Carbon ( 0.

12 - 2 %)
Carbon content of a steel increases so does the transition temperature, making steel more liable
to brittle fracture near ambient temperatures. Introduces corrosion problem in nickel-chromium
steel if used above 0.1 %. Increases hardness and strength. Carbon is the most important
element in steel, it is essential in steels which have to be hardened by quenching and the degree
of carbon controls the hardness and strength of the material, as well as response to heat
treatment (hardenability). And ductility, forgeability and machinability will decrease if the
amount of carbon increases, as well as weldability properties of the steel.

Molybdenum
One of the main uses of molybdenum is to reduce the tendency to 'temper-brittleness' in low-
nickel, low-chromium steels. Additions of about 0.3% molybdenum are usually sufficient in this
respect, and the resultant steels retain a high impact value, irrespective of the rate of cooling
after tempering. Small amounts of molybdenum are very effective in reducing the transformation
rates, particularly austenite —» pearlite. Molybdenum raises the high-temperature strength and
creep resistance of high-temperature alloys and also enhances the corrosion resistance of
stainless alloys particularly to chloride solutions. Molybdenum enhances hardenability, strength
and toughness, and elevates the temperature resistance of constructional steels. It is often used
in combination with chromium and/or nickel and other alloying elements, with the molybdenum
content typically ranging from 0.2 to 1.2 per cent. Molybdenum is added to stainless steels to
increase corrosion resist-ance. About 10 per cent of stainless steel production contains
molybdenum, of which the content averages about 2 per cent. Traditionally the most important
moly-grade stainless steel is the austenitic type 316 (18% Cr, 10% Ni and 2 or 2.5% Mo), which
represents about 7 per cent of global stainless steel production. In high-alloy tool steels the
carbides of molybdenum reduce grain growth at the necessarily high heat-treatment
temperatures. Creep stength is increased. Carbide former.

Niobium

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Grain growth inhibiter. Creep stength is increased. Has the benefit of stabilizing carbon by
forming hard carbides and, so, is often found in high temperature steels. In small amounts,
niobium can significantly increase the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength
of steels, as well as have a moderate precipitation strengthening affect. Improves ductility,
hardness, wear and corrosion resistance.

Aluminium ( 0.95 - 1.3 % )

In high grade steels to make it inherently fine grained. Corrosion resistance is increased. Increases
ductility in steel alloys. Helps in removing the dissolved oxygen from the liquid steel. This process
is called as killing.

Titanium

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Creep stength is increased. Ti is used to control grain size growth, which improves toughness.
Also transforms sulfide inclusions form
elongated to globular, improving strength and corrosion resistance as well as toughness and
ductility.
• It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long heating
• Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels
• Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels. Also used to
maintain boron content additions in low carbon boron steels (10b35).

Nickel-chromium

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The addition of either nickel or chromium singly to a steel can have some adverse effects. Whilst
nickel tends to inhibit grain growth during heat-treatment, chromium accelerates it, thus
producing brittleness under shock. Meanwhile, chromium tends to form stable carbides, making
it possible to produce high-chromium, high-carbon steels, whilst nickel has the reverse effect in
promoting graphitisation. The deleterious effects of each element can be overcome, therefore, if
we add them in conjunction with each other. Then, the tendency of chromium to cause grain
growth is nullified by the grain-refining effect of the nickel, whilst the tendency of nickel to favour
graphitisation of the carbides is counteracted by the strong carbide-forming tendency of the
chromium. Increase in the strength. Increase in corrosion resistance. Retardation of
transformation rates. Small quantities of nickel and chromium will produce a general
improvement in the basic mechanical properties of strength and toughness, whilst larger
amounts of these elements will introduce new phenomena such as the stabilisation of austenite
at ambient temperatures, accompanied by the loss of ferromagnetism and, of course, a very high
resistance to corrosion.

