PREVIEW ON

ELEMENTS OF
AERONAUTICS
BY
SRINATH R
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF AERONAUTICS
Over view on the subject

 Aircraft Components
 Fuselage Structure
1. Truss Type
2. Monocoque
3. Semi-Monocoque
 Basic Structure Member Terms
 Wing Structure
 Fuselage Mount
 Material use in Airframe Construction
 Example of Material use in Airframe Construction
LESSON PLAN

TOPICS TO BE COVERED NO OF CLASSES

Revision of parts and uses 1

Different type of construction 1

Geodesic construction 1

Semi monocoque construction 1

Wing and its parts 1

Different type of materials 1

Future materials and extra view 1

Relevance of unit subject
• Aircraft structures I and II
• Aircraft design
• Flight vehicle design
• In order to attain a basic view on how aircraft is been designed and
manufactured.
• Also to attain a view on aerodynamics
Parts of aircraft
 Fuselage

 Wings

 Empenage or Tail

 Power Plant

 Landing Gear or

 Undercarriage
 Vertical
Stabilizer

Horizontal
Wing Stabilizer Rudder
Right Aileron
Empennage Elevator

Nacelle

Fuselage

Left Aileron

Landing Gear
Propeller
Wing
Fuselage part
 Main body of airplane
 Pilot & cargo compartments
 Generally constructed in two or more sections
 Carries accessories and other equipments
 Includes numerous access doors, inspection plates, landing wheel wells, and
other openings
Types of structures
 TRUSS TYPE

- PRATT TRUSS

- WARREN TRUSS

 MONOCOQUE

 SEMI-MONOCOQUE
Truss type

Most early aircraft used this technique with wood and wire trusses
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft
using welded steel tube trusses.
The truss type fuselage frame is assembled with members forming a
rigid frame e.g. beams, bar, tube etc…
Primary members of the truss are 4 longerons.
There are two types of truss structure
Pratt truss
Warren truss
Basic Truss configuration
Pratt truss
Early days

Wooden or metal structure

Great weight

Difficult to streamline

Box with tubular longerons + vertical members

Diagonal
members of
tubing or solid
rods
Warren truss
• Longerons + only diagonal Members
• Force transfer to every others structure
• Capable to carry tension + compression
• Reduce amount of webs work
• More space , strength , rigidity
• Better streamline
Aircraft with Warren truss type.

Four longerons
Monocoque type
• In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A
typical early form of this was built using molded plywood.
• A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with
polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin.
Contd..
 This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage.
 First, a series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in
position on a rigid fixture, or jig.
 These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called
stringers.
 These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting
or by bonding with special adhesives.
 Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique.
 But use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then
joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage.
Semi-monocoque Structure of an
airplane
Members of Semi Monocoque construction

Vertical Members
Formers

Frame

Ring

Bulkhead

Longitudinal Members
Longerons

Stringers
Geodesic type
Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for
British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the
whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape.
In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound
about the formers in opposite spiral directions,
The geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive
localized damage without catastrophic failure.
 Fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic
shell
Geodesic construction
Geodesic construction
Wing construction
Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which
transmit the flight and landing loads through the struts to the main
fuselage structure.
Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out
on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever.
A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever
wing designed to carry the loads without external struts.
The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and
stringers. These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or
other devices, including the skin.
 The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil).
Wing construction
In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wing
structure
It consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing.
Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control
surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps.
Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the
tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause
the airplane to roll.
Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing.
 The flaps are normally flush with the wing´s surface during cruising flight.
When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the
lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings.
Outer view of wing construction
Wing Structure of an
airplane
Basic type of loads on aircraft
• Tension
• Compression
• Bending
• Torsion
• Shear
Aircraft materials
• The basic and first aircraft built was made up of wood and other materials
whereas some amount of metals were also used
• These elements aid in the construction of a streamlined fuselage, adding to the
strength and rigidity of a monocoque design.
• A typical semi monocoque fuselage can sustain considerable damage and still
hold together.
• Military fighter planes and other small aircraft typically have two or more
fuselage sections. Larger planes can have up to six different sections.
• Maintenance workers may access systems and equipment within the fuselage
through several doors, panels, and other openings.
• The locations of these access points can be found by referencing servicing
diagrams and manuals released by the manufacturer for each type of aircraft.
• It should be noted that aircraft fuselages aren’t typically made from a single
material. For example, a plane may have structural members made of aluminum
and an exterior made of steel.
Wooden Fuselage
• For obvious reasons, the early pioneers of aviation were concerned about the
weight of their planes.
• The Wright brothers and others were limited by the engines of their time.
• Therefore they built wooden planes to keep the overall weight as low as
possible.
• Aeronautical engineering design and technology improved throughout the
first two decades of the 20th century.
• Classic wire-braced, wood-and-fabric biplanes were required..
• Wood fuselages are still being made today, albeit often by hobbyists building
their own lightweight planes.
Aircraft Metals

