Accepted Manuscript

Applications of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food products

V. Zettel, B. Hitzmann

PII: S0924-2244(18)30061-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.011
Reference: TIFS 2272

To appear in: Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 30 January 2018

Revised Date: 4 July 2018
Accepted Date: 4 July 2018

Please cite this article as: Zettel, V., Hitzmann, B., Applications of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food
products, Trends in Food Science & Technology (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.011.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abstract revision 2
Background: The outstanding nutritional and technological properties lead to
innovative applications of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food products.

Scope and Approach: The aim of this contribution is to give an overview of the
various food application approaches for chia. The nutritional and technological

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properties of chia as well as its technological and innovative utilization are presented.
Examples for the various applications in food products are given in five main topics:
baked goods, dairy products, meat and fish products, gluten-free products and other
products such as functional food, hydrocolloid and thickener.

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Key findings and conclusions: Besides the nutritional benefits of chia incorporation
in food products the technological effects are emphasized very often. Summarized in

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five main topics, most authors conclude that chia is a valuable food ingredient for
functional food development. The application of chia in baked goods for example is
beneficial not only to improve the nutritional value but acting as hydrocolloid or

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substitute egg, fat or gluten. The increase of oil stability and applications as food
thickener in novel food applications are of high importance too. As different chia
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fractions give various options for applications the utilization of chia for further food
products will increase significantly in the future.
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Applications of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food

products

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V. Zettela,∗, B. Hitzmanna
a
Department of Process Analytics and Cereal Science, Institute of Food Science and

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Biotechnology, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 23, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany

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Abstract

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Background: The outstanding nutritional and technological properties lead
to innovative applications of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food products.
AN
Scope and Approach: The aim of this contribution is to give an overview
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of the various food application approaches for chia. The nutritional and tech-
nological properties of chia as well as its technological and innovative utiliza-
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tion are presented. Examples for the various applications in food products
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are given in five main topics: baked goods, dairy products, meat and fish
products, gluten-free products and other products such as functional food,
hydrocolloid and thickener.
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Key findings and conclusions: Besides the nutritional benefits of chia in-
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corporation in food products the technological effects are emphasized very

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often. Summarized in five main topics, most authors conclude that chia is a
valuable food ingredient for functional food development. The application of

∗
Corresponding author
Email address: Viktoria.Zettel@uni-hohenheim.de (V. Zettel)

Preprint submitted to Trends in Food Science and Technology July 4, 2018

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

chia in baked goods for example is beneficial not only to improve the nutri-
tional value but acting as hydrocolloid or substitute egg, fat or gluten. The

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increase of oil stability and applications as food thickener in novel food ap-
plications are of high importance too. As different chia fractions give various

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options for applications the utilization of chia for further food products will
increase significantly in the future.

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Keywords: chia, novel food, dietary fibre, baking, rheology

1. Introduction

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1

The correct botanical name of chia is Salvia hispanica L. belonging to

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the Salvia category of the Labiatae family. It is a subtropical annual plant
4 which requires less water compared to other crops. Salvia hispanica L. was
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5 an important staple Mesoamerican food and medical plant in pre-Columbian
6 times (Cahill, 2003). Application of Salvia genus is common in flavouring
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7 and folk medicines worldwide (Lu and Yeap Foo, 2002). Chia seeds have
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8 been used earlier as whole seeds, seed flour, seed mucilage, and seed oil. A
9 refreshing drink made with whole chia seeds has attained great popularity in
Mexico and beverages remain the major culinary use, however those made
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11 with flour have fallen out of favour, as has use of chia flour in general (Cahill,
12 2003; v. Schlechtental, 1830). The popularity of chia seeds increased in the
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13 last few years, so the number of publications about chia and its ingredients
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14 spread rapidly. They have been revalued due to their nutritious properties:
15 high fibre, polyphenols and lipids content (Jiménez et al., 2010).
16 Earlier publications refer to the botanical properties of chia, newer pub-
17 lications investigate mostly the application of chia in different products.

