L 10

MECH 335 Project # 2

Determination of Centres of Mass and Moments of Inertia
(Instructor: Ron Podhorodeski)

1. OVERVIEW
Analysis of the forces involved in mechanical systemsrequires an understandingof the
dynamic properties of the systemcomponents. For a mechanismwith rigid links, the proper-
ties which must be known prior to any dynamic analysis include the centre of mass location.
and the moment of inertia (2nd massmoment) of the links. In this project these quantities are
to be determined by both models and by experimentation.
Section 2 reviews the associatedmechanics basics. section 3 specifies the requirementsof
the project and section 4 describesthe required form of the lab repon.

2. BACKGROUND
Bibliography: [1] Beer & Johnston, Vector Mechanics for Engineers or [2] Hibbeler,
Engineering Mechanics,' and [3] Mabie & Reinholtz, Mechanics and Dynamics of
Machinery or [4] Martin, Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines.
Figures 4 and 8 are reproducedfrom [4]. Appendix 1 is reproducedfrom [2].

2.1 Equations of Motion

The equationsof motionfor a rigid body (RB) subjectto an externallyappliedforce and
momentsystemcan be expressed as
LF=MaG (1)
L ~ = [I1Ga (2)
whereL F is the sum of all externalforces acting on the RB and L ~ is the sum of all
moments(dueto both couplesandforces)as seenfrom the centreof massG. In eqns.(1) &
(2) the massof the body is denotedby M, the translationalacceleration of G byaG the angu-
lar accelerationof the RB by a, and the inertia of the RB by [I]G. For generalthreedimen-
sional motion eqns. (1) & (2) representtwo vector equationseach correspondingto three
scalarequations(i.e., six scalarequationsin total).
For planarmotion, all translationalmotion is constrainedto parallel planesand rotation
occurs only about the direction perpendicularto the motion plane. Eqn. (1) can then be
resolvedinto two scalarequations(e.g., i and j components)and eqn. (2) becomesa single
scalarexpression(e.g.,relatedto rotation aboutthe k direction). This allows eqn. (1) and (2)
to be rewrittenas:
}: Fz =MaG z
(la*)
}: Fy = M~J (lb*)

}: MG = Izzc<Xz (2*)

For the analysis of the dynamics of a RB, or for a chain of RBs, we must know the mass, the

locations of the mass centres and the inertia of the body(s).

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2.2 Techniquesof Centre of Mass and Inertia Determination

Centre Of Mass Detemlination
Several approachesare possible for determining the location of the centre of mass of an
object. These approachesinclude: mathematical modeling (taking moments); observation of
symmetries; and resolution by direct physical measurementS;or a combination of these tech-
niques.

-Taking Moments
Consider the rigid body illustrated in Fig. 1.
Taking momentsabouta - a yields
Ma -a = L r dM

This must equal the moment about a - a if all mass

were concentratedat G. That is,
Ma - a = rGM = L r dM

andtherefore

(3) Fig. 1 - Momentabouta - a

Therefore,G lies on a line parallel to, and a distance
TG, from a - a. Fm1hermomentscan be takento iso-
late G to a singlepoint
Composition:
If a body can be easily "divided" into basicele-
ments, compositioncan be used to simply resolving
the location of G .
e.g.,The locationof the masscentreof the.plateillus-
tratedin Fig. 2 is to be found. The plate is of uniform
densityand has a massdensityfor the uniform thick-
nessofp, ([p] =MIL2). Find TG

Therefore
rG = ab2/2 + (b+4c/31t)(1tC2J2)
ab + 1tC2J2

A table of the centroids of common shapesis included

in Appendix 1.
Fig. 2 - A "CompositeBody"
 l 12

-Observation of Symmetry
If a body is homogeneousand is synnnetrical about a plane the centre of mass for the
body must lie on the plane of symmeny. Symmetry about two planes isolates G to a line and
about three unique planes to a single point.

