Case effect diagram

A visual representation of people’s perceptions of the causes and effects of a problem

A cause effect diagram falls under the broad category of flow and linkage diagram

methods. Also known as a fishbone or ishikawa diagram, it focuses on the casual

factors of a phenomenon activity or problem and the resulting effects.

Applications

Cause-effect diagrams have been used for the study and the analysis of a wide

range of issues including illiteracy alcoholism the status of women, migration drought

food insecurity, ill health etc. This method is often utilized when planning interventions

to ensure that interventions directly address the root causes of pertinent issues.

Process

The suggested steps in the process of making a cause-effect diagram include.

 Decide on a topic and invite a group of people to got involved in the exercise

 Introduce the topic to the participants and explain the purpose of the exercise

 Ask the participants to describe the causes behind the phenomenon that is being

investigated.

 Once the causes have boon sufficiently explored, MVO on to discussing the

related effects. Request the participants to visually portray the indicated cause-.

and effects on cards.

 Place the causes on one aide of the paper and the effects on the other side. Ask

the participants to link the cards with chalk to illustrate their linkages and

connectivity.
  Once the diagram is ready, ask the participants to make any required alterations.

Note down the diagram on a sheet of paper with details.

 Ask the participants to explain the diagram to others In int., community. Lain ask

them to discuss the diagram and come up with their own findings and reflections.

 Thank the participants for their time and active participation.

 Triangulate the diagram with others in the village.

Advantages and Limitations

Cause-effect diagrams are actually very complex. and are generally not conducted

at the beginning of a PRA exercise. Good facilitation is mused to ensure that the

participants have a clear understanding of the topic, and are therefore able to

adequately address the subject matter. If facilitated wok this exorcise can lead to

incredible insight regarding the complexities behind an issue and can therefore provide

great feedback when planning appropriate development interventions.

Network and flow Diagram:

A picture of the depth and diversity of people's contacts with institutions. groups.

etc.

Network diagrams explore the contacts that an individual, group, or community

has with the outside world. This exercise explores who certain people interact with, the

nature and quality of such relationships, the functions that such relationships serve, and

the frequency of contact between the two parties. As in other PRA exercises, the

network diagram provides great insights Into the, perceptions that community members

hold about the nature of their relationship, with outsiders

Applications

This exercise is conducted to try and understand how people interact with others

outside of their community. This provides communities an opportunity to reflect upon the
relationships that they maintain and possible ways to strengthen those networks and

strategic alliances. This method is quite common when conducting farm profiles to

analyze Inter-linkages and flows related to agricultural inputs and outputs, farm owners

and labors, etc. Network diagrams can be made by individuals , households, groups,

communities. organizations, etc.

Process

The following are suggested process steps for a network diagram:

 Explain the purpose of the exercise to the participants and initiate a group

discussion on the topic.

 Draw a aide on a shoot of paper. Request that the participants depict their

contacts with the outside world on small, individual cards.

 Spread the small cards around the circle, and ask the participants to arrange the

cards in a meaningful way.

 Inquire about the nature of each relationship by asking questions such as:

 What function do the contacts perform?

 How frequent is the contact?

 Ask these pertinent questions about each contact Request the participants to

illustrate the different aspects of their relationship with each contact by using

different symbols.

 Encourage the participants to discuss their findings.

 Copy the diagram c paper, and indicate the names of the participants and

facilitators, dale and time of the exercise, as well as a legend.

 Triangulate the diagram and findings with other community members.

Advantages and Limitations

using the findings of a network diagram, strategies can be developed for

strengthening linkage and alliances with critical outsiders. If the quality of particular

relationships is poor, the network diagram can also assist community members in

understanding why that is so. Despite Its potential advantages, the network diagram

is quite a complex process. the facilitator therefore needs to be particularly

conscious to not dominate the exercise.

Venn diagram :

A visual analysis of the importance and closeness of various institutions to the

the participants as perceived by them. Venn diagrams provide a visual

representation of the relationships and linkages between people and institutions.

Circles of different sizes are allocated to different institutions, groups departments,

or programmed, based on (heir Importance. The bigger the circle the more important

the institution or individual. The distance between circles for example, may represent

the degree of influence or contact between institutions or individuals.

