Eusebeia and dharma

The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from Indian Emperor Asoka in 258 BC, and found in
Afghanistan. The inscription renders the word Dharma in Sanskrit as Eusebeia in Greek, suggesting
dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for
human community.[39]

In mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BC was discovered in
Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription. This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic
text. According to Paul Hacker,[39] on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma:
the word eusebeia.[39] Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia
means not only to venerate gods, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and
includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between
husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription,
concludes Paul Hacker,[39] suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and
meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human
community.[40]

Rta, maya and dharma

The evolving literature of Hinduism linked dharma to two other important concepts: Ṛta and Māyā. Ṛta
in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe
and everything within it.[41][42] Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception,
magic that misleads and creates disorder,[43] thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish
order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch[25] suggests Ṛta and dharma are parallel concepts, the
former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere; while Māyā and dharma are also
correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which
strengthens law and moral life.[42][44]

Day proposes dharma is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more
complex concept of dharma, as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner.[45]
The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where rta and dharma are linked:

O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils...

— RV 10.133.6

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Glossary of Hinduism terms

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Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their
interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and
its parts.[27] It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes
behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.[10][note 1] Hindu dharma includes the
religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social
order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[46] Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,[47] is that
which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is neither
the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in
the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the
pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. In
Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of
river to flow.[47] In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and
interconnectedness of all life.[27][39]

In its true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand the mind" as the scholar Devdutt Pattnaik
suggests in his treatises in Hinduism. Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the
individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In the way societal phenomena
affect the conscience of the individual, similarly do the actions of an individual may alter the course of
the society, fire better or for worse. This is been subtlely echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning
dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.

In Hinduism, dharma includes two aspects – sanātana dharma, which is the overall, unchanging and
abiding principals of dharma and is not subject to change, and yuga dharma, which is valid for a yuga, an
epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition.

In Vedas and Upanishads

The history section of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas. This
development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the
concept of dharma continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It acts as the
regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to satya
(Sanskrit: सत्यं, truth),[48][49] in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:

धर्मम ः िस्माद्धर्माम ि् परं नास्त्य् अथो अबलीयान् बलीयााँ सर्माशाँ सिे धर्मे ण यथा राज्ञैवर्म् ।

यो वै स धर्मम ः सत्यं वै िि् िस्मात्सत्यं वदन्तर्माहुर् धर्मं वदिीति धर्मं वा वदन्ताँ सत्यं वदिीत्य् एिद्ध्येवैिदु भयं भवति ।।

Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that
dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the
Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv[48][49]

In the Epics

The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls,[50] places major emphasis on individual
practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.

In the Second Book of Ramayana, for example, a peasant asks the King to do what dharma morally
requires of him, the King agrees and does so even though his compliance with the law of dharma costs
him dearly. Similarly, dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Rama, Sita, and Lakshman
in Ramayana, claims Daniel Ingalls.[51] Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical
questions in symbolic terms. The issue is debated by the characters, finally the right prevails over wrong,
the good over evil. For this reason, in Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred
to as "dharmaraja".[52]
In Mahabharata, the other major Indian epic, similarly, dharma is central, and it is presented with
symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, the god Yama, referred to as dharma in the text, is
portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudishthira, who is told he may not
enter paradise with such an animal, but refuses to abandon his companion, for which decision he is then
praised by dharma.[53] The value and appeal of the Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and
rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book, claims Ingalls,[51] because Indian metaphysics is
more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures; the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in
its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which there are usually three
answers given, according to Ingalls:[51] one answer is of Bhima, which is the answer of brute force, an
individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which
is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and of tradition; the third answer is of
introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically
reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life,
virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma.[54] There is extensive discussion of
dharma at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism, observes Ingalls; for example, on free will versus
destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, ultimately concluding that the strong and
prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards
destiny.[55] The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma, they are a means of
communicating dharma with metaphors.[56]

According to 4th century Vatsyayana

According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th century Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting
it with adharma.[57] Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words
one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:[57][58]

Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with
someone other than one's partner)

Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to
others)

Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny)
and asambaddha (absurd talk)

Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good
intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self study)

Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of
the existence of morals and religiosity)

Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)

According to Patanjali Yoga

In the Yoga system the dharma is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.[59]

Dharma is part of yoga, suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities
and aspects of yoga.[59] Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: yama (restraints) and niyama
(observances).[57]

The five yama, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from
falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another
(acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from
expecting or accepting gifts from others.[60] The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In
explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in
conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma
to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.[61]

The five niyama (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such
as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection
regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all
actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.[62]

Sources

Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of
Hinduism.[39][63] For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states:

Dharma and Adharma do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor
ancestors declare what is Dharma and what is Adharma.

