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Detailing for fabric architectural structures

Article · December 2015

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-78242-233-4.00011-5

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Josep Llorens
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
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CONTENTS 1 Introduction

1 Introduction Detailing for fabric membrane architecture is a significant part

2 Principles and requirements: The process of detailing
fabric architecture is subject to the following principles and
requirements: visual expression (coherence, homogeneity,
lightness, simplicity, balance, proportion, smoothness and
style), structural requirements (strength, stability, redundancy,
flexibility for displacements and compatibility) geometry
(funicularity, clearance, scale effect and coordination), climate
and environment (thermal and acoustic conditioning, water
tightness and corrosion protection), installation process (hinges,
pretensioning, auxiliary clamps, permanent adjustable devices
and accessibility).
of the design process.
Electing, conceiving and evaluating connections and joints are
critical to the overall conceptualization and the resulting
structure, because details are not only derived from the general
idea, but end up defining the result.
They are essential to the requirements of the entire structure,
including behaviour, materials, geometry, installation, durability,
maintenance and visual expression.

3 Typology of details: seams, edges, corners, high and low

points, ridges and valleys, cables, fittings and anchors .

4 References and announcements

The statement- of Georges Cuvier (1769--1832) regarding
comparative anatomy comes to mind: “Organisms are
integrated wholes in which each part’s form and function are
integrated into the entire body. No part could be modified
without impairing this functional integration. Each part bear
signs of the whole”.
His statement can be paraphrased, saying that each detail
informs about many characteristics of the entire structure, such
as its size, stresses, direction of the loads, experience of the
designer, materials, budget, style and complexity, among
others.
Despite the significance of detailing, it is not yet a well–
established, thoroughly documented or widespread practice.
This is why a typology of construction details for architectural
membranes is presented on the basis of their fundamental
principles and requirements of design.
”Developing the design of a membrane structure is an iterative
process in which both the overall design and the detail are
developed simultaneously.
Detailing involves considering the connections of different parts
of the structure, while remaining aware of its general evolution.
A detail expresses both its function and hoe the whole structure
works.
It may also reflect the budget of the client and the experience
of the designer.
A detail must work in a way that is consistent with the
designer’s modelling of the structure, whether physical or
numerical.
Details must be installable as well as ablw to function
satisfactorily throughout their lifetime.
Details generally are vital to he overall stability of the structure
although some may be of minor importance” (European Design
Guide, 2004).
In tensioned membrane buildings the membrane is the
protagonist of the architectonic space. Understanding this is
vital to securing the building aesthetic qualities. Consequently
great care has to be taken during the design phase to think how
all elements can be integrated within a membrane enclosure,
including structure, building services, joinery, furniture and
finishes.
Lightness and simplicity
“Lightness does not only signify lightweight or low weight. It is
an architectural approach” (Jürgen W.Hennicke).
Lightness also (and mainly) depends on light and proportions,
as many outstanding examples reveal.

Joints and connections are left exposed. Together with the Fabric structures in architecture are not spared from this
membrane and other structural components, they fashion the principle.
appearance of the design as a whole. Care should be taken
regarding the coherence, simplicity, lightness, balance,
proportion, smoothness and style, because visual expression
factors are not only visual in effect. They are also indicators of
structural, geometric and functional suitability.

Coherence and homogeneity.

Membrane structures are lightweight and translucent. Surfaces

follow load paths. They express neither thickness nor mass.

Preserving these characteristics in the details prevents strange

and contradictory structures.
Additionally, the visual aspect is also related to the structural
behaviour.
Stiff components and moment-resisting connexions increase
size and weight.
These elements could be balanced by being simplified, split,
subdivided, separated or removed.
Flexibility and hinges also help in this effort.
Balance and proportion
Either consciously or not, we compare the whole with each
individual part.
Contradictions arise when complex devices and different types
of fittings interfere with a simple scheme, instead of resolving
problems by using the minimum number of elements possible.
Smoothness
Cutting edges and sharp points lead to stress concentration,
damage and aggressiveness.
Edges must be rounded off, bevelled and chamfered, and bolt
ends softened.
Different ways of softening sharp points are illustrated.
Style Strength

Details do not express technology alone. Connections concentrate and transfer loads.

They collectively form an ensemble that create a style. They join and fasten the elements of the roof together.

Their forms may connote sobriety, elegance, classicism, The average stress applied to the membrane is often exceeded
rationalism, decorativism, high-tech exhibitionism, or disturbing in the connections due to higher concentrations at corners, high
deconstructivism and low points, edges, ridges and valleys.

Reinforcements and special devices are usually required.

Sharply pointed shapes are eye-catching, but a membrane

cannot be supported by a single point.

The concentration of forces would puncture the fabric.

