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Geometric specification:
Name Length Height Wing Wing Aspe Gliding Wing Capacit
span area ct ratio-Gr loading y
Ratio
(AR)
Rolladen- 6.83 m 1.26 m 15 10.5 21.4 40.5 44.9 k 472 kg
Schneider m m2 g/m2
LS4
Grob – G-103 8.1 m 1.60 m 17.5 17.9 17.1 38 32.6kg/ 610 kg
m m2 m2
Duo Discus- 8.73 1.73 20 16.4 24.4 46-47 32.6kg/ 700 kg
Schempp- m m m m2 m2
Hirth
DG1000-DG 8.57 m 1.83 m 20 17.5 22.8 46.5 38.6kg/ 750 kg
Flugzeugbau m m2 m2
Distar UFM- 6.6 m 1.95 13 12.16 23.6 26 38.9 kg 472.5 k
13 m m m2 /m2 g
Lambada- Ur
ban Air
Performance specification:
Weight specifications:
Name Empty weight Overall Payload weight
weight
Rolladen- 256kg 472 kg 216kg
Schneider LS4
Grob – G-103 355kg 610 kg 255kg
Duo Discus- 363kg 700 kg 337kg
Schempp-Hirth
DG1000-DG 360kg 750 kg 390kg
Flugzeugbau
Distar UFM-13 271kg 472.5 kg 201.5
Lambada- Urban
Air
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Review several feature of current sailplanes that might be of wider use.
Review the future for the recreational aeroplane.
A glider needs efficiency and manoeuvrability.
Low profile drag: Wing section design is key
Low skin friction: maximise laminar areas
Low induced drag – higher efficiencies demand greater spans, span efficiency
and Aspect Ratio
Low parasitic drag – reduce excrescences such as: undercarriage,
discontinuities of line and no leaks/gaps.
Low trim drag – small tails with efficient surface coupled with low stability for
frequent speed changing.
Wide load carrying capacity in terms of pilot weight and water ballast.
Basic drag equation in in non-dimensional, coefficient terms:
For an aircraft of a given scale, aspect ratio is the single overall configuration
parameter that has direct leverage on performance.
LAMINAR AEROFOILS
The key to modern sailplane performance.
Max.speed: 240kmph
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
max speed (kmph)
250
240
230
cruise speed (kmph)
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
0 50 100 150 200 250
range(km)
Service ceiling : 5400ft
200
150
100
50
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
service ceilling (ft)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
absolute ceilling (ft)
Endurance : 2.4hrs
range vs endurance
3.5
2.5
endurance (hrs)
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
range (km)
1
sink rate (m/s)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
range (km)
Length: 7.8m
30
25
20
aspect ratio
15
10
0
0 2 4 length 6 8 10
Height: 1.57m
height vs AR
30
25
20
height(m)
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
aspect ratio
Wingspan: 18m
wingspan vs AR
25
24
23
22
wingspan
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
20 20.2 20.4 20.6 20.8 21 21.2 21.4 21.6
aspect ratio
wingarea v AR
30
25
20
aspect ratio
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
wingsarea
Capacity: 650kg
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
"Design take-off gross weight" is the total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission
for which it was designed. This is not necessarily the same as the "maximum take-off
weight." Many military aircraft can be overloaded beyond design weight but will suffer
a reduced manoeuvrability. Unless specifically mentioned, take-off gross weight, or
"W o," is assumed to be the design weight. Design take-off gross weight can be broken
into crew weight, payload (or passenger~ weight, fuel weight, and the remaining (or
"empty") weight. The empty weight includes the structure, engines, landing gear, fixed
equipment, avionics, and anything else not considered a part of crew, payload, or fuel.