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18 Great potential for chia is seen as future crop plant. Chia requires less
19 water than cereals or other oil seeds to grow, so it is also investigated as future

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20 crop for more diversity in Argentina and the U.S. (Coates and Ayerza, 1996,
21 1998; Estilai et al., 1996; Gentry et al., 1990). As new ω-3 fatty acid source

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22 the flowering of chia was successful applied in the growing season 2009 in
23 Kentucky for example (Jamboonsri et al., 2011). Chia is also an interesting

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24 forage crop in Greek (Bilalis et al., 2016) and the mediterranean and desert
25 climates of Chile (Baginsky et al., 2016; Cortés et al., 2017). Recent studies

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26 showed, that water stress leads to an increase of lipid and therefore ω-3 fatty
acid production (Silva et al., 2016). A complete different application of chia
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is described too. Farrera-Rebollo et al. (2012) developed an image analysis
29 tool for sweet bread crumb structures with the help of incorporated chia flour.
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30 He could show the chia particle distribution by his image analysis system.
31 The application of chia as natural marker for distributions in food systems
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32 might be promising.
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33 The review is structured as follows: First we give a brief introduction

34 about chia. The next part gives an overview on the nutritional and functional
potential of chia. It is followed by the application of chia in food. This
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36 main part is divided in 5 rough sections: baked goods, dairy products, meat
37 products, gluten-free products and other products such as functional food,
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38 hydrocolloid, thickener. Gluten-free food is an upcoming topic so that it was

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39 excluded from baked goods.

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40 2. Nutritional and functional potential of chia

Since 2009 chia is allowed in breads up to 5 % in context of the novel food

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42 regulation of the EU (EC, 2009). The commission implementing decision in

43 January 2013 (EC, 2013) extended the use of chia as novel food ingredient.

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44 Baked products, breakfast cereals and fruit, nut and seed mixes must not
contain more than 10 % chia, the daily intake of chia should not exceed 15 g.

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46 The chia seeds were known earlier in Germany for their mucilage release
47 when placed in water (v. Schlechtental, 1830). A newer study elucidated the

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48 mucilage release as mixocarpia that surrounds the seed when it has contact
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with water (Capitani et al., 2013). Chia seeds and chia seeds after a few
minutes soaked in water are depicted in Figure 1.
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Figure 1: Chia seeds (left) and chia seeds after a few minutes soaked with water (right).
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51 Chia seeds are nutritionally valuable (Ayerza and Coates, 2011; Ixtaina
52 et al., 2008; Llorent-Martı́nez et al., 2013; Muñoz et al., 2013; Marineli et al.,
53 2014).

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54 The EU specifications give the approximate composition of chia as: 91 %

55 -96 % dry matter, 20 % - 22 % protein, 30 % - 35 % fat, 25 % - 41 % car-

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56 bohydrate, 18 % - 30 % crude fibre (mainly indigestible cellulose, pentosans
57 and lignin) and 4 % - 6 % ash (EC, 2009).

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58 According to Martı́nez-Cruz and Paredes-López (2014) chia could be in-
59 corporated in human diet as novel isoflavone source, because of its high an-

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60 tioxidant capacity. High concentrations of lipids, proteins, total dietary fiber,
61 minerals and vitamin E were found in Brazilian chia seeds (Da Silva et al.,

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62 2017), but the bioaccessibility of the minerals in chia were low (Barreto et al.,
2016). The protein content of chia seeds, obtaining a good balance of essential
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amino acids, was evaluated by Sandoval-Oliveros and Paredes-López (2013).
65 The quality of chia seeds is affected by the genotypes (Cahill, 2004; Cahill and
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66 Ehdaie, 2005) and ecosystem conditions (Karim et al., 2015; Ayerza, 2016).
67 The identification of the origin of chia seeds is therefore also an important
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68 research area (Ayerza, 1995; Ayerza and Coates, 2011, 2009a,b). The purity
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69 of chia seeds is also a topic of interest. Bueno et al. (2010) found out that
70 lots of chia seeds are adulterated, the physico-botanical purity of the seeds
ranged thus between 0 % and 98.6 %, but there were no differences in the
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72 fatty acid content. Phenolic compounds in chia were evaluated by different

73 studies as well (Rahman et al., 2017; Saphier et al., 2017). Oliveira-Alves
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74 et al. (2017) found mainly caffeic acid and danshensu and its derivatives,
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75 such as rosmarinic and salvianolic acids.