“Design has to be such that in the event of the failure of one or
more membrane fields within a roof, the whole system does not
collapse, and heavy elements such as masts are arrested by a
fail-safe system.
Damage should not be disproportionate to its cause and security
elements may need to be added into the structure’s system.
Often they consist of cables that connect the main supporting
points, e.g. mast heads. Such elements may not have an active
function day-today, but serve to avoid big displacements of the
overall structure in the case of loss of a membrane panel or the
collapse of a support. The membrane itself does not represent
quite the same degree of danger in such a situation because of
its low self-weight. As a further security measure, fail-safe
cables can be arranged to run inside pockets welded to the
membrane without influencing the flow of forces through the
membrane” (European Design Guide, 2004).
Stability and redundancy
The stability of the whole structure depends on the integrity of
each component. A local failure can easily cause a general
collapse. Complementary cables are recommended to increase
the safety at critical points, such as top masts, whose failure
may cause great damage or personal injuries.
“The displacements of tensioned membrane structures produced
by external loads are relatively large compared with those of
more conventional building systems. This characteristic has to
be considered during all stages of the design of tensioned
membrane structures. Details should allow for displacement and
rotation, the magnitudes of which are calculated during the
design process, as well asa their precise position, direction and
angular orientation (European Design Guide, 2004).
Flexibility for displacements and compatibility
Differences in the deformability of different materials require
clearance or releases to allow for relative displacements that are
compatible with the transfer of load.
There are multiple ways of detailing by use of displacements
and rotations.
Free movements release non-tensile stresses.
Such is the case of fabric-to-cable connections.
“Tensioned membrane structures are stable due to their double When three or more forces come into play at a corner,
curved forms generated by tensile force equilibrium. The detail equilibrium requires that each force be the resultant of the
elements must follow this principle and be able to respect the others.
load path geometry as external loading conditions change.
The best way to save energy and material is by directly
Structural connection elements invariably receive membranes following the path of the loads.
and cables coming for different planes and angular orientation.
The design and execution of such elements need to be precise
and in accordance with the membrane geometry. Eccentricities
must be avoided in order to guarantee the correct shape of the
total system. The formation of wrinkles and bad structural
performance are some of the consequences of dealing based
upon the wrong geometry” (European Design Guide, 2004).

Following direct load paths yields a clear visual expression and

avoids unnecessary bending moments, such as occurs, for
example, when the holes for cable pins draw the centre line of
every cable to a common point at the centre line of the
supporting member.
When derivations are needed, the influence of angles is Space is needed where cables meet and where loads pass from
significant. fabric to steel.

Being able to divide a force into two components is highly Heavy loads and long distances require much more than single
dependent upon the angle of projection. points to solve the connections.

Complex devices and strong reinforcements are needed.

Preliminary designs and computer models tend to underestimate

the dimensions of connections and joints.

Moreover, waterproofing, drainage, and ventilation also require

space
The scale effect Coordination

Changing the scale entails much more than changing the
geometrical size.
The proportional dead weight, rigidity, surface, volume and
weight also change with the size of the structure.
The performance and features of a given solution change when
the scale is varied.
Elements meeting at a single point require coordination.
The choice of cable termination must be coordinated with the
design of the elements to which the cable attaches.
Closed eyes, for example, require a pair of plates and jaw ends
connect to a single plate.

Nature never changes the scale: different sizes result in

different shapes.

The scale effect is particularly evident in the connections.

The type of cable termination, for example, depends on the

size, because the ratio surface/cross-section varies. For small
cable diameters, friction or clamp type terminations are
sufficient. Increasing the diameter of the cable decreases the
surface of friction related to the cross-sectional area. Pressed
type terminations suit intermediate fittings and speltered
terminals are used for larger sizes.
The “JOINTS, CONNECTIONS, FITTINGS AND ANCHORS DATA
BANK” is available at:
http://sites.upc.es/~www-ca1/cat/recerca/tensilestruc/portada.html
Thermal and acoustic conditioning
In the past, the lightness and temporary nature of most fabric
structures made the consideration of weather conditions not
relevant.
But their expanding range of application has created an
increasing demand for thermal and acoustic conditioning.
Several methods have been implemented recently, such as
geometric configuration, treatment of materials or multi-
layering, which significantly affect the design outcome.
Watertightness Corrosion protection.

In some cases, joint watertightness is essential. Exposed steel is subjected to corrosion.

It can be resolved by the joint itself, by adding a strip of fabric Means of protecting it include the use of stainless steel,
to either overlap it or to drain the water. aluminium, hot-dip galvanizing, coating, or painting.

