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A Review on Artificial Aggregates

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 05, No. 03 (01)

www.cafetinnova.org June 2012, P.P. 540-546

A Review on Artificial Aggregates

P. PRIYADHARSHINI, G. MOHAN GANESH and A. S. SANTHI
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore- 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
Email: mail2pridha@gmail.com, gmohanganesh@vit.ac.in, as_santhi@vit.ac.in

Abstract: This paper gives a review on artificial aggregates made out of various waste materials. In the current
scenario, the disposal problem of industrial by-products like fly ash, paper pulp etc., has become an environmental
issue due to the pollution caused. Further, shortage of land to fill these materials also adds up to this issue. Artificial
aggregate can be made out of these materials that are considered waste and pollutants of environment. On the other
side, shortage of natural aggregates in the growing infrastructure industry, creates problem of depleting natural
resources which builds the need for artificial aggregates. Consequently, the production of artificial aggregates solves
two problems, conserves environment from pollution and prevents natural resource from depletion, thereby giving
way to sustainable development. This paper mainly throws light on the manufacturing process, properties and
strength aspects and applicability of these categories of aggregates in civil engineering industry.
Keywords: Light Weight Aggregates, Artificial Aggregates, Waste in Construction, Pelletizing, Aggregate
Properties

Introduction: have been discussed briefly. There are numerous light

weight aggregates available commercially which are
Reducing and recycling waste and by products have
obtained through expensive methods of manufacturing.
become the major issue in 21st century. Development of
Also, it depletes the natural resources for its raw
new techniques for managing wastes is one of the major
materials. The best way to avoid this problem is to use
areas of interest of researchers in recent days. This is
the lightweight waste materials as raw material for
due to the need for reusing the materials to avoid
aggregates in concrete. Beyond reducing the overall
exhausting natural resources that are depleted
cost, this also finds a way to utilize this waste material
abundantly with growing population. Due to the impact
that produce environmental problems. Many studies are
of earth quake forces all over the world, the need for
carried out in this area from early 1980’s (Van der
light weight structural design is increasing presently, as
Wegen and Bijen, 1985). Most of the preparation
it reduces mass of the structure. Light weight concrete
methods of artificial aggregates involve sintering
also brings down the overall cost of the building. Light
process that in turn creates the problem of large energy
weight aggregates (LWA) are generally manufactured
usage. Some of the waste materials used as a source
from pumice or volcanic cinders or clays or siliceous
material for artificial aggregates are mining residues,
rocks. Natural aggregates are those that are taken from
heavy metal sludge (Su-Chen Huang et al., 2007),
naturally occurring rocks by breaking and sieving them
marine clay (Laursen et al., 2006), palm shell (Okpala et
in to desired size. The usage of natural aggregates has
al., 1990; Mannan and Ganapathy, 2002; Payam Shafigh
become serious issue, due to the over use of these
et al., 2011), paper sludge (Chin-Tson Liaw et al., 1998;
materials in this developing infrastructure era. Natural
Ahmadi and Al-Khaja, 2001; Garcia et al., 2008), pet
aggregates have density higher than that of light weight
bottles (Yun-Wang Choi et al., 2005), sewage sludge
aggregates. Due to the low density of LWA, it provides
(Cheeseman and Virdi, 2005; Mun, 2007), steel slag
better insulation property and can be used to produce
(Maslehuddin et al., 2003; George Wang, 2010), fly ash
light weight concrete. Light weight aggregate can also
(Bijen, 1986; Peter Neumann et al., 1991; Gokhan
be produced using industrial by-products like heavy
Baykal and Ata Gurhan Doven, 2000; Ramamurthy and
metal sludge, mining residues, palm shell, paper sludge,
Harikrishnan, 2006; Manikandan and Ramamurthy,
pet bottles, sewage sludge, steel slag, bottom ash, fly
2007, 2008; Niyazi Ugur Kockal and Turan Ozturan,
ash, marine clay etc., Various methods used for
2010, 2011a, 2011b; Ioanna Kourti et al., 2010; Verma
producing artificial aggregates from these products and
et al., 1998), bottom ash (Geetha and Ramamurthy,
the properties of the aggregates manufactured are also
2010, 2011; Kim and Lee, 2010) Several works are
discussed below. Here in this paper, some of the
done in fly ash aggregates compared to other artificial
techniques that are used by the researchers to produce
aggregates, may be due to its availability in large
light weight aggregates from waste and by-products
volumes and high quantity of disposal. Coal is used for

