Spotlight

Defining Ion Exchange Capacity

By C.F. ’Chubb’ Michaud, CWS-VI

Definitions Figure 1, between the vertical lines from A to C. We designate the

In general terms, the capacity of an ion exchange resin can be gray-shaded area below the curve as leakage. Note that leakage
expressed as the quantity of ions that can be taken up by a specific is very low in the beginning of the run and remains pretty much
volume of the resin. This would be expressed in quantity-per-unit constant until the exhaustion zone of the resin approaches the bot-
volume, such as kilograins per cubic foot (Kgr/ft3), milli-equiva- tom of the column. Leakage then increases to some predetermined
lents per milliliter (meq/mL), which also equals equivalents per shut-off point (in the case of residential softeners this may be 1
liter (eq/L). For the record, for a softener, 1 eq/L = 21.87 Kgr/ gpg, but for industrial systems it may be 0.1 gpg [or about 2 ppm
ft3. 1.0 grains per gallon = 17.1 ppm of substance expressed as or even 0.01 gpg] which is about 0.2 ppm). When leakage crosses
calcium carbonate. Equivalents refers to the equivalent weight the limit, that is the end of the run (signified by line B). The run
(EW) of the substance expressed in grams (or length is represented by the horizontal line
meq in milligrams [mg]), which is the mo- x-y and would be expressed in gallons or
lecular weight (MW) divided by the valence. Handy Softener liters. The total operating capacity would
Calcium (Ca), for instance has a molecular Conversions* be the rectangle ABMN. This represents the
weight of 40 and is divalent (2), so the EW usable capacity where the effluent is within
is 20 (40/2 = 20). An ion exchanger with a the leakage specifications. The capacity
1 cu. ft. = 28.32 liters
capacity of 1.95 eq/L would therefore have curve for any resin will show the expected
a capacity to remove 1.95 x 20 = 39 grams of 1 lb. = 454 gms capacity versus the regeneration dosage as
calcium per liter of resin or 1.1 kilograms (k) 1 meq / mL = 1 eq/L = seen in Figure 2.
or 2.43 lbs. of calcium/ft3. 21.87 Kgr / cu. ft.
Technically, resin capacity is a mea-
1 Kgr = 1,000 grains
Total capacity versus operating
surement of total capacity, as determined capacity
by a test performed in the lab by a titration 1 gpg = 17.1 ppm as CaCO3 Generally speaking, when we refer to
methodology. A measured quantity of cation 1 gallon = 3.785 liters the capacity of resin, we are referring to
resin, for example, is fully converted to the operating capacity. Operating capacity must
1 cu. ft. = 7.48 gallons
hydrogen (H) form with an excess of strong specify the exact feedwater challenge and
acid and then well rinsed. A measured quan- 1 gpm / cu. ft. = 8 BV/hr. flowrates as well as the endpoint and other
tity of caustic (NaOH) is then passed through (bed volumes) performance specifications. Technically, the
the resin in order to totally exhaust the resin. stated capacity will only be correct when run
The effluent is captured. The NaOH that *This information would be under those exact conditions. As the ad says,
passed through the column represents the invaluable for technicians to your results may vary.
sodium (Na) ions that were not captured by carry on a handy wallet card. There are many factors which influence
the resin. This solution is then titrated with the operating capacity of any given resin—
acid to neutralize it, and the amount of acid required is expressed cation or anion, and subsequent performance. Achieving those
in equivalents. The difference between the total equivalents of very low leakages (red line, Figure 2) referenced above requires
NaOH passed through the column and the NaOH exiting the col- very high regenerant doses. Regenerant levels are never increased
umn represents the total equivalents of Na captured by the resin. to increase capacity. They are increased to decrease leakage.
The capacity of the resin is then determined. Similarly, anion resin Capacity is what capacity is based on that particular chemical
would be fully regenerated with NaOH and exhausted
with acid to make the capacity measurement. Figure 1. Run length
Total capacity can be expressed as meq/mL (volu-
metric) or meq/gm (based on weight). The lab determina-
tions are actually in meq/dry gm, but once the moisture
content of the resin is measured, it is converted to meq/
mL. If you were curious, by now you have probably
converted the typical cation resin capacity of 1.95 meq/
mL to the more familiar Kgr/ft3 and arrived at 42.65 Kgr.
How come no one rates their softener at 42,650 grains per
cubic foot? You are probably more familiar with the rating
values of 24 Kgr/ft3 or 30 Kgr, or 32 Kgr or 36 Kgr! Believe
it or not, these numbers are all commonly used to describe
a 1-cu.-ft. softener (28.32 liters, for those scientifically
advanced enough to be using the metric system—which
is about 97 percent of the planet). Figure 1 shows how
this is possible.
Graphically, the total capacity value for a resin is
represented by the yellow-shaded area above the curve in