Alternatively, the joint could be roofed with a different material. Friction or the improper handling of materials are liable to
damage any of these treatments.
“In the course of installation, particular movements and
rotations can be required at the connection points. Quite often
such displacements are different to those needed for the
structural behaviour once the final position has been reached,
but still need to be accommodated in the final element so that
the structure can be assembled and prestressed” (European
Design Guide, 2004).
Textile roofs are erected on site by assembling prefabricated
elements and components. Proper installation requires planning
and care. Joints and connections take on an important role in
the processes.
“The connections must be optimised for weight saving,
manageability, precision, tolerances, and the possibility of lifting
with the intended equipment” (M. Seidel, 2009).
Hinges
Some structural connections, such as strut or mast ends and
base plates, contribute to the ease or difficulty of installation. A
change in structural behaviour is frequently desirable, and a
provision for such has to be made in the design. Adjustability
and rotation are the most common temporary demands.
The dimensions of the individual panels of cloth which are to
form the membrane are reduced by a small percentage
(compensation) such that when the whole membrane is
stretched into position the intended prestress field will be
developed. The compensation in size should be geometrically
similar to the designed form. During the installation of the
membrane, temporary equipment such as hydraulic jacks are
needed to develop the intended prestress. Such jacking forces
are mainly applied in the corner points of the membrane edge
and at internal suspension points or mast and anchor cable
footings. Fine adjustments can then be applied where necessary
by devices distributes amongst strategic points so as to provide
a uniform adjustment of the membrane’s tension (European
Design Guide, 2004).
Pretensioning
Architectural membranes are loaded in tension.
Pretension is needed to avoid compression and wrinkles and for
stability under any combination of loads.
Provisions have to be made to facilitate pretensioning, such as
adjustable edges, corners, and cable ends, or telescoping
arches and masts.
Auxiliary clamps
The assembly plan establishes the need for bores, anchors, and
holding devices for components, temporary tensioning
equipment, and safety.
“Buildability
For the design of the supporting structure the way of installation
has to be taken into account. The designer has to consider
fixation points for working tools etc. in his structural design.
Furthermore, particular movements and rotations might be
required at connection points during the membrane installation.
Flexible connections should be designed to provide enough
degrees of freedom during installation because the membrane is
not in its final position and before hoisting, it has a position
determined by gravity. This can, for instance, cause a 180°
rotation of a corner during lifting of the fabric.
Moreover, tolerances of the supporting structure and the
membrane must be considered during the detail design.”
(The European Joint Research Centre Science and Policy Report
on Tensile Membrane Structures, 2016)
Changes in strain occur during the membrane’s installation.
These changes are related to the membrane’s properties. They
are taken into account in the structural calculations and
compensated for in the cutting pattern design. After the
structure has been in service for some time re-tensioning may
be needed due to residual material deformations. The design of
the details needs to anticipate such a process (European Design
Guide, 2004).
Permanent adjustable devices
Losses of pre-stressing due to temperature, wind effect, creep
and yielding, should be recovered with adjustable devices, such
as threaded bars and turnbuckles.
Membranes are more deformable than their structural supports.
Joints and ends require adjustable fittings in order to recover
elongations and to compensate for differences of deformability.
A corner has during its life time different functions. It starts its
life as being a heavy peace of metal (normally), trying to
damage the fabric during production transportation. On site it
starts its real life, at first as a means to install the structure,
after installation ensuring stability of the structure. In these two
phases, they fulfil different functions, which in both situations
must be fulfilled. Functions during installation:
• forces initially tend to go through the membrane rather than
through the cable. The cables are still slack because the fabric is
not in its final position. So the weight of the fabric may be
carried solely by the connections of the fabric to the corner.
• the corners have a particular mass that has to be taken into
account during the installation procedure. Temporary support
may be needed to support them and hold them at an optimal
angle.
angle
● flexible and adjustable connections are needed to provide
enough degrees of freedom during installation because the
membrane is not in its final position and at the start of the
installation it has a position determined by gravity. This, for
instance, cause a 1800 rotation of a corner during lifting of the
fabric.
● installation devices are needed to enable the lifting, hoisting,
stretching and prestressing of the membrane and the corners
must be provided with means of attachment.
Accessibility
Installation and maintenance require that both the structure or
membrane themselves be accessible, or that accessibility be
provided by auxiliary means, such as cherry-pickers or
scaffolding.
3 Typology of details
A typology of details for fabric structures in architecture is
presented. It includes seams, edges, corners, high and low
points, ridges and valleys, cables, fittings, and anchors. Many
examples are shown and discussed keeping in mind that:
a) Details cannot be directly transplanted from a repertoire,
since they have to be adapted to the requirements of each
case. Solutions are successful when they meet the specific
requirements of every application. Changing the
requirements means that the design must be changed.
b) Detailing has to be taken into account from the beginning of
the design process. It is not an independent step, because it
is also essential to the general requirements of the whole
structure. Details are not an afterthought.
A membrane joint is defined as a connection which ties together
either single membrane layers or membrane fields composed of
several layers.
Joints can be divided into those which fix membranes
permanently to each other, as in welded joints (for some
materials also sewed joints), and joints that can be separated
again, e. g. site joints.
Membrane materials have to be joined to form the roof.
There are several techniques available, including prefabricated
(stitched, welded or mixed) and on-site (glued, laced, clamped,
or welded).
Apart from the aforementioned requirements, seams make an
important contribution to the final configuration of the whole.

Currently a lot of state of the art details exist, but they are not The material is translucent, and joints are viewed against the
regulated or standardized so far. light.