Sulphur

Sulfur is normally regarded as an impurity and has an adverse effect on impact properties when a
steel is high in sulphur and low in manganese. Sulphur improves machinability but lowers
transverse ductility and notched impact toughness and has little effects on the longitudinal
mechanical properties. Its content is limited to 0.05% in steels but is added to free cutting steels
in amount up to 0.35% with the manganese content increased to counter any detrimental effects
since alloying additions of sulfur in amounts from 0.10% to 0.30% will tend to improve the
machinability of a steel. Such types may be referred to as "resulfurized" or "freemachining". Free
cutting steels have sulphur added to improve machinability, usually up to a maximum of 0.35%.
Added in small amounts, sulphur improves machinability without resulting in hot shortness. With
the addition of manganese hot shortness is further reduced due to the fact that manganese
sulphide has a higher melting point than iron sulphide.

Hardness is increased by elements which stabilise the carbides; strength is increased by

all alloying elements since they dissolve in ferrite; and toughness is improved by elements
which refine the grain.

Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known
as ferrite stabilizing elements.

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Graphitising effect
Nickel, cobalt, silicon and alu-minium, have little or no chemical
affinity for carbon and in fact have a graphitising effect on the iron
carbide; that is, they tend to make it unstable so that it breaks up,
releasing free graphitic carbon. Therefore, if it is necessary to add
appreciable amounts of these elements to a steel it can be done only
when the carbon content is very low.

Nickel ( 2-20 % )
Depresses transition temperature.Nickel enhances the low-
temperature behavior of the material by improving the fracture
toughness. Nickel upto 5% in alloy steels increases strength and
toughness. Stabilises austenite phase over an increasing temperature
range. 25% nickel to pure iron renders it austenitic, and so non-
magnetic, even after so cooling to ambient temperatures. Nickel does
not form carbide hence its presence in steel has graphitising effect. If
we want higher carbon content along with nickel then manganese is
added as manganese is carbide stabiliser. Nickel increases the tensile
strength and toughness of ferrite in low alloy steels by simple
substitutional solid solution. Has grain refining effect making it
suitable for case hardening. In high-nickel steels containing small
amounts of carbon, nickel introduces considerable thermal hysteresis
in the polymorphic transformation. (15%). Improves resistance to
corrosion ( 12- 20 % ). The nickel drastically increases the notch
toughness of the steel. The weldability of the steel is not decreased
by the presence of this element.Nickel is often used in combination
with other alloying elements, especially chromium and molybdenum.
It is a key component in stainless steels but at the low concentrations
found in carbon steels. One more reason Ni is added to an alloy is
that it creates brighter portions in damascus steels.

Vanadium

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Vanadium is possibly the most potent grain-refining element. As little
as 0.1% will inhibit grain-growth by forming finely dispersed carbides
and nitrides which, being relatively insoluble at high temperatures,
act as barriers to grain-growth. Carbide stabilising tendancy. It also
stabilises martensite and bainite on heat-treatment and increases the
depth of hardening. Creep stength is increased. Increases strength
while retaining ductility. The effects of Vanadium chemical element
are similar to those of Mn, Mo, and Cb. Increases resistance to shock
loading. Softening at high temperatures, fatigue stress and wear
resistance are improved. At greater than 0.05%, there may be a
tendency for the steel to become embrittled during thermal stress
relief treatments.

Nitrogen
High strength stainless steel is strengthened by addition of small
amount of nitrogen which is less likely to cause corrosion problems
unlike carbon. Creep stength is increased. Increases the austenitic
stability of stainless steels and improves yield strength in such steels.
Nitrogen acts very similar to Carbon in the alloy. N substitutes C in
small amounts (or even large, with modern technologies) to increase
hardness. Obviously, Nitrogen forms Nitrides, not Carbides. INFI has
N, and there's few more, with Sandvik being the champion, having
3% N in the alloy, completely substituting C. Sadly, not available for
knife makers. Because Nitrogen is less prone to form Chromium
nitrides than Carbon is to form Chromium carbides, its presence
improves corrosion resistance, leaving more free Chromium in the
alloy. Since Nitrogen is less reactive in forming Nitrides, it can be used
for added hardness without increasing carbide size and volume, e.g.
Sandvik 14C28N steel.