WO = WCREW + Wpayload + We
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊𝑜 =
𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
1− −
𝑊𝑜 𝑊𝑜
Wcrew = 150 kg
Wpayload = 350 kg
Wbattery = 10kg
Wempty = 200kg
Substituting values we get,
Wo = 240kg
MISSION PROFILE
For paper airplanes and balsa gliders, the aircraft is given an initial velocity by
throwing the aircraft. Some larger balsa gliders employ a catapult made from rubber
bands and a tow line to provide velocity and some initial altitude. Hang-glider pilots
often run and jump off the side of a hill or cliff to get going. Some hang-gliders and
most sailplanes are towed aloft by a powered aircraft and then cut loose to begin the
glide.
The powered aircraft that pulls the glider aloft gives the glider a certain amount of
potential energy. The glider can trade the potential energy difference from a higher
altitude to a lower altitude to produce kinetic energy, which means velocity. Gliders
are always descending relative to the air in which they are flying.
They are designed to be very efficient, to descend very slowly. If the pilot can locate
a pocket of air that is rising faster than the glider is descending, the glider can
actually gain altitude, increasing its potential energy. Pockets of rising air are
called updrafts. Updrafts are found when a wind blowing at a hill or mountain has to
rise to climb over it. Updrafts can also be found over dark land masses that absorb
heat from the sun. The heat from the ground warms the surrounding air, which
causes the air to rise. Rising pockets of hot air are called thermals. Large gliding
birds, such as owls and hawks, are often seen circling inside a thermal to gain
altitude without flapping their wings. Gliders do exactly the same thing.
Modelling of the sailplane
The mission chosen is for the glider to climb to a height H in a prescribed thermal, then
to cruise a a distance D while losing altitude H. The performance index to be
maximized for this mission is the average cross-country speed derived later.
Carmichael and Horstman thermal profiles of various strengths such as those used by
Helwig were considered the net rate of climb of the sailplane in the thermal is given by
Wing modelling:
CL and lift calculations of wing:
Aircraft Geometry.
The mean aerodynamic chord can be found by integrating the individual section
chords across the span.
For wings with simple linear taper, the mean aerodynamic chord will roughly equal
the mean geometric chord,
and for wings with rectangular planform this will simplify to,
The aircraft generates lift by moving quickly through the air. The wings of the vehicle
have aerofoil shaped cross-sections and for the given flow conditions the aerofoil
shapes will create a pressure difference between upper and lower wing surfaces.
There will be a high pressure region underneath and a very low pressure region on
top. The lift produced will be proportional to the size of the aircaft; the square of its
velocity; the density of the surrounding air and the angle of attack of the wing to on-
coming flow.
In the normal range of operations the variation of lift coefficent with angle of attack of
the vehicle will be approximately linear,
up until a maximum lift coefficient value at which point the wing flow stalls and lift
reduces.
The values of the lift curve gradient and maximum lift coefficient are effected by the
shape of the wing, its twist distribution, the type of aerofoil section used, the flap
configuration and most importantly by the amount of downwash flow induced on the
wing by the trailing wing tip vortices.
where it is assumed that the ideal two-dimensional result for the section used is .
Calculation of zero angle lift coefficient or zero lift angle can be done by crudely
assuming that the zero lift angle for the aircraft equals the combination of zero lift
angle of the aerofoil section and wing incidence setting. Calculation of maximum lift
coefficient can be again take as approximately equal to the two dimensional section
data minus 5% due to the negative lift needed at the tailplane to maintain moment
equilibrium.
For swept wings, wings with complex taper or wings with flaps, a more accurate
calculation needs to be undertaken using either lifting line theory or the vortex lattice
method.
The wing designed is optimum for soaring purposes, the aerofoils used are in a
transitional manner, the slender ones are place on the tip and the thicker ones are
placed near the root and mid wing section.
The wing is subjected to a backward sweep of 14deg for delayed flow separation
with added customized winglets
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝟐 𝝆𝑽2SCL
Where,
Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3
Planform area = from mean design parameters (15.58 m2)
Velocity can be substituted as per the requirement for minimum and maximum lift
CL= 0.3 (aerofoils are placed in such a manner with the required amount of twist, to
give uniform lift throughout the wing profile).