-Physical Measurements
Suspension:
Consider a body suspended by two cables as
illustrated in Fig. 3. The force of gravity acting on the
mass of the body is equivalent to a single force Mg
acting through G . Equilibrium requirementsfor a
three force body can be used to isolate G to a line.
Suspendingthe body from different points can be used
to isolateG to a point. .-
Weighing: Fig. 3 - Suspension-Based
rG Isolation
A planarlink is supponedon two scalesas illustratedin Fig. 4. Taking momentsabout
the supportsallows resolutionof the locationof G . Note that symmetryabouttwo planeshas
been usedin this
be performed withcase to isolate
a single G to
scaleand a line. Furthermore,
a rest. ; note that the measurement
could

I
b-

~
~
,..:,"""'~"
Mg

""",."..
Fig. 4 - Two ScaleDetermination of rG
2

2.3 Moment Of Inertia Determination

Severalapproachesare possiblefor determiningthe inertia (or an appronmationfor the
inertia) of a body. These approachesinclude: ma.iliematicalmodeling; assumptionof an
approximatemodel; use of a CAD package;and determinationby physical measmements.
Note that a CAD packageusesa mathematical model approachto determinethe inertia.

Mathematical Modeling
Definition:
Consider the body illustrated in Fig. 5. The
body's moment of inertia (2nd massmoment) about an
axis a - a is
Ia -a = L ,2dM (4)

d.
Fig. 5 - 2nd MassMoment
 13

Parallel-Axis Theorem:
If 10 is the moment of inertia about an axis pass-
ing through the body's mass centre, the moment of
inerria about a parallel axis a distanced from G is
1 = 10 + d2M (5)

Composition:
The parallel-axis theorem can be used to find the
inertia of a body composed of several basic elements.
For example, consider the pendulum consisting of a
uniform disc welded on a slender rod as illustrated in
Fig. 6. The moment of inertia about the fixed cenn-e
of rotation can be found as follows:
10= lo,.,.t+ lo~

1
10.. = IG...,.+ Mrod(a/2)2 = UMroda 2 + Mrod4
a2 = 3Mroda
1 2

Iocisc = IG46sc+ Mdisc(a +c .)

2 = -MdiscC
1 2 + Mdisc(a + C)2
2

Therefore,

The moments of inertia for masses of common Fig. 6 - Composite Pendulum

geometric shapesare included in Appendix 1.

Approximate Models
Often if high accuracyis not requiredin an analysisand/orif a body can not be easily
modeledexactly,an approximatemodelwill be assumed.For example,a slenderrod is often
assumedas a first approximationfor a long memberof fairly unifonn massdistribution.
Often a better assumedmodel can be formed by. a compositeassumption.In the assumed
compositerepresentationbasic elements,e.g., slenderrods, point masses,spheres,discs,
plates,..., are used. For example,the connectingrod depictedin Fig. 7 is to be approximately
modeled.Threepossibleapproximations areillustrated.

P,

SlenderRod - SlenderRod &

Slender Rod &
2 Point Masses

..."
"

Fig. 7 - A ConnectingRod and ThreeApproximateModels

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Physical Measurements
An experimental approach for detennining the moment of inertia of a body is the knife-
edge technique. The method involves suspendingthe body by a knife-edge as depicted for
the connecting rod in Fig. 8. Displacing the body a small angle °max,releasing it, and
measming its period of oscillation allows determination of the moment of inertia of the body.
The governing equation for this determination will now be derived.
With reference to Fig. 8, consider the body to be at a displacement o. Recalling the
dynamics of a body rotating about a fixed centre, we have the equation of motion
LMo = loa

or

(6)

For a small angle sine = e and eqn. (6) becomes

~ + !!!..8!-e= 0 (7)
dt2 10
This is a secondorder linear differentialequationwith
a generalsolutionof

(8)
O=Asin[--J¥~ +BCOS[~-
Considering the boundary conditions, (0 = Omax
@ t=O
and 0=0 @ 1=0) we find

The periodof oscillationof the body is

T = 21t ~ -
Mgr
0
(10)