Boron

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Increases hardenability. Cold formability and machinability are
improved. Reduces transformation rates. Very small amount in fully
deoxidised steel (0.0005-0.005% ). Additions of boron are most
effective in low carbon steels. Small amounts of Titanium +
Aluminum help boron additions resist nitriding or oxidation to
increase the yield from boron’s hardenability effect. The most
important effect and the purpose of boron in steel is to drastically
improve the hardenability.The biggest advantage of boron is that a
small amount can be added to get the same result as other elements
required in large amount in terms of added hardenability. Typical
range in steel alloys is 0.0005 to 0.003%.During the heat treatment
process boron, a replacement for other elements, is added to
increase the hardenability of medium carbon steel. The cutting
performance for high-speed steels is increased but at the expense of
the forging quality. It is also possible that the content of boron can be
too high which decreases hardenability, toughness as well as cause
embrittlement. The percentage carbon present in the steel also plays
a role in the hardenability effect of boron. As boron's effect on
hardenability increases the amount of carbon should proportionally
be decreased. When boron is added to steel, precaution must be
taken to ensure that it does not react with oxygen or nitrogen as the
combination of boron with either one of the two will make the boron
useless.

Manganese-Carbon

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For applications involving atmospheric temperatures the transition
temperature can be reduced to safe limits by increasing the
manganese-carbon ratio of the steel, whilst at the same time
controlling the grain size by small additions of aluminium. A suitable
steel contains 0.14% carbon and 1.3% manganese.

Zirconium
Increases strength and limits grains sizes. Strength can be notably
increased at very low temperatures (below freezing). Steels that
include zirconium up to about 0.1% content will have smaller grains
sizes and resist fracture. Zirconium is added to steel to modify the
shape of inclusions. Typically added to low alloy, low carbon steels.
The result is that toughness and ductility are improved when
transforms shape from elongated to globular, improving toughness
and ductility.

The addition of more than 30% chromium to a steel containing

0.4% carbon would lead to the complete suppression of the
polymorphic transformations, and such a steel would no longer
be amen-able to normal heat-treatment.

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Austenite stabilisers
Some elements, notably nickel, manganese, cobalt and copper, raise the A4 temperature and
lower A3 as shown in Fig. 13.1A. Therefore these elements, when added to a carbon steel
tend to stabilise austenite (y) still further and increase the range of temperature over which
austenite can exist as a stable phase.

Manganese
Manganese could be second most important element after carbon in steel. Its presence has
below main effects : 1) It is a mild deoxidant acting as a cleanser taking the sulphur and
oxygen out of the melt into the slag. 2) It increases the harden ability and tensile strength but
decreases ductility. Manganese also tends to increase the rate of carbon penetration during
carburizing and acts as a mild deoxidizing agent. However when too high carbon and too high
manganese accompany each other, embrittlement sets in. Manganese is such an element, its
weak carbide-forming tendency being indicated by its position. However, its general effect is
to increase the stability of other carbides present. Manganese is very widely used in steel
production both for deoxidation and desulphurisation of the molten steel. Of recent years,
however, there has been a tendency to increase the manganese content of ordinary carbon
steels at the expense of a little carbon, thus giving improvements in respect of ductility and
Izod values, in both the normalised and heat-treated conditions. The susceptibility of low-
carbon steels to brittle fracture is reduced by raising the manganese carbon ratio, using up to
1.3% manganese. Similarly free-cutting steels contain up to 1.7% manganese so that sulphur
will be present as manganese sulphide (MnS) globules which aid machining. At the same
time, it counters the brittleness from sulphur and is beneficial to the surface finish of carbon
steel. Depresses transition temperature. Stabilises austenite. Manganese also has a
considerable strengthening effect on the ferrite and also increases the depth of hardening to
a useful degree. Low-carbon, low-manganese steels are not widely used, though manganese
is used to some extent to replace nickel in low-alloy steels. Being austenitic, high-manganese
steel is extremely tough and shockresistant, and although relatively soft, it nevertheless
wears extremely well. High manganese steels (12-14% Mn) are very difficult to machine
because of its tendancy to harden. Increases hardenability (>1 %). For welding purposes, the
ratio of manganese to sulphur should be at least 10 to 1. Manganese content of less than
0.30% may promote internal porosity and cracking in the weld bead, cracking can also result
if the content is over 0.80%. Steel with low Manganese Sulphide ratio may contain sulphur in
the form of iron Sulphide (FeS), which can cause cracking in the weld.