Applications
 The Venn diagram method has been found very useful to study and understand

local people's perceptions of local Institutions, Individuals, programmed, etc. The

method provides valuable insights into power structures. Decision making

processes. etc. Venn diagrams are particularly useful when analyzing:

 Venous institutions and individuals and their influence on local people

 The influence of various groups and individuals in the locality

 The relative importance and usefulness of services and programmed

 Social hierarchy in a locality etc.

Process

The suggested steps in the process of doing a Venn diagram are as follows:

 Explain the purpose of the exercise to the participants.

 Ask them to list local Institutions, individuals, groups etc. related to the research

topic.

 Ask them to write and/or derail the things indicated on small cards.

 Ask the participants to place the cords in a descending order according to the

perceived importance of the institution.

 Encourage the participants to make changes, if necessary.

 Ask them to assign paper circles of different sizes (cut and kept ready) to the

institutions or individuals. The bigger the circle the more important the institution

or individual is for them Paste the circles and the name cards on paper.

 Draw a circle on the ground representing the community. In the context of a

specific variable for instance accessibility, request the participants to place

circles in relation to the circle of the community. The circles should be close
 together it the ranking is high. While those ranking low on that variable can be

kept far away.

 In some cases there are institutions/individuals that interact closely in which case

they could be placed overlapping each other. The closer the circles, the higher

the degree of interaction.

Advantages and Limitations

The Venn diagram is a simple but useful visual tool to study complex relationships

between various institutions, groups, individuals, programmed. etc Despite its

usefulness, it can be quite difficult to facilitate. If the facilitator approaches the exercise

one step at a time, the Venn diagram is quite manageable and neither the participants

nor the facilitators get ahead of themselves in the process. The Venn diagram may

become a difficult exercise to conduct when the participants are in the presence of

representatives from the institutions that are being critiqued. Therefore, it is important

for the facilitator to be aware of these dynamics, so that the participants are able to be

honest.

Matrix Scoring/Matrix Ranking: A preferences analysis method that allows for

zeparison of different elements against a range of criteria Matrix scorinWranking is a

preferences analysis used for comparing different elements against a range of

criteria. While simple ranking can be used as an indicator, more complex matrix and

scoring techniques enables a criteria based in depth analysis. Applications Matrices

have been applied as part of PRA within almost all contexts. The aims of ranking,

scoring, and creating matrices are to discover individuals or groups relative

prioritization of components of a single issue. For example, matrices allow you to

assess various institutions, schemes and provisions on different parameters, in

relative as well as absolute terms. This tool can be used to discuss the following

issues: • Credit, preference for sources. access. problems, preference for use •

Income generation, preference for activity, problems • Project preferences, priorities,

interventions • Institutions, service provision • Health facilities. food and nutrition,

diseases, symptoms • Livestock, preferences, fodder types, species (for milk, etc.).

diseases • Agriculture. soil types, production problems, species. varieties. trial

performances. pest damage. etc. Process The suggested steps in the process of

matrix scoring/ranking are as follows: • Identify the topic you want to discuss. Also-

identify the individuals or group with whom you would like to do the matrix, and

clearly explain the purpose of the exercise. • Initiate a discussion on the topic. • The

next step is to generate criteria for assessment. If a large number of criteria come

up, discuss them with the participants and decide upon a few important ones.

Ensure that the criteria are all of the same type (either all are positive or all are

negative)..The use of positive and negative criteria in the same exercise can no

contusing . • Draw up a matrix with the items/options top to bottom and criteria left to

right. Keep in mind that the comparisons are made cnterion-wise and not item-wise.

Then, ensure that each criterion chosen has been ranked or scored against all of the

items. Repeat until all of the criteria have been ranked/ scored in this way, and

properly recorded.

Ranking Method
 The basic technique is ranking, where elements are placed in order of

preference, by writing, drawing or moving cards representing Individual elements

Preferences from 1 to x can be discussed in this way:

 Take up a criterion and ask the participants to rank or score the objects on

the basis of that criterion. Questions which can help ranking could include: -

Which is the best?

 Which is next best?

 Which is worst?

 Of the remaining ones, which is better?

 Record the rankings directly onto the matrix. You can also use a card sorting

method instead of this approach, particularly when you have a large number

of options.