• Normally aircraft materials can be classified in two basic type hey are
Metals
Non metals
• Based on certain criteria and conditions the aircraft metals are chosen and they are
 Weight to strength ratio
 Density
 Malleability
 Ductility
 Thermal resistance
 Corrosion resistance and etc
• Metals can be even more subdivided into Ferrous and Non ferrous type.
• The metals which falls under Ferrous type is not been used much in aircraft
construction because of its properties.
Role of Steel
 Stronger and stiffer
 but also heavier, steel aircraft were also built in the 1930s.
 The heavier weight of steel prevented it from becoming a popular fuselage
material.
 However, the metal is used to make certain parts of an aircraft.
 Its strength and stiffness make it ideally suited for use in landing gears.
 The heat resistance of steel also makes it desirable for use in the skin of
supersonic planes.
Stainless steel
Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure
Austenitic, or 200 and 300 series,
stainless steels have an austenitic crystalline structure, which is a face-centered
cubic crystal structure.
Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production.
 They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and
sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures

200 Series
Austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys.
 Type 201 is hardnable through cold working;
Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel.
 Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion
resistance.
Stainless steel
300 Series

 Also known as 18/8 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.[30]
 The second most common austenite steel is the 316 grade, also referred to as
A4 stainless and called marine grade stainless,
 used primarily for its increased resistance to corrosion.
 A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known
as 18/10 stainless.
Properties of steel
Aluminum metals

 Advancements in engine technology in the 1930s allowed engineers to turn to

metal designs.
 Aluminum was the primary metal to usher in the dawn of the all-metal aircraft.
 The aluminum used to make planes is always blended with other metals to make
it strong and light.
 While aluminum fuselages don’t corrode as easily as those made of steel
 Aluminum isn’t used on the surface of many supersonic planes because heat
generated by the friction from flying at such speeds causes aluminum’s strength
to decrease.
Aluminum engine
Titanium

 With the same strength as steel and much lighter

 Titanium and titanium alloys are ideal materials for building aircraft.
 These metals also resist corrosion better than both aluminum and steel.
 they are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the
ability to withstand extreme temperatures.
 However, the production of airplanes made from titanium is very costly.
 Largely prohibits wide commercial use of most titanium airplanes.
Titanium alloys

 Alpha alloys which contain neutral alloying elements (such as tin) and/ or alpha
stabilizers (such as aluminum) only. These are not heat treatable. Examples
include Ti-5AL-2SNNear-alpha alloys contain small amount of ductile beta-
phase.
 Besides alpha-phase stabilizers, near-alpha alloys are alloyed with 1–2% of beta
phase stabilizers such as molybdenum, silicon or vanadium. Examples includeTi-
5Al-5Sn-2Zr-2Mo, IMI 685, Ti 1100.
 Alpha and beta alloys, which are metastable and generally include some
combination of both alpha and beta stabilizers, and which can be heat treated.
Examples include:Ti-6Al-4V-ELI, Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn.
Composite materials
• Graphite epoxy, or carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer
• has become a popular choice for today’s state-of-the-art commercial
aircraft.
• Made from resilient carbon fibers embedded in an epoxy resin
• Used to meet the various demands of maintaining integrity during high-
speed flight.
• These carbon-fiber materials are about as strong as aluminum, yet half
the weight.
• Carbon composite materials haven’t gained widespread use in the
aviation industry just yet.
• Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner was the first major plane to use the materials in
over half of its fuselage.
Magnesium and alloys
The strength-to-weight ratio of the precipitation-hardened magnesium alloys is
comparable with that of the strong alloys of aluminum or with the alloy steels.
 Magnesium alloys, however, have a lower density,
 stand greater column loading per unit weight and have a higher specific
modulus
 They are also used when great strength is not necessary,
 . Examples are complicated castings, such as housings or cases for aircraft, and
parts for rapidly rotating or reciprocating machines.
 The strength of magnesium alloys is reduced at somewhat elevated
temperatures; temperatures as low as 200 °F (93 °C) produce considerable
reduction in the yield strength.
 Despite the active nature of the metal, magnesium and its alloys have good
resistance to corrosion
 The rate of corrosion is slow compared with rusting of mild steel in the same
atmosphere.
Plastics and compounds
Future applications or materials