Embeddedness of Exclusion in Culture: Development

Implications

Abstract
Studies relating to ‘exclusion’ have developed into an interesting area of inquiry precisely
from 1974 with the publication of Rene Lenoir’s book entitled Le Exclus. He applied the
term ‘exclusion’ to explain the situation that existed in France as a result of ever increasing crisis of
industrial capitalism in the context of a welfare state. Interestingly, the term has evolved as an
analytical tool to examine the phenomena of inequality, deprivation, marginalisation,
discrimination or any such disparity in social aspects of life and in policy spheres as well.
However, the situation of exclusion, perceived with reference to the above conditions is not a
recent phenomenon; it also existed in traditional tribal societies. The position which we can
take boldly is that exclusion is an inalienable feature at every stage of social process.

Under this backdrop, the paper attempts to outline situations which present exclusionary
practices in tribal cultures with reference to secondary sources of data. Drawing on the
discussion it will attempt to forward a perspective to explain the generality of exclusion in
social process which has implications in development.

Numerous writings and reports on tribal development have raised serious issues on the way
land alienation is displacing poor tribals from their land, forests, culture, identity and
livelihood. The Dhebar Commission (1981) (check the year) in its report mentioned that due
to ignorance of tribal people and lacunae in the laws, tribals are losing their land. The
relationship between the tribals and forests was acknowledged by the Dhebar Commission
and was reiterated by the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, 2006.

the process of integration in post independent India

proves exclusionary, schemes are in individual name,

weberian power structure and social darwinism

Weber defines power as the ability of an actor (or actors) to realize his or her will in a social action,
even against the will of other actors. Power relates to the ability to command resources in a particular domain.
Economic power, then, is the ability to control material resources: to direct production, to monopolize
accumulation, to dictate consumption. Obviously, present power structure in which tribes and the state are
situated reflects Weber’s connotation of power.
The centrality of Social Darwinism is the evolution of human society through competition between individuals,
groups, or nations. Herbert Spencer, one of the most important Social Darwinist, claimed that the rich and
powerful were better adapted to the social and economic climate of the time, and the concept of natural
selection, following Charles Darwin, allowed him to argue that it was natural, normal, and proper for the strong
to thrive at the expenses of the weak. After all, he claimed, that is what goes in nature every day. At the present
development discourse tribals are weak and the development policies, strategies and schemes do not benefit
them as they do to their non-tribal counterparts who are powerful and rich in the existing bureaucratic, political
and social power structure. For a detail discussion of Social Darwinism see Coser, 1996 (Ch-3); Richards, 2010
and Stewart.2011.

Stewart, Iain 2011. ‘Commandeering Time: The Ideological Status of Time in the Social
Darwinism of Herbert Spencer’. Australian Journal of Politics and History. 57 (3):
389–402. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.2011.01604.

Richards, Peter 2010 . Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinist or Libertarian Prophet?

Auburn/Alabama, United States: Mises Institute

Gerth, H.H. & C.W. Mills (eds. and trans.) 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology.
New York: Oxford University Press.

Coser,L.A.1996. Masters of Sociological Thought. Jaipur/New Delhi: Rawat

permanent settlement
language exclusion
The phenomenon of exclusion is a characteristic of Indian social hierarchy. The ideological
foundation of ‘purity and pollution’ and its resultant practice of untouchability excluded
some communities from the freedom of opportunities which the ‘dominant others’ enjoyed
in early periods of the history. Though the ideological foundation has changed, still the
phenomenon is visible in different contexts. In this context the case of denotified nomadic
and semi nomadic tribes is an interesting area of enquiry.

During colonial period, the practice leading to exclusion of groups earlier, who are now
DNTs, got additional reinforcement in legal terms. Acts and regulations, for example
criminal Tribes’ Act, 1871, delineated the new boundary of exclusion and maintained it. The
Act designated various groups as criminal tribes. The colonial administration dealt with
these people with an iron hand in order to enforce the identity by various administrative
means.