— Apastamba Dharmasutra[64]

In other texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according
to Paul Hacker, are:[65] First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and
other Sanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behavior and example of
good people. The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is
known. In this case, "atmatusti" is the source of dharma in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects
and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.[65]

Dharma, life stages and social stratification

Main articles: Āśrama and Puruṣārtha

Some texts of Hinduism outline dharma for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited
one is Manusmriti, which describes the four Varnas, their rights and duties.[66] Most texts of Hinduism,
however, discuss dharma with no mention of Varna (caste).[67] Other dharma texts and Smritis differ
from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.[66] Yet, other texts question the very existence
of varna. Bhrigu, in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that dharma does not require any
varnas.[68] In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each
social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma;
individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their asramas of life, in search of
moksa.[66][69] While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word
varnadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas and
asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate dharma with
varna system of India.[66][70] In 6th century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of
varnasramadharma" – that is, dharma of varna and asramas of life.[66][71]

At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four āśramas, or stages of life as individual's
dharma. These are:[72] (1) brahmacārya, the life of preparation as a student, (2) gṛhastha, the life of the
householder with family and other social roles, (3) vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller,
transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) sannyāsa, the life of giving
away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters.

The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.[73] Dharma
enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious,
the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact
successfully with society. The other three strivings are Artha – the striving for means of life such as food,
shelter, power, security, material wealth, etc.; Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love,
emotional fulfillment, etc.; and Moksa – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth
cycle, self-realisation in this life, etc. The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu
dharma.[73]

Dharma and poverty

Dharma being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society,
according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For example, according to Adam Bowles,[74] Shatapatha
Brahmana 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and dharma through water. Waters come from rains, it
claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to
follow Dharma – moral and lawful life. In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers
including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to dharma.[74]

In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and dharma reaches a full circle. A land
with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful
life, which further increases distress.[74][75] Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is,
dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve
prosperity.[76]

Dharma and law

Main article: Hindu law

The notion of dharma as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts. In Hindu
philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per dharma. The
Dharmashastra is a record of these guidelines and rules.[77] The available evidence suggest India once
had a large collection of dharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these
are now referred to as Dharmasutras.[78] Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and
different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.[79][80] These
different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of
dharma in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of
passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites,
laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as
well as morality.[78]

Buddhism

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In Buddhism dharma means cosmic law and order,[10] but is also applied to the teachings of the
Buddha.[10] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".[12] In East
Asia, the translation for dharma is 法, pronounced fǎ in Mandarin, choe ཆོས་ in Tibetan, beop in Korean,
hō in Japanese, and pháp in Vietnamese. However, the term dharma can also be transliterated from its
original form.

Buddha's teachings

For practicing Buddhists, references to "dharma" (dhamma in Pali) particularly as "the Dharma",
generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddha-
Dharma. It includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as the Four Noble
Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems.

The status of Dharma is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate
truth, or as the fount of all things which lie beyond the "three realms" (Sanskrit: tridhatu) and the
"wheel of becoming" (Sanskrit: bhavachakra), somewhat like the pagan Greek and Christian logos: this is
known as Dharmakaya (Sanskrit). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human
being, see the Dharma as the essence of the "84,000 different aspects of the teaching" (Tibetan: chos-
sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong) that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their
individual propensities and capabilities.

Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation
and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expand upon
the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the Dharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate
reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: Cho).

The Dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or
that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the
Buddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the Dharma, meaning the teachings and the
methods of the Buddha, and the Sangha, meaning the monastic community who provide guidance and
support to followers of the Buddha.

Chan Buddhism

Dharma is employed in Ch'an in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine,

understanding and bodhi; recognised in Dharma transmission.
Jainism

Main article: Dharma (Jainism)

Jainism

The word Dharma in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It has a contextual meaning and refers to a
number of ideas. In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas,[10] or teachings of any
competing spiritual school,[81] a supreme path,[82] socio-religious duty,[83] and that which is the
highest mangala (holy).[84]

The major Jain text, Tattvartha Sutra mentions Das-dharma with the meaning of "ten righteous virtues".
These are forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity,
renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy.[85] Acārya Amṛtacandra, author of the Jain text,
Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya writes:[86]

A right believer should constantly meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to
protect the soul from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the shortcomings of others.

— Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya (27)

Dharmastikaay (Dravya)

The term dharmastikaay also has a specific ontological and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of
its theory of six dravya (substance or a reality). In the Jain tradition, existence consists of jiva (soul,
atman) and ajiva (non-soul), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter
(pudgalastikaay), space (akasha), time (kala), principle of motion (dharmastikaay), and principle of rest
(adharmastikaay).[87][88] The use of the term dharmastikaay to mean motion and to refer to an
ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in the metaphysics of Buddhism and
various schools of Hinduism.[88]

Sikhism

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism

For Sikhs, the word dharam (Punjabi: ਧਰਮ, romanized: dharam) means the path of righteousness and
proper religious practice.[13] Guru Granth Sahib in hymn 1353 connotes dharma as duty.[89] The 3HO
movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly
as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life.[90]

Dharma in symbols

The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Dharma.

The importance of dharma to Indian sentiments is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include the
Ashoka Chakra, a depiction of the dharmachakra ( the "wheel of dharma"), as the central motif on its
flag.[91]