Therefore,by measuringthe period of oscillationthe

momentof inertiacanbe determinedby

10 =Mgr[~r (11)
Fig. 8 - "Knife-Edging"
About the centreof massthe inertia is

IG =10 -Mr2=Mr[[~rg-r

~
 L 15

2.4 Dynamically Equivalent Systems (DES)

Often solutions to dynamics problems can be simplified by replacing a link with a
dynamically equivalent system (DES). A DES is a compositeof elements that will experience
the same accelerationsas the actual body if acted upon by the sameforce system. That is, the
DES has identical dynamic properties as the original member. A common simple representa-
tion for planar links is a two point mass DES. Note that a DES is not an approximation, it is
a simplified equivalent system
e.g., A planar body has a mass M and an inertia fa. What are the conditions which
must be satisfied if two massesM 1 and M 2 are to be dynamically equivalent.
M 1+ M 2 =M (since L F = M 3a) (a)

M Ih 1 = M zh2 (to preserveG location) (b)

M Ihf + Mzh£ =fa (sinceL Ma =fa a) (c)
There are an infinite number of choices for M l' M 2' h 17and h2 satisfying (a) through (c).

2.5 Radius of Gyration

The dynamic propertiesfor bodiesare sometimesspecifiedin terms of their radius of
gyration. This specificationis often usedin componentspecificationin paris catalogues.The
radius of gyration k for a body is the distancefrom G, whereif the massof the body was
concenttated the momentof inertia would be the sameas the original body. One way of ima-
gining this equivalentsystemis a thin hoop of uniformly distributedmass,lying in the plane
perpendicularto the directionof rotation,havinga radiusk and a centercorrespondingto G.
The inertiafor this DES is
IG =MP (13)
For example,considera thin disc of radiusr havinguniformmassdistribution.
IG=1-M,z = Mk2
2
Therefore
1
k=~r
Notice that the radius of gyration is only a function of the geometry (including the
geometryof the massdistribution). An aluminumdisc of radius r and a steeldisc of
radiusr have the sameradiusof gyration.
 L 16

3. PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
Objective (my objective)
The idea of this project is to expose you to ideas for determining the dynamic properties
of bodies. In particular. for links of planar mechanisms. From this project you should gain
an insight into modeling and experimental techniquesfor finding the inertia properties of rigid
bodies.
Apparatus
Available for this project are:
- Four planar links of various lengthes (description is included as Appendix 2)
- An assortmentof individual componentsof the links
- a tape measure
- a stop watch
- a digital scale(s)
- two cables and a frame from which to suspendlinks
- a "knife-edge" for pendulum-baseddetermination of inertia
Requirements
I Experiment
~ Experimentally determine the inertia fG for the four links.
~ Plot the inertiasas a functionof link length.
~ Discuss the experimental method in terms of:
(a) assumptionsmade in the derivation of the governing equation for finding the inertia
(b) for which links the method would be the most accurateand why?
(c) possible improvements (if any) which could be made to improve the accuracy
and/or to ensurethe consistencyof the experimental measurements
(d) any other considerationsyou feel are important
~ Find the radius of gyration for the longest link.
~ Propose a two massDES for the longest link.
II Approximate Models
~ Propose two approximate models for finding the dynamic properties of the links. The
first should be a very simple model using only a slenderrod(s) and point mass(es). The
second should be a more detailed model using the composition of any basic elements
that you feel are necessary.
~ Plot the inertia fa found using your approximatemodels as a function of link length.
~ Discuss your models in terms of:
(a) assumptionsmade during the choice of model
(b) when the models are going to be the most and least accurateand why
(c) improvementsthat could be made to improve the accuracyof the better model
(d) any other considerationsyou feel are important
 L 11

ill Comparison
~ Compare the results of the models of part n and the experimental results of part I. Dis-
cuss in terms of advantagesand disadvantagesthe use of iDOdelsand of experimentation
for finding dynamic properties.

4. . REPORT REQUIREMENTS
The report must be written as a shott technical report and should include:
- an abstract (summary)
- a brief introduction
- report on experimentalprocedure and results
- description of approximatemodels used
- a discussionand comparison of results (as previously described)
- a conclusion
- references (If any)
 LIB
Appendix 1 - Centroids and Mass Momentsof Inertia (CommonShapes)
 l 19

Center of Gravity and Mass Moment of Inertia of Homogeneous Solids

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