#02050326 Copyright ©2012 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

 P. PRIYADHARSHINI, G. MOHAN GANESH and A. S. SANTHI
power generation and the residues of which is disposed
as landfills in nearby areas (Bijen, 1986; Manikandan
and Ramamurthy, 2007). Safe disposal of these residues
has become a major problem in most of the countries.
Rather than disposal problem, utilization of these
residues in some productive way has become the major
interest of researchers (Peter Neumann et al., 1991;
Manikandan and Ramamurthy, 2007). A Limited
utilization of these residues is established worldwide as
cement replacement material. But, researchers are in
search of bulk usage of these residues due to availability
in large volume (Peter Neumann et al., 1991;
Ramamurthy and Harikrishnan, 2006; Manikandan and
Ramamurthy, 2007). Hence, the fly ash is considered as
a replacement of natural aggregates in concrete. The
production of artificial aggregates from fly ash gained
world attention due to the reducing resources of natural
aggregates caused by the growing infrastructure
development.
Artificial Aggregates:
Chemical Composition:
The chemical compositions of some of the waste
materials that can be used as a raw material for artificial
aggregates are given in Table 1. In most of the
materials, silica is the major component that imparts
strength to concrete and activates pozzolanic reaction by
helping in the formation of calcium-silicate-hydrate gel.
Methods of Manufacturing:
Various methods are adopted for producing different
artificial aggregates of varied sources are shown in
Table 2. For any method, the main aim is to
agglomerate the powdered raw waste material into some
specific desired size that can be used as aggregate in
required application. Various agglomeration techniques
has been well explained by Bijen, 1986. But this
technique is not needed in case of waste products, if
they occur in the size of an aggregate like palm shell
(Payam Shafigh et al., 2011). After the process of
agglomeration through pelletization (Bijen, 1986;
Gokhan Baykal and Ata Gurhan Doven, 2000; Geetha
and Ramamurthy, 2010, 2011; Cheeseman and Virdi,
2005; Mun, 2007; Chin-Tson Liaw et al., 1998; Su-
Chen Huang et al., 2007), the fresh pellets need to
undergo post-processing to attain strength, so as to be
used as aggregate in concrete. There are different post-
processing techniques for fly ash aggregates which
includes, sintering, autoclaving and cold bonding.
Sintering causes many drawbacks like higher
manufacturing cost, as it involves the usage of
expensive energy (Gokhan Baykal and Ata Gurhan
Doven, 2000). As a result, cold bonded fly ash
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No. 03 (01), June 2012, pp. 540-546
541
aggregates are manufactured, to avoid the sintering
process and it gave comparable results (Bijen, 1986;
Niyazi Ugur Kockal and Turan Ozturan, 2010, 2011a,
2011b).
Sintering:
It is the process by which the green pellets are allowed
to fuse together at high temperatures normally more
than 12000C (Su-Chen Huang et al., 2007; Cheeseman
and Virdi, 2005; Mun, 2007; Geetha and Ramamurthy,
2010, 2011; Bijen, 1986, Peter Neumann et al., 1991,
Gokhan Baykal et al., 2000, Niyazi et al., 2010,
Manikandan et al., 2008). In sintering process, high coal
content is acceptable as it helps the process of sintering
(Bijen, 1986). But the high energy requirement makes
the process undesirable (Peter Neumann et al., 1991;
Gokhan Baykal and Ata Gurhan Doven, 2000). But, the
properties of aggregates produced by sintering process,
shows better durability properties like corrosion
resistance, permeability (Niyazi Ugur Kockal and Turan
Ozturan, 2010, 2011a, 2011b).
Autoclaving:
This process involves addition of some chemical like
cement, lime or gypsum in agglomeration stage. This
induces bonding property in the material. The green
pellets are then cured in pressurised saturated steam at a
temperature of 1400C. This process helps in reducing
bonding material in pellet formation and curing time
(Bijen, 1986). But the strength and durability properties
does not show much difference compared to normal
curing (Manikandan and Ramamurthy, 2008).
Cold Bonding:
It is the process of normal water curing at ordinary room
temperature (Bijen, 1986). This process helps avoiding
energy utilization as in case of other two methods.
Niyazi Ugur Kockal et al. says that cold bonded
aggregate shows poor properties compared to sintered
aggregates (Niyazi Ugur Kockal and Turan Ozturan,
2010, 2011a, 2011b). But in contrary, Manikandan et al.
says when curing time is increased, the aggregate
properties are comparable with autoclaving and steam
curing (Manikandan and Ramamurthy, 2008).
Experiments on Aggregates:
The chemical composition of aggregates is found using
techniques like ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectroscopy) (Su-Chen Huang et al.,
2007), XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy) (Laursen
et al., 2006),EDAX (Garcia et al., 2008) and XRD (X-
ray Diffraction spectroscopy) used for crystalline study
of aggregates (Cheeseman and Virdi, 2005).
 542 A Review on Artificial Aggregates