Since membrane joints are of decisive significance for the load Properly planned, these views enhance the clarity that stems
bearing capacity and consequently for the durability of the from the flow of forces, principal slopes, and spatial trends.
entire membrane structure, design rules have to be developed
for implementation in the future Eurocode for membrane Membrane joints are described thoroughly by B.Forster &
structures. M.Mollaert, 2004: “European Design Guide for Tensile Surface
Structures”, TensiNet, Brussels.
The joint between two membranes is carried out by seams. The
term “seam” has been derived from tent-building tradition and
is still commonly used disregarding how this connection is
actually carried.

(The European Joint Research Centre Science and Policy Report

on Tensile Membrane Structures, 2016)
“Some details are simply required to transmit loads and The perimeter of the membrane is finished in accordance with
rotations between adjoining membrane panels. the boundary conditions, by means of the following solutions:
They are not involved in an active way in prestressing the
structure but are needed to complete the envelope of a building Flexible edges
or canopy. These will often take the form of a simple overlap
joint. These are either non-reinforced or are reinforced by a hem,
rope belt, or cable.
1 Aluminium plates with rounded-off corners and inter-layers of
EPDM rubber. The clamps are bolted through holes in the fabric. To allow for varying elongations, the cable may be located
Load transfer from membrane into ring is by the bearing of the outside the membrane.
membrane’s edge “bead” against the edge of the clamp plate.
The bolts go through oversized holes so that the membrane Flexible edges are loaded in tension.
does not bear against the bolt.
They do not bear bending stress and they follow funicular
2 Pair of special extrusions to avoid the clamp bolts passing curves.
through the membrane” (B.Forster, 2004).
Curvature is required for loads to be transmitted from the
3 J & J Carter keder rails. “As an alternative to the clamping membrane to the end supports.
plate joint, performed keder rails made of aluminium of plastic
can be used for joints between partial sheets. One and two part
rails are available, which can accommodate 1 to 4 keders. The
poor sliding capability pf the keder profile can be a problem
during erection. In order to prevent the fabric coating sticking in
the profile, special non-stick keder strips can be prefabricated
on to the keder” (M.Seidel, 2009).
Rigid edges Semi-flexible edges

Continuous edges directly distribute the loads from the These edges are connected to the structure or building through
membrane to the linear supports. mediating elements.

A bending-resistant structural element collects edges and When the flexible membrane has to be connected to rigid
stresses. vertical enclosures, three critical requirements must be met:

Stiff edges are thick and contradict the thinness of the 1 air tightness
membrane. 2 allowance for movements in one side only
3 geometric tolerance
They need to be trussed, thin or lightweight in order to avoid
conflicts in form.

Continuous joints between the edges of the membrane and the

support structure are provided by keder rails.

Recent ETFE applications have led to their use becoming more

widespread.

With pneumatic cushions, foil layers can be clamped together in

a single keder rail or separately, in order to avoid thermal
bridges and for ease of maintenance and replacement.
Semi-flexible edges
Allowance for movements in one side only and geometric
tolerance are usually accomplished through the use of looped
cords or adjustable devices and air tightness is provided by
closing the gap, overlaps or channels.
Alternatively, inflated cushions are also used.
The Dynamic Earth Centre in Edinburgh shows an initial concept
to consider in design. It refers to the coordination of the
different parts of the building, CONSIDERING IT AS A SYSTEM.
The side walls are in glass to establish a relationship with the
surroundings. Transparency, translucency and day light are
provided by the translucency of the membrane and the
transparency of the glass slits but the FLEXIBLE membrane has
to be connected to the RIGID vertical enclosure and therefore
three highly demanding requirements must be attended: air-
thigtness, allowance for movements at one side only and
geometric tolerance to accommodate the irregular intersection.
They have been solved filling the gap between the glass and the
fabric with a folded strip of membrane. The strip is bolt-clamped
to the roof and to the top section of the façade. It is tautened
by a cord looped to the roof. The requirements are fulfilled
because bolt-clamping provides air-thigtness, the strip acts as a
hinge absorbing roof movements and variations of distance
between the strip and the roof are accommodated by the cord.
Nevertheless, the strip interrupts the visual continuity of the
roof and emphasizes the presence of the vertical enclosure,
disturbing the intended transparency of the wall.
Ridges and valleys are linear discontinuities of the surface Supported ridges, rigid and convex, pushed up by arches or
where the membrane may be continuous or not. beams

They may or may not be connected to the structural supporting Arches and beams support the membrane.
elements.
They do not require such high masts to be hung, but they do
Suspended ridges, flexible and concave, pulled up by cables weigh much more than suspended ridges, due to the stiffness
required for applied bending loads.
Suspended ridges support and put the the membrane in
tension, thereby avoiding stiff elements subjected to bending.