Advantages and Limits

Matrices have been used at all stages in the project cycle, from appraisal, as a

planning tool, and for evaluation, and is one of the most versatile methods in PRA. The

subject matter does not restrict the use of matrices, and criteria are fully flexible.

depending on the context and the participants. Good facilitation is critical to the success

of this exercise, and there are still a number of won-ying cases where facilitators appear

to have pushed their own criteria onto villagers or where information from semi-

structured interviews is taken away and drawn up into matrix after the event, with no

feedback.

Force Field Analyses:

Applications
 A representation and analysis of the positive and negative forces affecting a

problem situation.

Force-field analysis is a technique used to identify and analyse the positive and

negative forces a problem. It has been used in diverse contexts, including

organizational change and self-development.

Process

The circumstances, location, profile of the participants, etc. will determine the

exact nature of the process. Nonetheless, the suggested process steps are as follows:

 Indicate the topic of discussion on a sheet of paper. Try to make it as

quantifiable as possible for the participants.

 Ask them to visualise the problem in a state of temporary equilibrium, which is

affected by two sets of opposing forces - one favouring change (driving forces)

and the other opposing them (restraining forces).

 Each of these forces can be illustrated on small cards. Different colour cards can

be used for driving and restraining forces.

 Draw a line through the centre of the paper. Spread the cards with restraining

forces below the line and those with driving forces above the line.

 Request the participants to assign weights to each of the forces. They should

position each force card at varying distances from the problem-line/present

3.8 Livelihood Analysis:

A temporal analysis of changes in livelihoods on an individual, household, or

commune y scale-Livelihood analysis is used to examine and depict the livelihoods of

individuals or groups. The focus is on Income, expenditure, food consumption. Coping

with crisis, livestock, agricultural production, employment related issues. etc. A

comprehensive livelihood analysis uses one or more PRA tools to arrive at a detailed

understanding of the livelihood circumstances of an individual or a group.

Applications

The livelihood analysis provides detailed insights into the monthly or annual

patterns of an individual's or a group's livelihood. Two main categories of analysis can

be considered: one at the community level and one at the individual level. Firstly,

occupational and employment issues are explored at the community level, which

provides a profile of the area. Ownership of livestock and agricultural production, for

example can also be discussed with reference to the entire community. Secondly,

individual livelihoods are examined. Which tend to focus on income, expenditure etc., as

well as food consumption and distribution within the household

Process

Many of the PRA tools described in this CD-ROM can be used for livelihood

analysis. A very commonly used approach is to start a livelihood analysis by making a

social map, and then continue the process by identifying sources of income or
expenditure for the households on the map. Different indicators can be used to decipher

relative levels of income and expenditure for each household. A similar process can be

conducted for other factors related to livelihood, including different types of employment,

etc. These characteristics of the households should be indicated clearly on the social

map.

Advantages

In actuality, livelihood analysis is not one specific tool, but rather the adaptation

of multiple tools to serve a specific purpose. The utilization allows for a strong,

comparative analysis between individuals, between and women, and between different

forms of livelihood.

3.12 Well-being Analysis:

A comprehensive PRA exercise that generally uses a variety of PRA tools to

evaluate people's well-being situation. Well-being ranking, or well-being analysis. Is

commonly used for ranking and grouping households and communities on the basis of

income wealth and other perceivable well-being criteria. Well-being ranking is a relative

and not an absolute assessment of people's wealth or well-being, and therefore

provides insights on how the poor differentiate themselves amongst each other.

Applications

Well-being ranking method has been used for different purposes including:
 Identifying and classifying households or groups based on relative well-being in

the areas of income wealth, assets, status, etc.

 Studying inter-household and inter-group socio-economic disparities.

 Arriving at an understanding of people's criteria and indicators for wealth, well-

being, development, etc.

 Studying the impact of interventions or well-being programmed for different

groups/households and developing a baseline for monitoring and evaluation.

Process Well-being ranking can be done in different ways including:

 Cad sorting method • 89Pial mapping method.

A. Card Sorting Method

 Arrange for a list of households in the locality where you want to do the well-

being ranking.

 Write the names of the head of households on small cards - one household per

card.

 Ask the participants to rank the households based on the well-being of the

households concerned. A good way to start the process would be: "Who's the

happiest person in the village?"