Tungsten

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In high-alloy tool steels the carbides of tungsten reduce grain growth at the necessarily high
heat-treatment temperatures. Creep stength is increased. Tends to stabilise alpha ferrite. Has
a grain-refining effect. It also reduces decarburisation during working and heat-treatment.
Tungsten has a high affinity for carbon forming the extremely hard and very stable carbides
W2C and WC and, in steel, a double carbide Fe4W2 C. Gives steel high hardness even at red
heats. Promote strength at elevated temperatures

Cobalt
Cobalt gives a useful increase in red-hardness by promoting extreme sluggishness in
transformation. Improves strength at high temperatures and magnetic permeability. Increases
hardness, also allows for higher quenching temperatures (during the heat treatment
procedure). Intensifies the individual effects of other elements in more complex steels. Not a
carbide former.

Lead

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Although virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel, lead is sometimes added to carbon steels
via mechanical dispersion during pouring in order to improve machinability. up to 0.30%,
improves machinability. Providing the distribution is homogenous it has little effect on the
physical properties of the steel.

Chromium-Vanadium (upto 0.2 % vanadium)

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The mechanical properties resemble those of low nickel-chromium steels but usually show a
higher yield stress and percentage reduction in area. More susceptible to mass effects of heat
treatment.

Tantalum
Chemically very similar to Niobium (Nb), as such, has similar effect on the alloy - forms very
hard, very small, simple carbides. Improves ductility, hardness, wear and corrosion resistance.
Also, refines grain.

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Ferrite stabilisers
Other elements, the most important of which include chromium, tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum, aluminium and silicon, have the reverse effect, in that they tend to
stabilise ferrite (a) by raising the A3 temperature and lowering the A4, as indicated in
Fig. 13.1B. Such elements restrict the field over which austenite may exist, and thus
form what is commonly called a 'gamma (y) loop'.

Chromium ( 0.5 - 18 %)
Corrosion resistance is increased ( over 12% ). The main disadvantage in the use of
chromium as an alloying element is its tendency to promote grain growth, with the
attendant brittleness that this involves. Care must therefore be taken to avoid
overheating or holding for too long at the normal heat-treatment temperature. Addition
of chromium to a steel will automatically increase its hardness, but this can only take
place when sufficient carbon is present (Carbide stabiliser and hard carbide former). In
low-carbon steels the addition of chromium increases strength, with some loss in
ductility, due to its forming a solid solution in ferrite. Ferrite stabiliser. Low chromium
containing 1 % carbon - extremely hard. The presence of either carbon or nitrogen will
tend to produce increasing amounts of martensite in a 13% chromium steel and so
make it brittle if cooled at a rate such as would be encountered in welding.
Consequently in modern ferritic stainless irons containing 13% chromium the total
amount of carbon and nitrogen is kept very low. It is far easier to stabilise a ferritic
structure in those stainless irons containing 17-26% chromium and less than 0.1%
carbon. Increases hardenability ( 0.5- 2 %). Wear resistance is increased. Yield strength
is increased. Cr presents in certain structural steels in small amounts.When the percent
of chromium in the steel exceeds 1.1% a surface layer is formed that helps protect the
steel against oxidation.

Phosphorus

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Phosphorus has an even stronger effect in raising the transition temperature in steel
and this is one reason why phosphorus is one of the least desirable impurities in
ordinary carbon steels. Phosphorus is often added with sulphur to improve
machinability in low alloy steels. Although it increases the tensile strength of steel and
improves machinability it is generally regarded as an undesirable impurity because of its
embrittling effect. Effect of phosphorus element will have various effects on steel
depending on concentration. The maximum amount of phosphorus in higher grade steel
is between 0.03 to 0.05% due to the fact that is detrimental. Up to 0.10% of phosphorus
in low-alloy high-strength steels will increase the strength as well as improve the steel's
resistance against corrosion. The possibility of brittlement increases when the content
in hardened steel is too high. Even though the strength and hardness is improved, the
ductility and toughness decreases. The machinability is improved in free-cutting steel,
but weld brittle and/or weld cracks can occur during welding if the phosphorus content
is more than 0.04%. Phosphorus also affects the thickness of the zinc layer when
galvanising steel.