Loads are transmitted and adjustable devices are saved in the

edges and corners of the membrane.
Pulled down valleys, flexible and convex.
The roof of the Denver Airport emulates the Rocky Mountains,
Colorado.
Valley cables are located in parallel and between the ridges.
They hold the membrane down under stormy winds.
Pre-stressing is required to counteract the relaxation induced by
snow.
“The junction of flexible fabric roof with rigid walls is dealt by
leaving a gap between the roof edge and the upper edge of the
cantilevered glass wall, closing it with pneumatic tubes, 60 cm
in diameter as sausages, which expand and contract as the
fabric moves” (Ph.Drew, 2008).
Pushed down valleys, rigid and convex.
In the “Bulevar Mediterráneo” Roof Terrace the major constraint
was the difficulty of placing the masts on the deck to prevent
damage to the waterproofing. So, they had to be anchored on
the upper floor, and as a result, the membrane was pushed
downwards. Additionally, the edges were not reinforced with
hems, belts, nor cables in order to facilitate the openness of the
direct views to the marina and the sea.
Lleida canopy.
For different locations, an unobtrusive canopy was designed to
not interfere visually in monumental sites, historic places,
landmarks or interesting natural environments. It is a 6 x 4 m
rectangular membrane pushed down by an arch and tied up by
elastic rope to the lateral frames. As a result, there are no
inclined planes nor vertical faces that interfere with the views.
The surface becomes anticlastic, wind-resistant, and it drains
properly. It is perceived as a gently deformed horizontal sail
that does not consolidate a volume, as occurs with pitched roof-
pavilions.
“A membrane corner is the junction of two membrane edges. Corners collect the ends of the membranes and edge cables.
The forces in the membrane flow into the boundary elements
which transmit them to the corners. Doubly curved membranes They are the subject of geometric and structural concerns.
have stresses in both warp and weft directions. Stresses
perpendicular to an edge are transferred into the edge element. They must transfer concentrated forces to the supporting
The stresses in the other direction run along the edge and need structure along the load paths.
to be collected at each end. The fastening of the membrane field
in a corner is mainly dependent upon three facts: The angle of the corner has to be determined precisely, unless
hinges and adjustability are provided.
• the geometrical plan of the corner, i. e. the angle between
both edges
Space is required, due to the size of all elements involved:
• the construction of the edge, whether it is flexible or rigid;
edges, cuffs, plates, cable ends, bolts, bores and fittings.
with rigid edges, whether it has tension elements or not
• the magnitude of the tangential force.
It has to be distinguished between membrane corners for
fl ibl or rigid
flexible i id membrane
b edges.
d C
Corners off fl
flexible
ibl edges
d are
created by a spandrel. The spandrel region is very critical to
overstresses since the short distance between the edges neither
allow an elongation of the membrane nor an angular
displacement of the fabric in order to reduce over stresses.
Membrane corners of rigid edges should be reinforced by a
double layer of membrane. In some cases the final part of the
corner should
h ld bbe cutt outt ((curved
d cut)”.
t)” (Th
(The E
European JJoint
i t
Research Centre Science and Policy Report on Tensile Membrane
Structures, 2016)
By clamping the fabric to the corner plate the upward sliding of High and low points are point supports that entail local
the membrane is prevented. enlargements, which affect space in such a way that they
acquire significant dimensions and shape.
Functions of the corners when installed:
Supported high points by internal masts
● transfer of forces. The forces are not transferred directly into
the corner by the fabric, but are passed on to the cables that
These points are usually resolved with saddles, humos, rings or
transfer the forces to the corners.
loops.
● transfer
t f off tangential
t ti l fforces. Moving
M i off fabric
f b i along
l cable
bl bby
tangential forces introduced extra forces Though it is advisable to balance the mast with the membrane
● geometric compatibility. It is essential that after installation all to express equilibrium, complementary safety cables are
the forces that are collected in a corner are running through recommended in any case.
their system line so as to prevent eccentricity and stress
concentrations in the corners which, in the long term, could 1 High points supported and suspended. Plaza Nueva, Bilbao.
cause failure of the connection
2 Top of the mast with pulleys. Dotted lines indicate the position
● accuracy in manufacturing. Related to the above function, the of the ring where the membrane will be attached to pull it up.
design can be according to system lines but when the
manufacturing of the corners is not done accurately, the same 3, 4 and 5 The high point is pulled up by a ring.
trouble can arise.
● adjustability. To be able to fine tune the membrane during 6 High point of the Munich Zoo Aviary.
installation or in some cases to prestress the membrane, the