Water Conditioning & Purification March 2011

dosing level. If you need higher capacity, increase the amount of
resin. The closer you are to the theoretical efficiency line (green
line, Figure 2), the more economical your system will be.
When softening resin is brand new, it is essentially 100-per-
cent regenerated into the Na+ form. You will get a tremendous
capacity on this run and essentially no leakage until the very end
of the run. It is not unusual to register 36 to 38 Kgr/ft3 on the
virgin run. There are some who will actually rate their softener at
this value, since it would be achievable every time you regenerate
to the 100-percent level. This will take a full 40 lb. bag of salt/
cu. ft. (640 gms/L).
Figure 2. Capacity versus regenerant dose
capacity in H form and it is always lower than Na form, because
the resin swells about 5 to 6 percent in transition from the Na to
the H form. There is more water and less resin in that cubic foot
and, therefore, fewer reactive sites. If a resin manufacturer (or
the literature) indicates that 35 cu. ft. of resin is needed for the
process, capacity of 35 cu. ft. of resin in the Na form is actually
needed and then converted via double regeneration to the H form
for service (you will end up with 37 cu. ft. of H form resin. Or,
simply purchase 37 cu. ft. of H form resin in the first place.
Different resins have different definitions for
capacity
The capacity expressed for SAC may also be
referred to as cation salt-splitting capacity (CSSC).
Strong acid and strong base (anion or SBA) resins are
so called because of their chemical nature (equivalent
to sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide in chemical
strength), and the ability to split a neutral salt. For
SBA resins, this is the anion salt-splitting capacity
(ASSC), often simply referred to as strong-base
capacity. This is shown in Figure 3, Reactions 1 and
2. These resins can be regenerated with common salt
(NaCl) or potassium salts (KCl) and restored to their
respective Na (or K) and chloride (Cl) forms. This
property gives them great utility for the removal
of cation and anion contaminants from residential,
industrial or wastewater steams. They can also be
regenerated with acid (such as hydrochloric [HCl])
or caustic (NaOH) and put into respective H and OH
forms for deionization applications. This is shown in
Figure 3, Reactions 3 and 4.

Strong versus weak resins

These functions differ from that of weak-acid
Others are more realistic and will rate their softeners at cation (WAC) and weak-base anion (WBA) resins, so called be-
35 Kgr (with 20 lbs. of salt = 320 gm/L) or 32 Kgr (with 16 lbs. cause of their chemical similarity to acetic acid and ammonium
of salt = 250 gm/L). This is all part of the marketing hype you hydroxide. These resins do not split neutral salts but will neu-
see online. Water softeners are manufactured and sold by the tralize high and/or low pH feed streams, as shown in Figure 3,
cubic-foot or liter-volume capacity, but they are marketed and Reactions 5 and 6. Note that WBA resin is never in the OH form
purchased by the grain capacity. There is a lot of
misrepresentation there to show a higher rating Figure 3. Reactions
than the competition. (One big-box store website I
visited rated their softener at 20 lbs. salt/cu. ft. dose
for capacity, but rated brine efficiency at the 2.5-lb.
level.) Likewise, they claimed maximum flowrates
of 14 gpm at 15-psi pressure drop, but run certifi-
cation testing at a more reasonable 4 gpm. Entire
books have been written on how to massage results
with statistics and are apparently well read. Read
the fine print and ask questions. The bottom line is
that most softeners are factory-set to regenerate at
the 6 to 8 lb./cu. ft. level (100 to 125 gms/L) and
will produce 22 to 24 Kgr/ft3, which is about 50 to
55 percent efficient. If applications require very low
leakage, crank up the salt. See References for more
articles written on the subject.1, 2
Each type of resin may express capacity in a
different light in order to reflect what the user may
require. Cation resins used for softening are called
strong acid cation (SAC) resins. They are widely
used in both sodium or potassium forms for soft-
ening and hydrogen (H) form for deminerization.
Capacity stated in the literature is for the Na form
of the resin (even though the resin may be run in the
H form). Some of the newer literature will give the