76 2.1. Dietary fibre

77 Reyes-Caudillo et al. (2008) determined the total of dietary fibre (TDF)

78 content of chia seeds as 18 g/100 g - 60 g/100 g (cultivated in different

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79 regions of Mexico). Total dietary fibre include polysaccharides, oligosac-

80 charides, lignin and other associated substances. In accordance with these

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81 findings Vázquez-Ovando et al. (2009) determined the physiochemical prop-
82 erties of a fibrous fraction from chia. They confirmed the high content

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83 of TDF (56.46 g/100 g) composed mainly of insoluble dietray fibre (IDF)
84 (53.45 g/100 g) with a low content of soluble dietary fibre (SDF) (3.01 g/100 g)

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85 as described in the same range by different studies before (Reyes-Caudillo
86 et al., 2008; Salgado-Cruz et al., 2013). Capitani et al. (2012) found out,

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87 that the oil extraction methods affect the physicochemical and functional
properties. In the fibrous fractions the total, soluble and insoluble dietary
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fibre were higher. Due to the composition of the chia seeds, they form mu-
90 cilage hydrated in water that could be used as industrial additive due to its
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91 outstanding physicochemical properties (Salgado-Cruz et al., 2013). The in-
92 corporation of dietary fibre is most commonly to prolong freshness of baked
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93 products for their capacity to retain water. The water holding capacity of
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94 15.41 g/g of chia fibre suggested its use as hydrocolloid (Vázquez-Ovando

95 et al., 2009). The water absorption process of chia seeds was evaluated by
Moreira et al. (2010).
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97 2.2. Fatty acid composition

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98 The promising fatty acid composition of chia seeds is another well stud-
ied topic. Chia seed oils were characterized by Álvarez-Chávez et al. (2008)
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100 as attractive source of α-linolenic acid and phytosterols in comparison with

101 other vegetal sources actual used. They evaluated chia seed oils of two dif-
102 ferent chia seeds cultivated in different regions. The average oil content was
103 (25.5 ± 4.55) % and (29.7 ± 4.05) %, respectively, with α-linolenic acid ac-

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104 counting for about 62 % of the total fatty acid methyl esters in the oil. The
105 extraction method has an big influence on the extraction yield as described by

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106 Ixtaina et al. (2011a). All authors concluded that chia oil, rich in α-linolenic
107 acid, might be an alternative ω-3 fatty acid source for vegetarians and people

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108 allergic to fish and fish products. Low proportions of chia oil addition (10 %
109 and 20 % weight percentage) on sunflower oil lead to a essential fatty acid

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110 balance (Guiotto et al., 2014). However, the chia oil stability is a research
111 topic.

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112 2.3. Mucilage, oil extraction and possible applications

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There are different studies on the best extraction method for the mu-
114 cilage and the mucilage itself. The extraction setting of: temperature 80 ◦ C,
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115 time 4 h, water:seed ratio 30:1 lead to an extraction yield of 4.95 g/100 g
116 obtained by Campos et al. (2016). The application of freeze drying, after
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117 watering the chia seeds, seems to be promising too (Abdullah et al., 2017;
Muñoz et al., 2012; Avila-de la Rosa et al., 2015) to receive chia mucilage
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119 for further applications. The mucilage is negative for the chia oil extrac-
120 tion with polar solvents. Therefore Castejón et al. (2017) used ultrasonic
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121 removal of mucilage which allowed pressurized liquid extraction of chia oil.
122 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy elucidated recently that
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123 planteose is a big oligosaccharide in chia mucilage (Xing et al., 2017). The
oil extraction is also a big topic of research. The by-product of the chia oil
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125 extraction process might also be useful in pasta production (Aranibar et al.,
126 2018). De Campo et al. (2017) used the mucilage successful as wall material
127 for the nanoencapsulation of chia seed oil. The combination of chia mucilage
128 with alginate as encapsulation matrix for chia oil was promising as well (Us-

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129 Medina et al., 2017). The extraction of chia oil was conducted by ultrasound
130 (De Mello et al., 2017), pressurized fluids (Scapin et al., 2017; Ixtaina et al.,

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131 2011b) or solvent extraction (Noshe A.S., 2017). The evaluation of the chia
132 seed oil was done by several authors (Álvarez-Chávez et al., 2008; Ayerza,

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133 1995; Bushway et al., 1981; Estilai et al., 1996; Ixtaina et al., 2011c; Steger
134 et al., 1942; Palma et al., 1947; Taga et al., 1984). Besides the oil the nu-