Table 1: Chemical Composition of Source Materials.

Heavy
Mining Marine Palm Sewage Bottom
Oxide (%) Metal Paper sludge Steel slag Fly ash
residues clay shell sludge Ash
sludge
37.5-
SiO2 45.1 56.3 55.8 18.47 18.01-38.6 52 1-18.1 53.68
63.6
19.8-
Al2O3 13 14.4 12.4 4.27 10.14-51.92 20.94 2.4-3 18.91
30.11
2.99-
Fe2O3 4.8 6.8 3.3 2.06 0.55-3.17 8.98 89 7.7
11.3
1.57-
CaO 19.6 5.1 2.77 64.09 4.38-19.82 4.06 35.1-40.6 1.24
16.8
0.54-
MgO 0.9 4.2 0.83 2.08 2.93-3.27 2.21 8.8-11.3 0.48
2.68
0.26-
SO3 - - 1.75 4.25 0.33 - - 0.19
7.96
0.05-
Na2O 2.1 1.4 0.43 - 0.25 1.3 0.07-0.14 0.7
0.86
K2O 1.2 1.6 1.22 0.28 0.21 3.11 - 0.1-2.76 -
P2O5 - - - 0.07 0.1 5.31 0.51-0.74 0.49 -
TiO2 - - 0.49 - 0.26 0.94 0.8 -
Cl - - 0.14 0.015 0.04 - 0.006 0.0114 -
0.85-
LOI - - 20.5 1.41 47.62-70.26 - - 8.35
8.94
CaCO3 - - - - - - 10 - -
Moisture - - - - 73.07-77.73 83.08 - - -
Carbon - - - - - - - - 5.51
Toxicity characteristics of aggregates are studied in 3. Other properties like crushing strength, impact value,
various works using NIEA R201.13C-Toxicity and abrasion value are particularly carried out when the
Characteristic Leaching Procedure adopted in Taiwan aggregates are used as highway materials.
(Su-Chen Huang et al., 2007; Laursen et al., 2006;
The crushing load of individual aggregate pellets are
Chin-Tson Liaw et al., 1998). Other procedures framed
found by placing them between two parallel plates and
by US-EPA (Laursen et al., 2006; Mun, 2007) and
crushed under diametrical load (Cheeseman and Virdi,
Korean Standards (Mun, 2007) are also used to find the
2005; Niyazi Ugur Kockal and Turan Ozturan, 2010,
leachates from aggregates produced using waste
2011a, 2011b; Ioanna Kourti et al., 2010). The crushing
materials.
force is given by
The key physical properties of aggregates like bulk
σ = 2.8P/πX2
density, specific gravity, Unit weight, porosity and
water absorption are considered important for the Where, P is the fracture load and X is the distance
manufactured aggregates. Procedures for finding these between loading points. Average of 20 pellets of 10mm
properties are given in various standards; those that size is taken as the strength of the aggregate.
have been followed in referred works are given in Table

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No. 03 (01), June 2012, pp. 540-546
P. PRIYADHARSHINI, G. MOHAN GANESH and A. S. SANTHI 543