 While dealing with small villages with households ranging from 30-40, ask the

participants to arrange the households in descending order of well-being.

 As the participants arrange the household cards, ask them why they have placed

the cards in a particular order. This gives you the criteria participants are using to

do the well-being ranking.

 When dealing with larger villages, the above method may be too time-

consuming. In such cases, ask the participants to sort out the household cards

into representative categories of well-being. Ensure that the participants discuss

amongst themselves and arrive at their own well-being categories.

 Find out the characteristics of each of the categories. If the participants have not

already named the well-being categories, ask them to do so.

 Note down the number of households falling in each category of well-being. Add

the necessary basic details on each household card, including the head of the

household. Also prepare a category-wise list of the households with details of

assets income, occupation, etc.

Social Mapping Method

 A simple technique of doing a well-being ranking relies on the social map.

Suppose the participants come out with five categories of well-being using

symbols or colour codes; the houses could then bo classified directly on the map

itself by the participants. Of course, the criteria of well-being for each cntegory

should be developed by the participants.

 Advantages and Limitations

A cigar advantage of the well-being ranking is that it focuses 'gaily of life

characteristics. and actively avoids an economic-centred analysis of well-being.

Well-being ranking exercise is based on the assumption that the

participants are experts about the relative well-being of their village's households.

This assumption proves to be Incorrect in certain cases. In large localities or

communities, and in urban or semi-urban areas, it is difficult to find participants

 who have an extensive understanding of different community groups. One way to

deal with this problem is to conduct the well-being ranking for neighbourhoods'

with only the local inhabitants.

Problem Tree- A variation

Problem tree is another form of cause effect diagram where the causes and

effects of a problem are depicted visually using the outline of a tree. The problem is

depicted as the stem of a tree while its roots depicted the causes. The branches and its

sub- branches are shown as the effects at different levels. The advantage of the

problem tree is that it makes it easy to depict and explain a problem, its causes its

effects and the interrelations of various causes as well as effects using the anlogy of a

tree.

Process of making a problem tree diagram

The steps in the process of making a problem tree diagram are.

 Explain the purpose of the ezettute to the participants. (i.e the beatrestormng

technique to rt a km of problems of the people on the area Facilitate

 clionnoon to identify the Inapt ploblems Take up the problem which onewtm. nu

and the pat

 Tiapanes to do a problem are JtrICIlal. In caw you already have the prublem

ideate:lea yo: can skip this Imp of besinuoroung

 Draw an outline of a rice on the ground with chalk or on stick

  write & depict the main problems on a cud and place the same on the nem of the

tree draw n on the ground

 The next step t5 to identify the causes of the problem. As the participants wientilv

cause and lit them. write in depict them on small pieces of pare

 As the participants to place the cania on the causes on the nvim in such a way

that the mitt-retinal. benaten the causes also get highlighted.

 Ask them to identify the effecT and depict than on separate earth. Ask than to

plate the coil, con the that m such a way dui they also rata the relationships

between she effects

 Once the diagram is ready, ask them to present the diagram. Also ask them to

reflect on the diagram and the learning from it.

 Note down the diagram on a piece of paper with all details.

 Facilitate a discussion among the participants exploring possible ‘solutions’ to

deal with the causes and consequences of the problem.

Advantages

Cane effect diagram help. in articulating causes and effects of a problem or a

phenomenon and their linkages. It helps in the depiction of detailed and complex

information which symbols and visuals. It provides and opportunity to arrive at the

causes of the problems and to analyse the same. Postal dap en a Cagan mil effects of a

a problem also helps in understanding how the various causes and effects are related if
followed by a discussion on how to solve the problem, the various causes and effects

are related the problem. Thus it can be useful in people- centred planning.

It also pro. ides enough and innorsion The Itg1•111CTSIC Aft 410 able tc

participate an nevely parneulely if the facilitates follows umple steps and flexible local

maternal is used

Limitations

The quality of CAWS diagram, like, like other method. Is much determined by the

facilitation. IOf facilitated well it can be interesting and insightful. However, lack of clarity

on the topic and domination by the facilitator can take a toll it much determined be the

taalte.stion. If facilitated well. it can be Incereaing ad :Moth! Hoe■CITZ. Leal CI1 clans

on the topic and dam noon by the facilitator can St a will vis•pvit. depth of mallow Snme

of the meditators hare themselves drawn the flow d1/11:111111 Kirind on that men-

action. with the commune. Junng a beta group JOCUIII1011 01 411? MC sem.

atructurtd Inet11‘110t6 indivalualt It n not. lunettes, curet in call them PRA outputs.