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135 tritional composition of chia is discussed in the literature (Bushway et al.,
136 1984; Llorent-Martı́nez et al., 2013; Weber et al., 1991). Furthermore the

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137 polysaccharide mucilage was studied for different applications (Gentry et al.,
1990; Gillet, 1981; Lin et al., 1994; Whistler, 1982; Capitani et al., 2013). Lin
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et al. (1994) determined a linear tetrasaccharide that contains 25 % uronic
140 acid. Like pectin (D-galacturonic acid) uronic acids are commonly used as
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141 gelling agents in food technology. The oil stability is also an important fac-
142 tor, because of the high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids in chia oil
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143 (Timilsena et al., 2017b; Villanueva et al., 2017). Natural antioxidants are a
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144 reason for the good chia oil stability stored in the dark (Bodoira et al., 2017).
145 The oil is stable up to 60 ◦ C and should not be used for cooking or frying
due to the degradation of the unsaturated groups of chia oil (Souza et al.,
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147 2017).
148 The encapsulation of chia seed oil performed with chia seed protein isolate-
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149 chia seed gum complex was performed by Timilsena et al. (2016, 2017a). The
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150 storage time could be increased up to 6 times. The encapsulation or other

151 ways to increase the stability of chia seed oil is of increasing importance, be-
152 cause of the fat oxidation and is analysed by several authors (Copado et al.,
153 2017; Guimarães-Inácio et al., 2017; Martı́nez et al., 2015; González et al.,

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154 2016; Bodoira et al., 2017; Noello et al., 2016; Ixtaina et al., 2015). The ox-
155 idative stability of chia oil was determined by Ixtaina et al. (2012). Mucilage

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156 and soluble protein extracted from chia are applicable for the encapsulation
157 of Lactobacillus plantarum as evaluated by Bustamante et al. (2017). It is

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158 also possible to supplement margarine with chia oil (Nadeem et al., 2017).
159 Here up to 20 % chia oil addition showed no negative effects regarding storage

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160 and the fatty acid profile was enhanced, higher ω-3 fatty acid levels and more
161 antioxidant stability. Nanoemulsions of chia seed oil might be beneficial for

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162 beverage or functional food development which requires transparent appear-
ance as described by Teng et al. (2017). However, Capitani et al. (2016b)
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found out that the stability of emulsions formulated with chia mucilage is
165 affected significantly by their extraction method.
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166 2.4. Health benefits
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167 According to Ulbricht et al. (2009) the efficacy of Salvia hispanica for any
indication is not proven yet. The safety and efficacy of chia is discussed by
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169 Mohd Ali et al. (2012). They concluded that chia seed oil can maintain a
170 balanced serum lipid profile, but that there is some more research needed
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171 to do a correct safety evaluation. More examinations on the use of chia as

172 dietary supplement as well as the treatment or prevention on human diseases
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173 are needed. De Falco et al. (2017) made an overview on the current knowledge
of nutritional and phytochemical analysis of chia and metabolic studies on
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175 that. Positive effects of chia consumption on human health are reported
176 by several authors (Toscano et al., 2014; Vuksan et al., 2010; Salgado-Cruz
177 et al., 2014; Altamirano et al., 2015). After a double blinded, parallel and
178 randomized study Jenkins et al. (2016) suggested chia as as supplement in

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179 conventional therapy for overweight and obesity in diabetes, because of the
180 glycemic control and the promoted weight loss by consuming chia due to

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181 the high dietary fibre content. Ayerza and Coates (2005, 2007) carried out
182 feeding experiments with ground chia seed and chia oil on rats. The results

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183 show an increase of HDL cholesterol and ω-3 fatty acid contents, with a
184 significant improvement in n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio, in rat serum. Citelli

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185 et al. (2016) showed that chia oil supplementation changes the lipid serum
186 profile in liver, but does not change the total weight of mice during a high

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187 fat diet between the 90 and 135 days of life. Albert et al. (2005) support
the hypothesis that ω-3 fatty acids through an increasing dietary intake of
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α-linolenic acid might reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death. There exists
190 also a review on health promoting properties and therapeutic applications
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191 of chia (Marcinek K., 2017). Simmelink et al. (2016) even warned about
192 possible obstructions caused by chia. Furthermore, chia seeds are found to
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193 affect satiety and to be beneficial in the treatment of overweight and obese
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194 patients with type 2 diabetes (Vuksan et al., 2017a,b).

