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Goal-Based Scenarios (GBS)
What is it?
A goal-based scenario (GBS) is based on the premise that human
thought is motivated by goals (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1993-
1994). Consequently, GBSs are designed to empower learners to
achieve a specific goal in which they have a vested interest to
complete. This instructional approach, introduced by Roger
Schank, demonstrates constructivist learning as it requires the
learner to be the active participant in constructing his or her
knowledge in an authentic simulated environment. Bower &
Hilgard (1981) assert in their book, Theories of Learning, the
importance of the role of insight, perception and reflection in the
learning process as described by Gestalt psychologists, such as
Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka. This is unlike learning based
primarily on association with past experience, as argued by
Thorndike, Skinner and Pavlov (as cited in Naidu et al., 2000).
The objective of a GBS is to master a particular skill
instead of being exposed to a topic. A skill is a specific action –
for example: to sew as opposed to the topic of fashion. A skill,
when acquired, empowers the learner to accomplish their desired
goal within a complex system of learners who together benefit
from their achieved goals. The utilization of a set of skills not
only accomplishes the mission but also provides an environment
to practice those skills in pursuit of learning. Skills can be used
to design a product or even in the discovery or explanation of a
product or an issue. However, there is an important emphasis on
learning-by-doing instead of recalling decontextualized facts in
and of themselves. Schank describes that “the intent of a GBS is
to provide motivation, a sense of accomplishment, a support
system, and a focus on skills rather than facts” (Schank, 1993-
1994, p. 453).
How does it work?
There are two main parts of a goal-based scenario: the mission
context and the mission structure. The mission context defines
the thematic aspects by first clarifying the goal (mission) and
presenting the scene, setup and student role in the context (cover
story) of the GBS. The mission structure defines the task
environment (mission focus) and the tasks themselves (scenario
operations). There are several types of mission focuses where the
mission is to control, design, discover, or explain. In each, the
student is the central participant using learned skills in pursuit of
the mission. The instructor, on the other hand, is mainly an
instructional designer. The instructor designs the scenario with a
variety of paths and sufficient resources that allow the target
issues to arise naturally during the students’ mission. The
instructor can also function as a subject matter expert that the
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SONYA A. WEIN
student may choose to interview or seek after to provide timely
feedback (Schank et al., 1993-1994).
The mission of a GBS must be clear and concrete in
order for the interested learner to confidently understand it in the
context of the cover story. The scenario operations allow the
learner a variety of paths to acquire and practice a set of skills in
service to the mission. This is where learning occurs. The
scenario requires an authentic task environment in which all the
tasks are relevant to the mission. The learners should be able to
see the skill used and utilize it themselves toward a task-
completion goal, an instructional goal or a knowledge-building
goal (Schank et al., 1993-1994; Ng & Bereiter, 1991). Sufficient
resources and timely feedback are crucial in order for students to
see both the need for and the effects of his or her actions (Schank
et al., 1993-1994).
Who is doing it?
In Schank’s research, he and his colleagues give several
examples of GBSs such as in the classroom like the Broadcast
News program produced by high school students which
exemplifies a task-completion mission. These students wrote,
edited, and produced a TV broadcast of a recent day’s news
using their knowledge of current affairs, economics, journalism,
and more. The Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago
provided an exploratory GBS on sickle cell disease called Sickle
Cell Counselor which allowed visitors to discover and assess the
conditions of customers to give them counsel. Screens with
access to experts provided visitors with answers to their
questions (Schank et al., 1993-1994).
In the ever popular computer game, SimCity, the learner
is the city mayor or city planner and is tasked to build the city,
manage taxes, boundaries and city services. The game is set up to
provide the user with control and give the opportunity to learn
from mistakes. Schank breaks down each of the above examples
to reveal the aspects that stay true to the criteria of GBSs.
Nevertheless, each scenario demonstrates the philosophy of
learning-by-doing in complex learning tasks that can be
performed collaboratively or individually (Schank et al., 1993-
1994).
GBSs also have been used in organizational training
settings via e-learning such as computer-based tutorials,
performance support systems and distance training. One example
that Marquardt and Kearsley (1998) mention in their book,
Technology-Based Learning: Maximizing Human Performance
and Corporate Success, is a simulated work environment of a
hotel chain called Innmasters. In this multimedia training
module, employees were tasked with designing, prototyping and
documenting a hotel reservation system (as cited in
Padmanabhan, 2009, p. 133).
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Goal-Based Scenarios
How effective is it?
In 2001, 488 college students participated in a
hypermedia-delivered goal-based scenario study called
Whodunnit? that taught basic biochemistry concepts pertaining to
DNA and DNA fingerprinting. This GBS took the form of an
“investigate and decide” (Schoenfeld-Tacher, Jones, &
Persichitte, 2001, p. 307) or exploratory mission similar to the
aforementioned Sickle Cell Counselor. This study was performed
to discover if the students’ gender, ethnicity, previous high