Case effect diagram is used to identify and depict the causes of an event

or phenomenon and the way the causes are interlinked. While the diagram is an

important output, the discussion and analysis by the participants—both during the actual

drawing and after completing the diagram are an equally. If not more, important part of

the process. Discussion and analysts provide* valuable insight which may not get

reflected in the diagram. Many a time, new causes and even new inter linkages are

added during the discussion and analysis The diagram helps in arming at decisions

regarding implementation of changes and in solving problems by focussing on the

causes. However unless facilitated properly using a step by step approach and
encouraging the participants to actively involve in the mcc s. ulnae effect diagram has a

tendency to become facilitator driven.

Impact diagram

Impact diagram is a flaw diagram, commonly used to identify and depict

intervention or event- impact diagram not only captures the planned changes, but also

takes into account other typo of changes as perceived by the local people. The (impact

can be positive or negative and planned or unplaneed. In fact, the impact diagram made

by the local people generally game & effects that outsiders would never have been able

to think of. It has proved to be an effective tool for evaluation. The impact of various

interventions as perceivesIy by the people can be easily captured by impact diagram. It

also helps in understanding the link-ages Paw of elect, and bottlenecks. This can prove

useful in making the interventions more targeted and keeping the unintended negative

impacts under control. The impact diagram helps in identifying direct impact .n well as

indirect impact at different levels. The visual nature of the impact diagram makes it easy

(or the local people to depict their complex frailties and the cross linkages between the

vanauS effecu of any intervention or event.

Applications

Impact diagram has been used for various purposes including:

 Identification of impact both intended and unintended as well as positive and

negative.

 Understanding inter-linkages between various effects

 Discussion of impact. leading to an underganding of reasons for change.

 Planning how to control or minimise negative impact.

  Assessing the impact of vinous interventions.

Impact diagrams have been made for a wide range of topics including drought.

installation of irrigation tanks introduction of cash crop, indebtedness etc.

Process

The process of making an impact diagram is quite similar to any other flow

diagram. However, for the sake of clarity, the suggestbed steps are enumerated as

follow.

 Select the topic for the impact diagram. It could be the impact of a particular

intervention on the lives of people in the operational area of a project.

 Identify and invite a group of participants who have an interst in the topic

selected and are willing to participate.

 At the outset explain the purpose at the exercise to the participants.

 Keep a card with the torte depicted visually as well as written in bold letters in the

centre. Ask them to concentrate on the topic and discuss the possible impact of

the intervention.

 Later, read out the list of identified impacts and ask them whether some more

points need to be added or deleted.

 As they come up with various points list them. In between, paraphrase and sum

them up for clarity in order to take the discussion forward.

 Ask the participants to write down the impacts identified on small peces of paper.

Also encourtive age them to depict the impact visually. In case the identified
 impacts are both negative and positive ask the participants to use different colour

cards for the two categories.

 Lay the impact cards on the ground around the topic card.

 Ask people to look at the cards and see if there are linkages or patterns. Ask the

participants to link them with lines or arrows drawn with a chalk, showing their

interlinkages.

 Encourage them to add new cards indicating impact at any point in time and to

make modification freely.

 Listen carefully discussions the participants engage in while resolving issues. In

face they provide valuable insights into the local peoples perceptions of the

impact of particular interventions.

 Note down the diagram on a sheet of paper with all details, including the details

about participants, facilitators location dates and a legend of symbols used.

 Ask the participants to explain the diagram. Encourage them to share their

findings. Interview the diagram asking probing questions on aspects you are not

clear about.

 Thank the participants for their active involvement.

 Triangulate the diagrame and findings by talking to others who know about the

issue.

 The selection of the topic for impact evaluation is important. The topic needs to

be specific. A general topic, like the impact of environmental degradation is too

broad. It would be better to have a topic like the impact of an irrigation structure

or of a particular event.