195 3. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in food applications

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196 Chia is used as whole chia seeds and chia flour or ground chia, soaked
in water or dry. Depending on the application only the mucilage or the
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198 oil of chia is used for further processing. To obtain ground chia or chia
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199 flour different methods are described. Because of the high oil content, the
200 milling of the seeds leads to problems regarding the quality of the fatty acids.
201 Different authors used different methods to grind the chia seeds like double
202 knife crusher (Coelho and Salas-Mellado, 2015), stainless steel grinder (Verdú

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203 et al., 2015; Zettel et al., 2015), or analytical mills (Luna Pizarro et al.,
204 2013, 2015; Rendón-Villalobos et al., 2012; Inglett and Chen, 2014). Milled,

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205 ground chia seeds or flour are commercial available in many countries in the
206 meantime.

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207 3.1. Baked goods

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208 Baked goods are easy to modify and different authors use chia to improve
209 them. Ground chia is recently used as additive to bakery products like pound
210 cake and bread. Chia is used there as whole seed, soaked or dry, or as ground

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211 chia or chia flour. The main goal is the nutritional improvement of baked
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goods. Costantini et al. (2014) were substituting 10 % wheat flour with chia
213 flour in wheat bread. They obtained no change in the specific volume or the
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214 total flavonoid content of the breads, but an increase in moisture, fat, dietary
215 fibre and total phenolic content, and a decrease in carbohydrate content. The
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216 amount of linoleic acid and linolenic acid increased from (0.40 ± 0.02) g/kg of
total fatty acids on dry weight (DW) to (19.3 ± 1.2) g/kg of total fatty acids
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218 on DW and (0.03 ± 0.01) g/kg of total fatty acids on DW to (61.8 ± 2.4)
219 g/kg of total fatty acids on DW respectively. The total antioxidant activity
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220 was 64 % higher than in the control wheat bread. Besides the improvement
221 of the nutritional values, the technological influence on wheat bread was
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222 investigated by different authors. Luna Pizarro et al. (2013) investigated

the effects of adding whole chia flour (WCF) and hydrogenated vegetable
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224 fat (HVF) on the technological, nutritional and sensory qualities of cakes.
225 The best cake formulation contained 15 g WCF/100 g flour mixture and 20 g
226 HVF/100 g flour mixture and had higher lipid, ash and protein contents than
227 the control cake. A considerable increase in its ω-3 fatty acid content and

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228 good sensory acceptance were accompanied there with a greater purchasing
229 intention of consumers. The application of chia gel as fat or egg replacer in

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230 cake formulations was evaluated by Borneo et al. (2010). The replacement of
231 25 % egg or oil resulted in a more nutritious product with acceptable sensory

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232 characteristics. Fat was also reduced by application of chia mucilage gel in
233 pound cakes (Felisberto et al., 2015). Best results were achieved with 25 g

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234 chia mucilage gel per 100 g of fat. Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2015) reduced
235 the additional fat in the bread baking process and substituted wheat flour

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236 with chia flour and seeds. The reduction of the fat content of the bread was
27 % obtained with 7.8 g/100 g chia flour and 0.9 g/100 g fat addition. With
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11 g/100 g chia seeds and 1 g/100 g fat a reduction of 24 % was obtained
239 respectively. The content of dietary fibre and ω-3 fatty acids was increased in
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240 the resulting products. Up to 50 % fat was replaced in sweet wheat doughs
241 by Zettel and Hitzmann (2016). They focussed on the technological and
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242 rheological effects of the incorporation of chia gel as fat substitute. The re-
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243 placement resulted in softer doughs with decreasing values for storage and
244 loss moduli with increasing chia content determined by rheometer measure-
ments. The yeast activity was increased with incorporated chia gel compared
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246 to the control. The best results for the baking experiments were obtained
247 with 25 % fat replacement through ground chia gel with the highest volume
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248 yield corresponding with the softest crumb even after 48 h. Besides the re-
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249 duction of the fat content, the fatty acid spectre was shifted, so that more
250 linoleic and linolenic acid increased as well. The doughs were still process-
251 able and in the end products a decrease in retrogradation after storage was
252 observed.

