIL LAYERS

LAYER 1

LAYER 2

LAYER 3

LAYER N

FIG. 6. Tree Structure of Picture Data Base

UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII
SOIL BORING VISUALIZATION PROGRAM

ROTATE

ZOOM

MOVE

SOLID TOGGLE

Sandy Clay With TVacea Of Loam QUIT

FIG. 7. Solids Program Display and Menu

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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 will be particularly useful when more than three boreholes are processed
simultaneously.

EXTENSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

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The work described in this paper has focused on the storage and retrieval
of raw boring-hole data obtained from existing geotechnical investigation
reports. This was a conscious decision, driven by the desire of practitioners
to have access to the original data, free from interpretations that are not
present in the original data sources, ensuring that the output of the self-
contained geotechnical GIS is based solely on original information with no
added biases. It is, however, impossible to develop three-dimensional rep-
resentations of soil strata from raw boring-hole data without interpretation.
Variables likely to govern the output are project specific and include knowl-
edge of the geological history of the region, the geophysical nature of the
soil, the likely presence of soil pockets, and several other factors. This
problem is amplified when more than three boring holes are considered. It
is therefore necessary to interpose between the GIS and the graphics pro-
gram a knowledge-based system that regulates the topology and layer ex-
tents, or to allow user intervention guided by past experience, or a com-
bination of the two. Research reported in the literature that addresses advances
in geotechnical profile interpretation independently of GIS systems can
provide guidance and the possibility of linking the basic geotechnical GIS
developed here with already existing interpretive software. It is doubtful
that the PC platform, even one based on the 80486 processor, is sufficient
for the magnitude of number crunching involved as the geographical region
covered or the number of boreholes maintained in the data base increase.
Considering cost-versus-performance tradeoffs, it appears that, for problem
dimensions similar to the Honolulu application, a workstation platform with
a good mix of graphics abilities and number crunching will suffice, Having
shown the functionality of the system, the natural next step is to port it to
such a platform.
More remote extensions include the integration of simulation software
with the GIS. The common data base would store information on utilities,
obstructions, boring holes, available equipment types, and their respective
productivities. The program would then aid the user in selecting the best
mix of equipment for the project. This would allow the users to employ the
same data base for site visualization, choice of foundation type, and selection
of construction equipment (Oloufa 1988).

CONCLUSION

A framework that integrates spatially enhanced geographic information

systems with three-dimensional graphics representation using a shared data
base was developed. The data base contains information on boring-hole
conditions stored in the form of complex three-dimensional objects. The
novelty of the approach is the incorporation of location-specific data in
addition to the other attributes that are obtained from the various engi-
neering studies and tests performed. The users can start with a map of the
project and its vicinity. Data related to utilities, obstructions, and positions
of boreholes all can be shown on the same map. The inherent capabilities
of GIS can be fully used for analyses that incorporate attributes in the z-
direction (depth). The research has shown that users can develop three-
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1992, 6(1): 72-84

 dimensional representations of the soil strata, based on data from available
boring holes, by interfacing to other commercially available and affordable
software.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Universidad Nacional De Ingenieria on 10/19/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writers wish to thank the School of Engineering at the University of

Hawaii for all the support. We also wish to thank ESRI Corp., Redlands,
California, E T A K Corp., Menlo Park, California, and the Honolulu, Ha-
waii, office of Dames and Moore for their support.

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