Copper
Stabilises austenite. Copper does not form carbides and in fact has a graphitising effect.
Consequently copper is added to low-carbon steels only and then in amounts of no
more than 1.5%.
In steel copper has the following effects: (i) it improves corrosion resistance;
(ii) it produces an alloy which can be precipitation hardened enabling an increase of
some 175 N/mm2 in tensile strength to be obtained. In those steels which are not
precipitation hardened a small increase in yield strength is obtained over those steels
containing no copper, though little improvement in tensile strength is obtained.

Selenium

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Increases machinability. Not desirable in cutlery steel.

Silicon ( 0.2 - 2%)

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Corrosion resistance is increased. Commonly upto 0.35% in steels for sand castings,
since it improves casting fluidity. In most wrought medium-carbon and high-carbon
steels silicon is limited to a maximum of 0.25% because of its graphitising effect on
cementite. It has a high affinity for oxygen and is used as a deoxidant in many steels.
Silicon-iron alloys have a high magnetic permeability but a very low hysteresis. Ferrite
stabiliser. Silicon dissolves in ferrite thus increasing its strength and hardness. Low-alloy
steels containing silicon as the principal addition are relatively inexpensive, but because
silicon has a graphitising effect these steels also contain up to 1% manganese as a
carbide stabiliser. Both elements combine in strengthening the ferrite and in increasing
hardenability, so that silicon-manganese steels respond to oil-quenching. Subsequent
tempering provides a good combination of strength and impact toughness. Increases
strength ( 0.2 - 0.7 %). Spring steels ( 0.7 - 2%). Improve magnetic properties (higher %).
Because silicon is used as a deoxidising agent in the production of steel, it is always
almost found in all grades of steel. Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it.
Some filler metals may contain up to 1% to provide enhanced cleaning and deoxidation
for welding on contaminated surfaces. When these filler metals are used for welding on
clean surfaces, the resulting weld metal strength will be markedly increased. Silicon
increases strength and hardness but to a lesser extent than manganese. The resulting
decrease in ductility could resent cracking problems.For galvanizing purposes, steels
containing more than 0.04% silicon can greatly affect the thickness and appearance of
the galvanized coating. This will result in thick coatings consisting mainly zinc-iron alloys
and the surface has a dark and dull finish. But it provides as much corrosion protection
as a shiny galvanized coating where the outer layer is pure zinc.

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Strength
Hardness
Toughness
Wear resistance
Corrosion resistance
Hardenability
Hot hardness
Tensile strength
Ductility
Brittleness
Creep strength
Fracture toughness
Yield strength

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 Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel[7]
Element Percentage Primary function
Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels
Bismuth - Improves machinability

Boron 0.001–0.003 (Boron steel) A powerful hardenability agent

0.5–2 Increases hardenability

Chromium
4–18 Increases corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance
Lead - Improved machinability
Combines with sulphur and with phosphorus to
0.25–0.40 reduce the brittleness. Also helps to remove excess
Manganese oxygen from molten steel.
Increases hardenability by lowering transformation
>1
points and causing transformations to be sluggish
Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the
toughness of steel, thus making molybdenum a very
Molybdenum 0.2–5 valuable alloy metal for making the cutting parts
of machine tools and also the turbine blades
of turbojet engines. Also used in rocket motors.
2–5 Toughener
Nickel
12–20 Increases corrosion resistance
0.2–0.7 Increases strength
Silicon 2 Spring steels
Higher percentages Improves magnetic properties
Sulphur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties
Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic
Titanium -
hardness in chromium steels
Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.
Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining
Vanadium 0.15 ductility; promotes fine grain structure. Increases the
toughness at high temperatures

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