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253 Furthermore up to 50 % fat were replaced by chia mucilage in breads and

254 chocolate cakes without affecting the technological of physical characteristics

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255 of them (Fernandes and Salas-Mellado, 2017). Mesı́as et al. (2016) consid-
256 ered risks and benefits of chia flour supplement on biscuits. The nutritional

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257 properties of the produced biscuits were enhanced whereas the lipid oxidation
258 was accelerated leading to a decreased shelf-life.

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259 Combining chia with wheat, barley or teff flour lead to acceptable re-
260 sults for bread baking (Švec et al., 2016; Švec and Hrušková, 2017; Svec I.,

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261 Hrusková M.,Hinková A., 2016) and enriching the breads with fibre (Verdú
et al., 2017). The fermentation of chia flour dough improved the technologi-
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cal and baking results for wheat bread supplemented with chia flour (Bustos
264 et al., 2017). The dietary fibre content of white breads was increased about
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265 50 % compared to the control by 5 % chia seed addition to the bread recipe
266 (Švec and Hrušková, 2015). The changes in dough viscoelastic properties
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267 and the worsening of the quality and therefore consumer acceptance were
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268 however small.

269 The effect of chia seed flour on each wheat bread-making phase and prod-
uct storage was investigated by Verdú et al. (2015). Wheat flour was here
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271 substituted by chia seed flour at 5 %, 10 % and 15 %. The gas retention

272 and the dough growth during leavening was improved by chia addition. The
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273 bread freshness was prolonged, detected with less crumb hardness and a de-
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274 lay in water loss. The physical properties of chia seeds are affected by their
275 moisture content (Guiotto et al., 2011). The effect of pre-hydration of chia
276 seeds and flour on the quality of wheat flour breads was determined by Stef-
277 folani et al. (2015). With pre-hydration the volume remained unchanged at

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278 10 g/100 gf lour chia addition, without pre-hydration a decrease was observed.
279 Chia flour addition significantly increased the amount of water absorption,

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280 which fortifies the assumption of Zettel et al. (2015) that there is a competi-
281 tion for water between chia and starch. Besides the increase of the water ab-

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282 sorption, the gaseous release time and the dough growth time was increased,
283 resulting in higher volumes. These effects were visible with only 1 % ground

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284 chia addition calculated to the amount of flour. The best results were ob-
285 tained with gel prehydrated of 1 % ground chia and 5 g water/g ground chia

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286 or 10 g water/g ground chia respectively. The bread quality was improved
with respect to storage as the crumb firmness was reduced compared to the
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breads without added chia gel. Iglesias-Puig and Haros (2013) investigated
289 the performance of dough and bread with incorporated chia seeds, flour and
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290 modified flour. They concluded that the incorporation of chia inhibited the
291 kinetics of amylopectin retrogradation during storage. Negative effects on the
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292 resulting end product were reported by Luna Pizarro et al. (2015), although
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293 a better ω-6/ω-3 ratio was achieved with a high amount of ω-3 α-linolenic
294 acid. The gluten network was weakened by 10 % whole chia flour addition,
but the effect could be attenuated by the addition of vital gluten. All studies
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296 conclude that the mucilage is influencing the water-holding capacity and is in
297 interaction with the protein network. It is also sometimes concluded that the
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298 retrogradation of the breads is delayed by adding chia. Chia acted in these
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299 experiments thus like a hydrocolloid. The application as hydrocolloid was

300 also proposed by Capitani et al. (2015) for systems requiring zero calorific
301 thickener. Specialities from all over the world were evaluated with chia flour
302 supplementation or addition. Sulgidduk (rice cake) can be prepared with up

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303 to 5 % chia flour to reduce staling (Hyeonbin et al., 2017). Pita bread was
304 prepared with chia seed mucilage to reduce the glycaemic index (Salgado-

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305 Cruz et al., 2017), but 2 g chia mucilage per 98 g of wheat flour did not
306 affect the glycaemic index.

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307 3.2. Dairy products

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308 The application of chia in dairy products is recently increasing. The
309 amount of ω-3 fatty acids in icecream was increased with the olein fraction
310 of chia oil without negative effects up to 30 days storage time (Ullah et al.,

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311 2017). Chia mucilage as thickener in icecream was tested by Chavan et al.
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(2017); Campos et al. (2016). Yoghurt seems to be a promising application
313 for chia seeds too. Ayaz et al. (2017) added chia seeds to yogurt as mid-
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314 morning snack with the effect of a short-term satiety which results in lower
315 energy intake at lunch time. But also other applications of chia incorporation
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316 in dairy products were tested. Syeda Shaista and Shruti (2017) for exam-
ple produced a traditional indian dessert with 6 % chia flour and achieved
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317

318 acceptable sensory results.

