Julius Caesar

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This article is about the Roman dictator. For other people named Julius Caesar, as well as other
uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation).
"Caesar" redirects here. For other uses with the name Caesar, see Caesar (disambiguation).

Julius Caesar

The Tusculum portrait, possibly the only surviving sculpture of

Caesar made during his lifetime. Archaeological Museum, Turin, Italy

Dictator of the Roman Republic

In office
October 49 BC – 15 March 44 BC

 Marcus Antonius
Lieutenant
 Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

 Augustus
  Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus

Preceded by Sulla

(82/81–81 BC; as previous Dictator)

Succeeded by Augustus

(27 BC–AD 14; as Roman emperor)

Consul of the Roman Republic

In office
1 January 44 BC – 15 March 44 BC

Serving with Mark Antony

Preceded by C. Caninius Rebilus (Suffect)

and Gaius Trebonius (Suffect)

Succeeded by P. Cornelius Dolabella(Suffect)

and Mark Antony

In office
1 January 46 BC – September 45 BC

Serving with M. Aemilius Lepidus (46 BC)

Preceded by Q. Fufius Calenus

and Publius Vatinius

Succeeded by Q. Fabius Maximus (Suffect)

and Gaius Trebonius (Suffect)

In office
1 January 48 BC – 1 January 47 BC

Serving with P. Servilius Vatia Isauricus

Preceded by C. Claudius Marcellus Maior

andL. Cornelius Lentulus Crus

Succeeded by Q. Fufius Calenus

and Publius Vatinius

In office
1 January 59 BC – 1 January 58 BC
Serving with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
 Preceded by Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer

and Lucius Afranius

Succeeded by L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus

and Aulus Gabinius

Personal details

Born Gaius Julius Caesar

12 or 13 July 100 BC

Rome

Died 15 March 44 BC (aged 55)

Rome

Cause of death Assassination

Resting place Temple of Caesar, Rome

Political party Populares

Spouse(s)  Cornelia (84–69 BC; her death)

 Pompeia (67–61 BC; divorced)

 Calpurnia (59–44 BC; his death)

Children  Julia c. 76–54 BC

 Caesarion 47–30 BC

 Augustus (adoptive) 63 BC – 14 AD

Parents Gaius Julius Caesar andAurelia Cotta

Gaius Julius Caesar[a] (/ˈsiːzər/; Latin pronunciation: [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar]; 12 or 13 July
100 BC[1] – 15 March 44 BC),[2] known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a Roman
politician and military general who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of
the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He is also known as an author
of Latin prose.
In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus and Pompey formed a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for
several years. Their attempts to amass power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within
the Roman Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar rose
to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a number of his
accomplishments, notably his victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC. During this time,
Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built
a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. Caesar's wars extended
Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. These achievements granted him unmatched
military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the
Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered
Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Leaving his command in Gaul
meant losing his immunity from being charged as a criminal for waging unsanctioned wars. As a
result, Caesar found himself with no other options but to cross the Rubicon with the 13th Legion,
leaving his province and illegally enteringRoman Italy under arms.[3] Civil war resulted, and Caesar's
victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence.
After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental
reforms, including the creation of theJulian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far
regions of the Roman Empire. He initiated land reform and support for veterans. He centralised the
bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity", giving him
additional authority. His populist and authoritarian reforms angered the elites, who began to conspire
against him. On the Ides of March(15 March) 44 BC Caesar was assassinated by a group of
rebellious senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, Marcus Junius Brutusand Decimus Junius
Brutus.[4][5] A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was
never fully restored. Caesar's adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power
after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power and the era of
the Roman Empire began.
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns and from other
contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings
of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources.
Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.

Early life and career

Main article: Early life and career of Julius Caesar

Gaius Marius, Caesar's uncle

Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the
legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus.[7] The family originated
from Alba Longa, twenty miles south of Rome.[8] The cognomen"Caesar" originated, according
to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section (from the Latin verb to
cut,caedere, caes-).[9] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first
Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latincaesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis);
or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[10] Caesar issued coins featuring images of
elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name.

Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although
they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC.[11] Caesar's
father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province ofAsia,[12] and his sister Julia,
Caesar's aunt, married Gaius Marius, one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.[13] His
mother,Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.[14]

In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly,[15] so Caesar was the head of the family at 16. His coming
of age coincided with a civil warbetween his uncle Gaius Marius and his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Both sides carried out bloody purges of their political opponents whenever they were in the
ascendancy. Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna were in control of the city when Caesar was
nominated as the new Flamen Dialis (high priest of Jupiter),[16] and he was married to Cinna's
daughter Cornelia.[17][18]

Following Sulla's final victory, though, Caesar's connections to the old regime made him a target for
the new one. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused
to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding.[19] The threat against him was lifted by the
intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla
gave in reluctantly and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.[14] Ironically,
the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter
was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside
Rome, or look upon an army.[20]

Caesar felt that it would be much safer far away from Sulla should the Dictator change his mind, so
he left Rome and joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius
Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in theSiege of
Mytilene. He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, but
he spent so long at Nicomedes' court that rumours arose of an affair with the king, which Caesar
vehemently denied for the rest of his life.[21]

Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. He lacked means
since his inheritance was confiscated, but he acquired a modest house in Subura, a lower-class
neighbourhood of Rome.[22] He turned to legal advocacy and became known for his exceptional
oratory accompa
Dictatorship

Bronze bust of Julius Caesar,posthumous portrait of the 1st century AD, Altes Museum, Berlin

When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those
over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, andJuba, rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went
Caesar's way. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators
admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.[90] Triumphal games were held, with beast-
hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at
the Field of Mars.[91] At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200
horses, and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at
Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters
sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.[91]

After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.[91] He ordered a census be
taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could only come from the
Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain
luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the
repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation,
since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to
governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts
owed.[91]

The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public
works.[92] Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the
number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.[93] From 47
to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.[94]

The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar was then
regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had left it in a mess. Caesar replaced this calendar
with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25
days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year.[89]

To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be
inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months
after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC.[89][91] This calendar is almost
identical to the current Western calendar.

Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.[91] He established a police force,
appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth.
He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and
reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than
needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which
included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a library on the
scale of the Library of Alexandria.[91]

He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth.
Militarily, he wanted to conquer theDacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he
instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for
life andFather of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honour.[91]

He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be
divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the
kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever
he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popularcult, with Mark Antony as his high
priest.[91]

Political reforms
Main article: Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar
La clémence de César, Abel de Pujol, 1808

The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both
the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and
the proconsulship.[88] His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies.[88] He
was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship
within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in
46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[95]

In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[96][not in citation given] which made his person
sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[96] although on at least one occasion, tribunes did
attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and
divested of their office.[96] This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity.
After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune
had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps
unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.[96]

When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so
he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's
membership to 900.[97] All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial
aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him.[98] To minimise the
risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,[95] Caesar passed a law that subjected
governors to term limits.[95]

In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new
only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors.[96] Thus, he could hold censorial
powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors
were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the
precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles
and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and
"imperator".[95]

Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings.[95] Caesar
then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of
experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters.[97]