school level science course work or experience using a computer
significantly impacted the effectiveness of the GBS. As a result,
none of these variables played a significant role in the success of
the GBS. Rather, this GBS seemed to be equally effective for all
types of students without a negative effect on the majority
(Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2001).
A computer simulation called Statistics Specialists was
created by Hsu and Moore to teach students about sample
distribution. With feedback from Roger Schank, himself, they
confirmed that this simulation was indeed a good example of a
GBS. The participants described several strengths in the scenario.
For example, the mission and cover story were engaging, and the
scenario operations catered to different learning styles and
satisfied learning control. Moreover, feedback gave students
confidence and motivated further learning. Though there were
areas for improvement, Statistics Specialists illustrated the
comprehensive positive impact of learning from goal-based
scenarios (Hsu & Moore, 2011).
What are the implications for
instructional design?
Schank argues against the educational system’s conformity to
parroting decontextualized facts or passively reading about a
problem instead of using a skill to solve a problem. Real-world
simulations allow students the flexibility to solve complex
problems, and explore and create with real-time feedback in
pursuit of a mission (Schank et al., 1993-1994). Current curricula
are rarely designed like the real world. Learning-by-doing is
risky but effective if structured “to simulate as well as possible
the total experience [needed] in as intense, danger-free,
inexpensive and timely fashion as possible” (Schank, 1993-1994,
p. 436).
Indeed, “interest is a terrible thing to waste” (Schank,
1993-1994, p. 432). Schank described the imperative
implications of a student-led learning environment. The
identification of the skill to be taught should complete the
statement, “John knows how to X” (Schank et al., 1993-1994, p.
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313) where X is the skill to be learned. Topics that do not clearly
and concretely satisfy this statement are not skills. GBSs are
well-structured problems in this way. The skill can be practiced
through any subject effectively as long as the student has a
vested interest in pursuing the skill. Many web-based or
computer-based technologies have been found effective in
demonstrating the format of a GBS. Goal-based scenarios solve
the problem of how to do or know something instead of simply
what to know.
The following elaborates on the aforementioned goal-
based scenario, Whodunnit? Where students were free to browse,
learn, and explore using tools in the multimedia platform to solve
a murder mystery.
Scenario
The student plays the role of an outside agent called to assist
in solving a crime. This module is broken down into six
main sections: The Crime, The Suspects, GBI Academy,
Internship, Virtual Crime Lab, and Courtroom. The first two
sections layout an authentic cover story that engages the
students’ interests. The hypermedia teaching program is
packed with photographs of the crime scene, eyewitness
testimony, and suspect files. The GBI Academy provides
biochemistry content as students begin their training as "GBI
agents" (Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2001, p. 307). The training
leads students in an interactive chemistry lesson from the
basic organic functional groups to an introduction of
nucleotide structure, base pairing, and hydrogen bonding,
just to name a few.
In the Virtual Crime Lab students analyze DNA
samples from possible murder suspects. Throughout these
simulations, students receive frequent feedback on their
learning. Students also learn laboratory techniques used in
DNA fingerprinting in the Internship section. They can view
narrated images of operations and procedures performed by
scientist. Then students can virtually practice these same
skills in the Virtual Crime Lab.
Finally, the Courtroom section provides a self-
assessment checkpoint. The courtroom is illustrated with
sounds and images as the students become expert witnesses
who testify for the prosecution. There they undergo an
intense cross-examination from opposing counsel in the
courtroom scene. Students must then respond to the
attorney's questions within the simulation. If the student
selects an incorrect response, he or she is instructed to revisit
the area where the related concept was presented to
determine the correct response before returning to the
courtroom. Each section is just a click away for an easy
access constructivist learning environment (Schoenfeld-
Tacher et al., 2001, p. 307).
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Goal-Based Scenarios
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Hsu, C-Y. & Moore, D. R.. (2011). Formative research on the goal-based scenario model applied to computer delivery
and simulation. The Journal of Applied Instructional Design, 1(1), 13-24

Naidu, S., Ip, A., Linser, R.. (2000). Dynamic goal-based role-play simulation on the web: A case study. Educational
Technology & Society, 3(3) Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/journals/3_3/b05.html

Ng, E., & Bereiter, C.. (1991). Three levels of goal orientation in learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1,
243-271.

Padmanabhan, P.. (2009). Goal-based scenarios: An approach to online instruction and training. Technical
Communication, 56(2), 132–136.

Schank, R. C.. (1993-1994). Goal-based scenarios: A radical look at education. The Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 3(4), 429–453.

Schank, R. C., Fano, A., Bell, B., & Jona, M.. (1993-1994). The design of goal-based scenarios. The Journal of the
Learning Sciences,3(4), 305–345.

Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., Jones, L. L., & Persichitte, K. A.. (2001). Differential effects of a multimedia goal-based
scenario to teach introductory biochemistry--Who benefits most?. Journal of Science Education and Technology,10(4),
305–317.

SONYA A. WEIN