Water Conditioning & Purification March 2011

when regenerated but is in what is called the free-base form (FB).
WBA acts as adsorbants for acid and pick up the entire molecule,
as shown in Figure 3, Reaction 6.
WAC and WBA have a higher selectivity difference when
converted to the salt forms than do their strong chemical counter-
parts. This gives them the ability to then split neutral salts where
the challenge levels are very low or the total dissolved solids (TDS)
of the feedstream are too high for the stronger counterparts. This
is shown in Figure 3, Reactions 6, 7 and 8.
WAC and WBA do not split neutral salts unless they are first
converted to their salt forms using Reaction 5 and 6, respectively.
This also means that one cannot regenerate these resins with salt
(NaCl or KCl). Nonetheless, they enjoy great utility in high solids
softening3 and groundwater remediation (Figure 3, Reaction 8
shows hexavalent chromium reduction using WBA). To use these
resins, they must first be regenerated with acid or caustic and
then converted to salt form using caustic (or other base) and acid,
respectively. Note that Reaction 5 for WAC can simultaneously
remove both hardness and alkalinity.
Selecting the right form of the resin
When stating or interpreting the capacity of any ion exchange
resin, it is extremely important that the ionic form of the resin
be stated. Resins change size when they are regenerated or
exhausted, so the volumetric requirements for sizing will be
greatly influenced by the form you order and the capacity
you obtain. As a guide, please take note: SBC and SBA shrink
when exhausting; WAC and WBA swell. Plan your freeboard
accordingly.
• SAC resins swell 6 to 8 percent going from Na to H, and
shrink 5 to 7 percent going from Na to Ca.
• SBA resins will swell 20 percent from Cl to OH and shrink
3 to 5 percent from Cl to NO3.
• WAC resins will swell 20 percent from H to Ca and 50
percent (or more) from H to Na.
• WBA resins will swell 20 to 25 percent when going from
FB to HCl form.
When we talk capacity for SBA resins, we have to point out
that SBA resins do not have 100-percent strong base functionality;
there is some weak base activity. In addition, the ratio of SB to
WB will vary with the type of resin (Type I or Type II) and will
change with age.4 As SBA resins get older, or if they are exposed
to high operating temperatures, there will be either a loss of ASSC
or conversion to weak base through a partial decomposition of
the functional sites. It is important to understand what happens
here and plan carefully. In a salt-regenerated application, such as
nitrate removal, it is only the strong base capacity that comes into
Water Conditioning & Purification
play. In an acid-neutralization application (de-ionization), both
the strong and weak base activity are utilized. Silica removal is
not accomplished with weak base functionality, nor is it possible
with a salt-regenerated form of BA resin. Silica removal can only
be accomplished with the OH form of the SBA resin. Older resin
may still have a great acid neutralizing capacity for DI needs but
will slowly lose its ability to remove silica. This is the number-one
reason SBA resins are replaced for DI applications. Anion resin
capacity that is stated as total capacity will include both strong base
and weak base capacities. A second data point is the pure strong
base or ASSC, which is very good to know when troubleshooting
issues with performance.
Conclusions
The ion exchange capacity stated in the literature usually
refers to the total capacity of the resin. Operating capacity, which
is the usable design capacity of the system, will be lower because
there are performance criteria on leakage that will terminate the
run long before total capacity is attained. SAC and SBA resins have
salt-splitting capacity and can be regenerated with salt for many
residential, industrial and waste treatment needs. It is the ASSC
that dictates silica removal when operated in OH form. WAC and
WBA are not salt splitters in their normal regenerated form (and
cannot be regenerated with salt) but can be converted for special
needs. WAC resins (H form) have a greater capacity than SAC
for neutralizing alkalinity. WBA (FB form) generally have a much
higher capacity than do SBA for neutralizing acids.
References
1. Michaud, C.F., Factors Affecting the Brine Efficiency of Softeners–Part
1, WC&P, August 1999.
2. Michaud, C.F., Factors Affecting the Brine Efficiency of Softeners–
Part 2, WC&P, September 1999.
3. Michaud, C.F., IEx-treme Softening, WC&P, June 2010.
4. Michaud, C.F. and Brodie, D.F., Ion Exchange-Methods of Degradation,
WC&P, January 1990.
About the author
S Chubb Michaud, CE, CWS-VI, CEO and Technical Director of
Systematix Company, which he founded in 1982, has served as chair of
several sections, committees and task forces with WQA, is a past director
and governor and currently serves on the PWQA Board, chairing the
Technical and Education Committees. Michaud is one of the original
WC&P Technical Review Committee members. He is a past recipient
of the WQA Award of Merit and PWQA Roberts Gan Award, as well
as a member of the PWQA Hall of Fame. Michaud can be reached at
(714) 522-5453 or via email at AskChubb@aol.com
March 2011