corners must provide with adjustability. (European Design
Guide, 2004)
Frei Otto’s favourite type of high point. The hump tent is supported by one or more hump-like high
points.
Connection of membrane to masthead. Exhibition pavilion in
Frankfurt (Sobek und Rieger, Sttutgart with D.Wakefield, Bath) The high points can be formed by masts which may have either
mushroom-shaped heads or heads with flexible lamellae across
1 Ø 133x10 mm CHS which the membrane is stretched.
3 Ø 244,5 mm CHS guide channel
4 Head of mast adjustable up to 1.000 mm for stressing The membrane exhibits an anticlastic curvature everywhere
membrane except in the areas above the supporting humps, where its
5 Half-round tubular section to support head of mast after curvature is equidirectional.
tensioning
6 Ø 30 mm bolt F.Otto with P.Stromeyer 1963: Humped tent at Hamburg
7 Ø 16 mm steel cable International Garden Exhibition.
8 Ø 24 mm steel cable
9 30 mm stiffening plate Measuring 1.800 m2 this membrane hall required 2.250 m2 of
12 50 mm masthead plate 500 g/m2 cotton fabric. The architecture was not influence by
13 14x50 flat outside specifications, but was dictated exclusively by the
14 Ø 12 mm steel cable simple construction itself. The task was simply to roof the area
15 Main membrane with reinforcing strip with the smallest possible amount of fabric. Measured against
the construction costs, this tent was the most efficient
(Courtesy of DETAIL) lightweight roof construction developed by F,Otto to date
(E.Möller, 2005).
Supported high points by external masts.
These points are secured by tensioning cables, unless the mast
is self-supporting.
If the strands are bedded on saddles, the radius r1 should not
be less than the greater of 30·d (d: diameter of the cable
strand) or 400·Ø (Ø diameter of the wire) (EN 1993-1-11).
Flying masts
1,2 Flying masts supported on a cable net push up the
membrane. They keep the covered space free of structural
supports. A softening plate on the top of the flying mast
enlarges the area of load distribution. Notice at the bottom the
hinged fork cable-ends and adjustability of the length of the
mast.
3,4 “A different approach to the connection between the flying
mast and the membrane. The membrane, as it is tensioned,
bears down onto the annular surface of the head ring and in so
doing develops a “hoop tension” within a closed cable held in a
sleeve fabricated onto the membrane panel. The downward
external loads applied to the structure are transmitted by
bearing contact of the membrane on to the ring rather than by
shear transfer through clamp bolts” (B.Forster, 2004) or bearing
contact through a softening spherical plate.
5 A support ring provides perimeter length of material required
to support the load not exceeding the breaking strength.
6,7 Push-up rod assembly with umbrella seat at top.
Suspended high points
These points require an external structure from which the high
point of the membrane can be suspended.
Suspended high points
“The membrane is suspended from above at a number of points.
Its force per metre width must increase as it moves towards the
support point. The first step away from the main field involves a
change to a stronger and, thus, less translucent grade of
material.
The second step involves a doubling up of the latter before
being connected to a continuous “looped” edge belt, having the
shape of a “flower” with six “petals”. The edge belt acts
structurally in a similar way to a catenary edge cable with the
force in the belt being controlled by the depth of its sag: the
greater the sag the smaller the force in the belt and vice-versa.
The cusp points of the belt are suspended from above by six
straight cables and the central hole is closed over with a warped
membrane panel. This is a very elegant solution helped to a
degree by the modest climatic loading of the site. It is also a
good illustration of how the nature of the material influences the
visual appearance of the detail through the use of progressively
stronger components that mediate between the general
membrane field and the supporting mast” (B.Forster, 2004).
“A point support means that the loads converging towards it will Tied-down low points
progressively want to raise the stress level within the
membrane. The breaking strength of the membrane material 1 Pullin-down device. It gathers rain and snow (Glories
and safety factor limit the stress that a particular grade of Shopping Centre,Barcelona).
material can safely carry. So for a given load to be supported it
is a simple calculation to work out the perimeter length of 2 Low point of the Munich Zoo Aviary.
material required to safely support this. This then determines
the diameter of , for instance, a support ring. 3 F.Otto & P.Stromeyer, 1963: Internal low point of the big
membrane hall at the International Garden Exhibition in
The next step can be to add locally a second thickness of cloth Hamburg, 1963 (IL 16).
to reinforce the membrane. The illustrations show the “pull-
downs” and “push-ups” where the reinforcement is clearly 4 Beguin & Macchini, 2003: Tall station, Amiens.
visible and has permitted each roof to be supported from a
smaller ring suspended from the mast at a higher elevation.