Lcruise = 60.13 N
LMAX = 120.211 N
LIFT ESTIMATION
Lift estimation
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
At Cruise
𝑉 = 176𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 400𝑚
𝜌 = 0.2885 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑊0 ∗ 𝑔
𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 0.32
𝑊0∗𝑔
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 102.42 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆
𝐶𝐿𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.9𝐶𝐿𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.558
At Take-Off
𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 1 + 𝐶𝐿𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.558
1
2𝑊 2
𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =[ ] = 73.12𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1.2𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 87.744 𝑚/𝑠
1 2
𝐿 𝑇𝑂 = 𝜌𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 634.346 𝑁
2
At Landing
In moving through the air, the aircraft experiences a resistive drag force. This force is
made up of several distinct components
Friction drag
Pressure drag
Compression drag
Lift induced drag
In theory the drag can be predicted by using a simple parabolic drag assumption,
If the offset due to camber is neglected then this can be written simply as,
This lumps friction and pressure components into a constant base drag term and
then treats the variation due to friction, pressure and most importantly lift induced
drag, as a quadratic function of lift.
The effect of compressibility can be predicted by the use of a correction factor for
speeds ranging from M=0.4 up to transonic.
For the more complex flows obtained in the transonic and supersonic regions, CFD
analysis or experimental data is required to correctly estimate CD.
where e is the wing planform efficiency factor. Values for these drag constants for
various categories of aircraft are shown in the following table.
Aircraft Type CD0 e
Single Engine
Light Aircraft 0.024 0.8
No Struts
Single Engine
Light Aircraft 0.026 0.8
With Struts
Multi Engine
0.019 0.84
Widebody Aircraft
Twin Engine
0.017 0.85
Widebody Aircraft
Twin Engine
0.021 0.85
Commuter Aircraft
Military Aircraft
0.028 0.70
with external stores
Vintage Bi-plane
0.038 0.70
with struts and bracing wire
DRAG ESTIMATION
At Take-off
𝑉𝐶 = 73.12 𝑚/𝑠
𝑉𝑡𝑜 = 87.144𝑚/𝑠
(1.558)2
𝐶𝐷𝑡𝑜 = 0.015 + 0.9 ∗ = 0.11686
3.14 ∗ 8.87 ∗ 0.77
At Cruise
𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 237.16𝑚/𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 0.2888
(0.62)2
𝐶𝐷𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.015 + 0.9 ∗ = 0.0311
3.14 ∗ 8.07 ∗ 0.77
At Landing
𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 73.12 𝑚/𝑠
(0.9)(1.788)2
𝐶𝐷𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.015 + = 0.149
3.14 ∗ 8.87 ∗ 0.777
𝒄𝒕
𝝀= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟑𝟓
𝒄𝒓
Load factor
A load factor is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross weight
of the airplane.
𝐿
𝑛=
𝑊
634
𝑛= = 1.239
529.08 ∗ 9.81
Turn rate
Standardized turn rates are often employed in approaches and holding patterns to
provide a reference for controllers and pilots so that each will know what the other is
expecting.
1
𝑔[𝑛2 − 1]2
𝜔=
𝑉∞
1
9.81[1.2392 − 1]2
𝜔= = 0.0328 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
176
Take-off
Take-off Velocity
𝑉𝑇𝑂 = 1.2𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 7.744𝑚/𝑠
Approach Velocity
𝑉𝑎 = 1.3𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 5.056 𝑚/𝑠
Landing
Touchdown
𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 1.15𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 4.088𝑚/𝑠
Flaring
𝑉𝑓 = 1.23𝑉𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 9.937𝑚/𝑠
TAIL DESIGN
The tail of an airplane is designed to provide both stability and control of the airplane
in pitch and yaw. There are many different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting
these dual requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal
wing like structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever
practical, these structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers,
although some designs do not conveniently fit such a description.