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319 3.3. Meat and fish products

320 Meat products were fortified with chia seed products too. Improvements
on nutritional, physicochemical and sensorial properties of restructured ham-
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321

322 like products were achieved by Ding et al. (2017). Low-fat burgers were
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323 produced with chia oil microparticles substituting 50 % of fat. The sensory
324 quality suffered whereas the hardness was not affected, but the cooking loss
325 and fat retention was improved (Heck et al., 2017). Animal fat was substi-
326 tuted with chia flour and olive oil in fat reduced frankfurters. Three different

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327 ways of incorporation were tested: direct addition, in the form of a conven-
328 tional O/W chia (non-gelled) emulsion, O/W chia emulsion gel. The textural

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329 behaviour suffered and the processing loss increased (Herrero et al., 2017).
330 The effects on the lipid interactions and the lipid structural characteristics

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331 of chia oil emulsions gels were studied by infrared and Raman spectroscopy.
332 Correlations with specific textural behaviours were found depending on the

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333 other emulsion components. These emulsion gels could be used for new prod-
334 ucts with desired textural behaviour (Herrero et al., 2018). 2 % chia seed

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335 extract was found to inhibit lipid oxidation of fresh pork sausages (Scapin
et al., 2015) and suggestes a use as natural antioxidant. Emulsion gels with
336

337
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chia were also tested for fresh sausages by Pintado et al. (2017). The cooking
338 losses and the hardness decreased, the sensory properties were affected, but
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339 they were accepted. After 13 days of storage the microbiological count was
340 increased significantly with chia emulsion gel incorporation. Some studies
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341 incorporate chia flour in fish/meat products to improve the nutritional val-
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342 ues of the products (Carbonera et al., 2016; Riernersman and Marı́a, 2016).
343 Restructured meat of common carp was fortified with up to 8 % chia flour
resulting in darker, harder products with better cooking characteristics and
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344

345 high nutritional values (Santillán-Álvarez et al., 2017).

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346 3.4. Gluten-free products

Chia is also used in gluten-free diet especial breads, to enhance the nu-
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347

348 tritional quality. The nutritional quality of gluten-free breads is mostly low.
349 They try to mimic gluten and contain more fat and salt but fewer minerals
350 and vitamins than their equivalents with gluten (Pellegrini and Agostoni,
351 2015). Due to the mucilage release chia can also be regarded as technological

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352 improver for gluten-free breads. The combination of chia with other nutri-
353 tional valuable raw materials results in promising applications (Costantini,

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354 2015; Moreira et al., 2013). Constantini et al. (2014) were substituting 10 %
355 buckwheat flour with chia flour in gluten-free bread. They obtained no signif-

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356 icant change in the specific volume, but an increase in moisture, fat, dietary
357 fibre content, and a decrease in carbohydrate content. The amount of linoleic

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358 acid and linolenic acid increased. Corn tortillas with reduced glycemic index
359 and significant higher levels of protein, lipids and total dietary fibre were pro-

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360 duced with 15 % and 20 % addition of milled chia flour (Rendón-Villalobos
et al., 2012). Chia flour was also used for rice and soy based gluten-free
361

362
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breads (Huerta et al., 2016). Here parts of the flours and the hydrocolloid
363 (HPMC) were substituted with 2.5 % chia flour with no significant differ-
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364 ences to the standard. Sandri et al. (2017) used the response surface method
365 to optimize a gluten-free bread recipe with potato starch, rice flour and chia
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366 flour. In the end mixtures of rice flour with 5 %, 10 % and 14 % whole
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367 chia flour achieved the best sensory results, potato starch dropped out of the
368 recipe. The loaf volumes were negligibly diminished. Furthermore gluten-
free pasta based on rice flour was optimized with chia flour and mucilage as
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369

370 thickener and to increase the nutritional values (Menga et al., 2017). The
371 slow digestible rice starch fraction was increased with 10 % chia mucilage or
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372 flour addition. Chia flour in pasta based on rice and corn flour was described
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373 by Levent (2017). Acceptable sensory results were obtained with 20 % of

374 chia flour incorporation in combination with diacetyl tartaric esters of mono
375 (and di-)glycerides.