The same illustrations show tapered “fingers” of reinforcement

running in the same sense as the main seams. By tapering the
reinforcement a gradual transfer of load occurs between the
single thickness of the main panel of membrane and the double
reinforced double thickness. By doing this, the rate of change in
the membrane’s strains is gradual and not sudden. The
alternative of a complete doubling up without any tapering
would risk wrinkling and a visible “kink” in the elevation profile
of the membrane” (B.Forster, 2004).
Pushed-down low points Mast-base plates

Herron Associates & Buro Happold, 1989: Imagination
Headquarters, London.
South balcony at gallery level with pushed down flying fabric
canopy supported in cantilever.
Mast-base plates transmit compression forces.
They usually stand in the centre of the main visual field of the
users.
People regard them as being a main part of the structure.

They are fixed or pinned about one or two axes.

Fixed bases allow for stability without guying cables, but they
are not suitable if lateral loads result in bending which require
an increase in the size.

Pinning about one axis is typical for masts located at the

perimeter which are tied by cables anchored to the foundation.

If rotation may occur about two axes, two-degree of freedom

bases, such as spherical connections, are used.
Base plates for cables Base plates for cables

Base plates for cables are bored to fix the cable end and they
allow for rotation about one axis.
Double rotation can be obtained at the cable end by hinging the
plate.
1 and 2 Anchoring without plate. A pin crosses the anchoring
rod. IL Institute, Stuttgart.
A complex base plate receiving 8 cables coming from the ridge,
the edges and the external support of the entral ring. They are
all hinged.
Pierre-Jean Riera, architecte avec Prat Structures, 2008: “Le
Lido. Centre des Arts du Cirque”, Toulouse.

3 Two cables anchored at the same plate through several

gussets. Continente Shopping Mall, Barcelona.

4 Bored and reinforced base plate fro cable (Camp de Mart

Auditorium, Tarragona).

5 Hinged base plate. The cable is hinged abaout one axis and
the plate about the other (Camp de Mart Auditorium,
Tarragona).
Textile architecture is based on the use of textiles or sheets but it also Tension rods
requires
i a support structure and d many auxiliary
ili iitems, such
h as wire
i
ropes and accessories. Often little attention is paid to these elements An alternative to ropes is the use of smooth, threaded, high-
despite the fact that they form a substantial part of the design strength bars, whose length and ends can be controlled more
process and have a major effect on the final result. Their proper
easily than those of ropes.
design requires details of their mechanical and geometrical
characteristics and they must be coordinated so that they fit together.
Therefore, verifying the actual dimensions of the accessories is critical They require careful transport and handling to prevent them
g
in design. bending.

Wire ropes. A wire rope is a set of wires rolled into a spiral, and they They are used a great deal in tensile structures.
work together in traction (it is known as a spiral strand rope-
according to EN 1993-1-11). The basic element of the rope is the
steel wire, which is classified by its diameter and the characteristics of
the material. The composition of the rope is determined by the way
the wires or threads are grouped. They can be wound in one or more
layers around a central wire or spiral
spiral, forming a spiral rope or strand.
strand
These strands, in turn, can be wound around a core or nucleus to
form a complex wire rope (it is known as a strand rope, according to
EN 1993-1-11. By combining wires, strands and cores, the
performance of the wire rope can be varied to adapt it to the
requirements of each application. A rope formed by a single strand of
thick wires without a core will be rigid and resistant to wear and
corrosion. Its properties are suitable for static, immobile applications,
such as supports, braces, edge ropes, struts, etc., which are usually
used in tensile structures and fixed textile construction.
Cable ends
Cable ends transmit forces and vary depending on the diameter
of the rope. It is advisable to base the type of cable end on the
cable size, because the ratio surface/cross-section varies. For
small cable diameters, friction (by clipping) or clamp (by
swaging) types are sufficient. Since increasing the diameter of
the cable decreases the surface of friction related to the cross-
sectional area, the pressed-type is suitable for intermediate
fittings and speltered terminals are used for larger sizes.
Braided ends
A braided end can be accomplished by tightly and regularly
braiding the free end of the rope, so that all the strands work in
balance when the whole assembly is subjected to a load. It is
very important to give the length and appropriate number of
twists in order to obtain an absolutely reliable termination. As a
general rule, the length of the twist should be 30 times the
diameter of the cable on which it is made. The resultant looped
cable eye is protected by a thimble.
Clipped ends. This method is the easiest way to carry out a
termination
i i and
d requires
i no k
knowledge
l d or experience,
i although
lh h iit iis
only recommended in cases where the nature of the job requires
quick or frequent dismantling. The terminations can be adjusted for
length. The minimum number of clips needed to secure the
termination can be approximately estimated by dividing the diameter
of the cable in mm by 6 and rounding up to the nearest whole figure,
which must never be less than three. A distance of approximately 6
p
times the diameter of the cable must be maintained between clips.
Nuts must be placed on the long branch of the cable, which should be
successively and gradually tightened. The resultant looped cable eye
is protected by a thimble.
Swaged ends. The swaged end consists essentially of a sleeve, to
which pressure is applied over the branches of the cable which you
want to join. It eliminates the disadvantages of hand-twisted joints,
as well as those made using clips,
clips thereby providing great strength.
strength It
is waterproof and corrosion-resistant because the fit around the cable
makes water penetration impossible and internal corrosion less likely.
In addition, the polished surface of the sleeve eliminates the
possibility of injury caused by protruding ends, which occurs very
frequently with braided joints and clips. The resultant looped cable
eye is protected by a thimble. The most used swaged terminations
are the open, closed and threaded ones. They must be made in a
workshop in order to attain at least the strength of the cable and the
specified sling length.
Speltered ends
Speltered terminations, formed by pouring molten metal or
plastic inside a tapering sleeve, may be closed, open or
threaded.
They are conically shaped on the inside in order to stop cable
slipping once the pure zinc or lead-antimony spelter has been
applied.
Mechanical ends
For cables between 3 and 25 mm in diameter, mechanical
terminations have a practical advantage.
They are versatile and easy to install, because they do not
require swaging, since they are tightened by screwing an
internal cone.
Shackles
Shackles (1) are the most commonly used accessories to splice
cables or to provide attachment to the supporting structure.
Shackles may be short, long, large, twisted or bow shackles
(which can receive more than one termination).
It is important to check the internal width of the shackle,
because this is what allows the passage of the ring or bolt of the
termination.
Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles (2) are open or closed and are finished with eyes,
hooks, jaws or hinges.
They make it possible to adjust the length of the sling in order
to tighten or loosen the cable.
Other fittings
They include carabiners (3), eye nuts (4 and 5), eyelets (6 and
7), hooks (8), links (9), rings (10), shock absorbers (11),
thimbles (12) and wing nuts (13).
Anchors are foundations for tensile forces, generally employed
to resist uplift.
Typology. Anchors are either active (prestressed) or passive
(dead) according to whether they are submitted to permanent
prestressing or not.
Passive anchors: They only act against the soil when loaded.
They move more than active anchors, but are simpler and entail
fewer problems related to relaxation and durability. They can be
divided into two main groups according to whether they reach
the surface of the ground or are buried.