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No. 03 (01), June 2012, pp. 540-546
 544 A Review on Artificial Aggregates
Table 3: Specification for Properties of Aggregates
Properties Specification
ASTM C 29/ KS
Bulk density
F 2503
Unit weight ASTM C 29
Specific gravity & water
ASTM C 127/ KS F 2503
absorption
Porosity ASTM C 1202
Sieve analysis ASTM C 136/ BS 812
Grading BS 3797
Crushing strength BS 812/ KS F 2541
Impact value KS F 2581/
Abrasion Value ASTM C 131/ KS F 2508
soundness ASTM C 88
Microscopic Studies:
Microscopic study of aggregates are carried out using
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis
(Cheeseman and Virdi, 2005; Ramamurthy and
Harikrishnan, 2006; Su-Chen Huang et al., 2007), by
which the fractured surface of aggregates are studied.
The pores formed in the aggregate while manufacturing
the artificial aggregates are well analysed using
microscopic studies. The pozzolonic property can be
seen by the formation of CSH gel while analysing the
XRD pattern of formed aggregates. Experiments on
aggregates should be conducted based on their
applicability in various fields.
Properties and Applications:
Artificial aggregates made out of the waste products
above generally have different properties based on their
source material, binder properties, method of
manufacturing etc.,. The shape and texture of aggregate
affects the fresh property of the concrete. Rounded
aggregates promote workability of concrete while the
angular nature of natural gravel gives a better bonding
property but requires more cement mortar for better
workability. Well graded aggregate makes the cement
paste consumption lesser, thereby reduces the cost of
concrete. These can be achieved by reduced void ratio
thereby reduces the amount of paste required to fill the
voids. But on the other side, the reductions in voids
affect the workability of concrete. This should be
properly studied before designing the grading of
aggregates to be used in concrete. The aggregate made
from steel slag has high specific gravity of 3.51 whereas
for other aggregates ranges between 1.12 - 1.64. Bulk
density is very high for aggregates made out of sewage
sludge. Water absorption is the main concern when it
comes to artificial aggregates, as it is high for most of
these aggregates. This can be controlled by adding
suitable binder depending on the source material. The
properties of the aggregates produced are given in Table
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No. 03 (01), June 2012, pp. 540-546
4.Main application of artificial aggregates is for
producing light weight concrete. This is because of the
very low density of the source material. Paper sludge
aggregate is used as masonry material and the
replacement percentage is up to 10% (Ahmadi and Al-
Khaja, 2001). Aggregate made from steel slag is
considered for asphalt concrete and replaced for about
65% (Maslehuddin et al., 2003). Palm shell aggregate
has been replaced for 100% of coarse aggregate and it is
used in structural application (Okpala et al., 1990;
Mannan and Ganapathy, 2002; Payam Shafigh et al.,
2011).One step ahead to it, bottom ash aggregate is
suggested for high strength concrete and replaced for
fine and coarse aggregate for replacement percentage of
100% (Kim and Lee, 2010). Fly ash aggregates are
widely used in many applications, mainly as light
weight aggregates in concrete. Thus, materials that are
considered waste, found a useful application and
become a solution for a growing problem of aggregate
shortage in this infra-structure era. The fly ash
aggregates can be used in various applications like
masonry blocks for high rise buildings, wall panels for
multi-storey buildings, roof insulation material, even for
load bearing structural elements. With proper research,
the application of artificial aggregates can be increased
in construction industries. As it is an energy efficient
green material, it has wide application in construction
industries. By which large quantity of industrial wastes
can be utilized, thereby protecting environment from
pollution and helping in conservation of natural
resources from depletion for aggregate source.
Conclusions:
This paper has attempted to cover a wide range of
information so that the reader can better understand the
various possibilities of manufacturing artificial
aggregates from different waste including mining
residues, heavy metal sludge, marine clay, palm shell,
paper sludge, pet bottles, sewage sludge, steel slag, fly
ash, bottom ash etc., Understanding the various process
involved in manufacturing provides a worthy
knowledge to think of using available materials as an
alternate for aggregates in concrete. The reported work
serves as an example for developing similar kind of
materials using locally available various other materials.
Though, the properties of artificial aggregates mainly
depend on its source material. But each of them has
their specific application and usage in construction
industry. The obtained aggregates can be considered for
various applications like wall panels, masonry blocks,
roof insulation material, structural load bearing
elements etc., based on their obtained properties.
There should be a greater importance on the
development of new technology for methodology to
 P. PRIYADHARSHINI, G. MOHAN GANESH and A. S. SANTHI
manufacture artificial aggregates with minimum cost.
Waste utilization in construction must be extensively
taken up covering various aspects at different level to
minimize the environmental pollution and growing cost
of construction. The review pointed out that the key
issue of critical comparison between various wastes and
its utilization as artificial aggregates, and their
properties and uses. Further analysis of long-term
economic and environmental impacts, possibly through
employing life cycle assessments (LCAs) is required.
There is a scarcity of information on proper way of
utilizing locally available waste materials and by-
products as an alternate to civil engineering materials.
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