The many types of airplane tail design include, but are by no means limited to, the
conventional, T-tail, cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted V-tail, inverted
Y-tail, twin-tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane tail designs.
T-Tail Design
In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail, the horizontal
stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is
then above the propeller flow, or prop wash, and the wing wake. Because the
horizontal stabilizer is more efficient, it can therefore be made both smaller and
lighter. The placement of the horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer can
also make the vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making the
vertical stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced. However, the horizontal
stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and twisting load on the vertical
stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a heavier, structure. These loads are
avoided in the conventional design. There is also the possibility that at the high pitch
angle usually associated with landing the airplane, the horizontal stabilizer of the T
tail will be immersed in the slower and more turbulent flow of the wing wake. In some
cases, it is possible to compromise severely the control function of the horizontal tail.
Nevertheless, the T tail is the second-most common tail design after the
conventional.
Tricycle Gear:
We have chosen Tricycle Type Landing Gear
Landing gear employing a front-mounted wheel is called tricycle landing gear.
Tricycle landing gear aircraft have two main wheels attached to the airframe behind
its CG that support most of the weight of the structure.
Additionally, a nose wheel will typically provide some sort of nose wheel steering
control.
Advantages:
It allows more forceful application of the brakes during landings at high
speeds without causing the aircraft to nose over
It permits better forward visibility for the pilot during takeoff, landing, and
taxiing
It tends to prevent ground looping (swerving) by providing more directional
stability during ground operation since the aircraft's CG is forward of the main
wheels
The forward CG keeps the airplane moving forward in a straight line rather
than ground looping
SIZING OF AIRCRAFT
Fuselage Design
Many methods exist to initially estimate the required fuselage size. For certain types
of aircraft, the fuselage size is determined strictly by "real-world constraints." For
example, a large passenger aircraft devotes most of its length to the passenger
compartment. Once the number of passengers is known and the number of seats
across is selected, the fuselage length and diameter are essentially determined.
𝐿𝐹𝑢 = 𝑎𝑊0𝑐
𝑎 =0.86
𝑐 = 0.48
𝐿𝐹𝑢 = 3.35 𝑚
Tail Volume Coefficient
For the initial layout, a historical approach is used for the estimation of tail size. The
effectiveness of a tail in generating a moment about the centre of gravity is
proportional to the force (i.e., lift) produced by the tail and to the tail moment arm.
The primary purpose of a tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing. Thus,
it would be expected that the tail size would be in some way related to the wing size.
𝐶𝑉𝑇 𝑏𝑤 𝑆𝑊
𝑆𝑉𝑇 =
𝐿𝑉𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑇 = 0.05
𝑏𝑤 = 38.09 𝑚
𝑆𝑊 = 172.3 𝑚2
𝐿𝑉𝑇 = 0.6 ∗ 𝐿𝐹𝑢
0.07 ∗ 38.098 ∗ 172.13
𝑆𝑉𝑇 = = 2.402 𝑚
0.6 ∗ 103.35
𝐶𝐻𝑇 𝑆𝑊 (𝑆𝑀𝐶)
𝑆𝐻𝑇 =
𝐿𝐻𝑇
𝑆𝑀𝐶 = 4.51 𝑚
0.8 ∗ 172.13 ∗ 4.51
𝑆𝐻𝑇 = = 2.17 𝑚
0.6 ∗ 38.098
15AS304M – Multi-Disciplinary Design
Aircraft Conceptual Design
REPORT
On
Submitted by:
Abhibhav sharma
RA161101901005
ABBREVIATIONS
AR-Aspect Ratio
Kph-Km per hour
Wo-Take-off Weight of airplane
W crew- Weight of crew
W payload- Payload weight
W fuel-Fuel Weight
W empty- Empty weight of airplane
R - range
C - specific fuel consumption
V -velocity
L/D -lift-to-drag ratio
S- Wing area
b- Wing Span
λ-Taper Ratio
ʌ-Wing sweep
n-Load Factor
𝝎-Turn Rate
L-Lift
D-Drag