Active anchors are pre-stressed by initially tensioning them Shallow anchors reaching the surface (r: recoverable):
against a steel bearing plate. The level of pre-stress is a
percentage of the design-working
design working load.
load When the pre-stressed
pre stressed Stakes (r). Hook anchor (r). Malone anchor. Concrete pile.
anchor is externally loaded, it behaves as a much stiffer
Warren anchor (r). Stake pile with wings (r). Multi under
member than a dead anchor would.
reamed piles. Magnavox expandable piles. Sheet piles (r).
If the applied load is mobilised from the top end downwards, Diaphragm wall. Cylindrical shaft. Under reamed shaft. Concrete
the tendon is embedded in the grout, and shear and normal block. Strip foundation. Sand bag (r). Water pipe (r). Under
stresses are developed at the grout/ground interface. This reamed block
causes the grout surrounding the tendon to be put in tension
with
ith associated
i t d ttension
i cracks
k occurring
i nott ffavourable
bl tto
function permanently.

In compression anchors the force is transferred to the bottom

end of the anchorage zone by means of a pressure pipe which
isolates the tendon from the primary grout. They are
appropriate for long term application, especially in corrosive
environments.

Active anchors are described thoroughly by T.H.Hanna, 1982

and P.P. Xanthakos, 1991.
Selection of a type (1): Deep anchors buried (r: recoverable):
To select a type of passive anchor for a particular application, a summary
of characteristics for each type is provided. Log anchor
Material: steel, concrete, wood. Production process: prefabricated, on Tube and arrowed anchors (r)
site. Installation process: vibrated, driven, bored, grouted, drilled.
Recommended soils: granular, cohesive, soft, loose medium, stiff, Duckbill earth anchor system (r)
dense. Width (mm). Depth (mm). Uplift average (kN) for each type of
soil. Efficiency ratio (uplift against self weight). Grillage
Notes: Manta Ray (r)
Shallow anchors need more quantity of material but they are stiffer and
Never creep plate (r)
sensitive to the variation of depth Recoverable stake (r)
Piles are necessary when the soil near the surface is very soft or loose. In Arrowed anchor (r)
cohesive soils the base of the piles can be enlarged increasing considerably
the efficiency. Menard plate
Stakes and hooks are light and recoverable. NCEL plate (r)
Grouted bars are light and convenient for hard or dense soils. In cohesive 8 Way expandable anchor
soils they can be under reamed.
Y Expandable anchor
Wells and blocks are used in non cohesive soils. They are excavated
keeping the trench filled with bentonite slurry and concreted from the Screw anchors (r)
bottom up using tremie pipes.
Poured in place
Under reamed shafts, wells or blocks are efficient in cohesive soils
because the enlargement improves the efficiency. A special device is need Precast (r)
to under ream the excavation.
Precast concrete cruciformed block (r)
The under
Th d reamed d bl
blockk is
i expensive
i b
because off th
the quantity
tit off material
t i l
involved, excavation, formwork, fill and compaction.
Selection of a type. Notes (2):
Buried tubes need pre-loading to consume the initial
displacement
Grillages and plates are efficient. When installed in sand and
gravel, they need excavation, fill and compaction. Driven
plates need pre-loading.
Screw anchors are light and recoverable.
The typology of passive anchors may be visited at the website:
“Textile construction & tensile structures” data bank:
http://sites.upc.es/~www-
ca1/cat/recerca/tensilestruc/portada.html
Conclusion
“An important general conclusion to draw from the above is that
the design of details is intimately linked to both the stress and
deformation behaviour of the structure, and the means that can
be employed in obtaining prestress in the structure.
For these reasons the design of the details should never
be thought as the last step in a linear sequence of
operations, rather as the culmination of a thought process
which starts quite early in the development of the design and
develops in tandem with the development of all other aspects of
the system, As Eugène Freyssinet once said: prestressing is a
state of mind” (B.Forster, 2004).
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