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376 3.5. Application in other products – functional food, emulsions, hydrocolloids

377 For functional food applications new substances with high gelling and

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378 emulsion stability are needed. Improved nutritional values by combining chia
379 with other important cereals were evaluated by Inglett et al. (Inglett et al.,

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380 2013; Inglett and Chen, 2014; Inglett et al., 2014). They proposed these ob-
381 tained gels with high gelling abilities and emulsion stabilities for functional

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382 foods. The gelling properties were also evaluated by Ramos et al. (2017).
383 They suggest to prepare gels with 130 g chia flour per kg processed at 90 ◦ C

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384 for 30 minutes for the development of new food products. Spada et al. (2014)
produced soy based desserts with chia mucilage as thickener. The resulting
385

386
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desserts differed in rheology and therefore consistency, but not in colour,
387 flavour and creaminess. They concluded that the addition of chia mucilage
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388 can be made without causing major changes to the product. Oil in water
389 emulsion gel containing chia could replace animal fats in the formulation of
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390 healthier meat products (Pintado et al., 2015) and be a ω-3 delivery system
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391 in new functional foods (Julio et al., 2016). Chia mucilage is also discussed
392 as functional ingredient and as stabilizer or thickener agent in emulsions.
In combination with sunflower lecithin stable emulsions could be produced
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393

394 by Guiotto et al. (2016). More applications for emulsions are listed in 1.
395 Chia protein hydrolysates incorporated in white bread and carrot cream lead
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396 to products with improved ACE inhibitory activity (Segura-Campos et al.,

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397 2013). Chia protein hydrolysates have a high antioxidant activity (Chim-Chi
398 et al., 2017). Goh et al. (2016) concluded that the ’weak’ viscoelastic, strong
399 shear dependent gel might provide potentially useful rheological properties
400 in food systems. Freeze dried chia mucilage was applied by Fernandes and

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401 Mellado (2018) as egg or oil replacer. Egg replacement was not very success-
402 ful, because of the decreased emulsion stability whereas the oil replacement

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403 lead to significant fat reduces.

Table 1: Further chia seed, mucilage or oil applications

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Application Author(s)

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Chia flour in chips Coorey et al. (2012)
Chia flour in pasta Oliveira et al. (2015)
Emulsions with chia Capitani et al. (2016a)

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Julio et al. (2015)
AN Julio et al. (2016)
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404 4. Conclusion

405 The research with respect to chia has more than tripled in the last ten
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406 years. This contribution summarized five food product categories: baked
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407 goods, dairy products, meat and fish products, gluten-free products and
408 other products such as functional food, hydrocolloid and thickener. The
analysis of different chia fractions are presented, such as the characterization
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409

410 of the mucilage. The effects of chia consumption on the human health need
411 more research to get a correct safety evaluation. The origin of chia seeds and
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412 the determination of the quality of these seeds is also of high relevance, be-
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413 cause the consumers should not be misled by wrong promises of chia in food
414 applications. In conclusion the various food applications showed that chia in-
415 corporation could lead to reduce the intake of saturated fats and increase the
416 intake of ω-3 fatty acids, which are essential for the human diet. Although

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417 chia seed oil still needs more stability, different approaches to encapsulate
418 it and subsequently increase its stability are available. Furthermore, the

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419 amount of dietary fibre can be increased which leads to a reduced risk for
420 different diseases. The application as zero calorificfood thickener or hydrocol-

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421 loid is auspiciously. Therefore, the nutritional and functional improvement
422 of products with chia is a very promising concept.

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423 References

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956 Villanueva, E., Rodrı́guez, G., Aguirre, E., Castro, V., 2017. Influence of
957 antioxidants on oxidative stability of the oil chia (salvia hispanica l.) by

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958 rancimat. Scientia Agropecuaria 8, 19–27.

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985 Zettel, V., Hitzmann, B., 2016. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as fat replacer

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990 Food Research and Technology 240 (3), 655–662.

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Highlights

• Overview of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in different applications

• Pointing out technological effects of chia in various applications
• Five big food products with promising approaches are summarised
• Nutritional and functional improvement of products with chia, such as glutenfree products,
as its importance is increasing

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