In addition to drawing the direct exclusionary boundary for the people by designating them
as criminal tribes, the government made some other laws pertaining to political economy of
the time which also effected exclusion of these people by creating livelihood insecurity.
These laws deprived the community people from use of thier traditional resources and
contacted them with money, market forces, etc. and thus, resulted in their exploitation and
marginalisation. Unfortunately, the exclusion still got cumulative in post Independent India
even though the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 is repelled. These criminal tribes who were de-
notified in 1952, in fact, suffer exclusion from various counts.

With this backdrop, the present paper makes an attempt to outline, drawing on secondary
sources of data, the nature and type of exclusion of denotified nomadic and semi nomadic
people during pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial, i.e. Post Independent period of India.

Pre-colonial period and DNTs: beginning of exclusion

In India----- communities have been categorised as DNTs who were criminal tribes
according to the provisions of Criminal Tribes Act, 1871. These communities, however, had
their independent identity without any generic designation before the stigma of criminality
befell on them. Interestingly, these communities were heterogeneous in terms of
occupation, bio-genetic variability, language and habitation.(Ref) They formed into different
order of the then social hierarchy and thus had exclusionary boundary both in perspectives
and practices of settled people.

 Mention in a paragraph on difference in language, race etc of the groups who were
considered as criminals
 Mention occupation of some of these groups before they were ‘criminals’ (you can
get this from Meena Radhakrishna book, hope you have that book, or from other
books)
  What was the idea of settled people about these people to which we can say that
they were excluded (at least write two three pages with some example, case studies
if you have.

Exclusion of Colonial way

 Mention colonial measures such as land acts, forest acts, railways and other
activities of colonial rulers which deprived these communities from their traditional
sources of livelihood.
 What did they do when they were deprived of their livelihood sources?
 Produce criminal act and provisions
 What was the extent of the nature and extent of exclusion legally and socially?

The Legacy continues: Contours of exclusion

 Denotified communities as various social groups like ST, OBC. Why? Some examples.
 Acts and regulations that excluded them from the freedom of pursuing their
traditional sources of livelihood and what was the effect?
 Status in Census reports, constitutional provisions and anomalies, etc
 Areas of exclusion: social, education, economic, political, etc.
 Any other?

In recent years, one of the most frequently discussed topics in the social sciences has been
the deprivation of socially excluded communities , the issues of ethnicity, discrimination, social
exclusion, human rights and poverty alleviation are have gained academic discussion and discourse.
The understanding of these issues and their linkages to the social, human, institutional and
economic dimensions involved in the process of economic development, are important for effective
policy paradigms. It goes with out saying that as human beings all should enjoy equal opportunity in
the life so as to participate fully in the society, flourish and realize their potential. Equal
opportunities in society and empowerment of vulnerable social groups increase their chances for
active and productive participation in society. The benefits of individuals’ active contribution to
society as a whole are considerable, not only in the sense of financial savings but also in terms of
improved social integration

But unfortunately, certain groups in society are systematically deprived of such

opportunities as such, excluded, which are open to others, as they are discriminated against on the
basis of their race, religion, gender, caste, age, disability, or other social identity. People who are
excluded are marginalized and disadvantaged, poverty stricken peoples and as a result, non-
recipient of such benefits of development. The plight of such people worsens when they are in the
grip of series of problems like unemployment, discrimination, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing,
high crime and family breakdown. These problems being linked and mutually reinforcing, social
exclusion assumes a critical dimension, as a result of which, such people don't get a fair deal
throughout their lives, owning to their birth in a particular caste , and this disadvantage transmits
from one generation to the next. This is how the caste system based on the principle of inequality
and selective privilege is the basic feature of Indian society around which economic, political,
educational and socio-cultural life revolve. The economic organization of the caste system has been
based on the division of the population into a hierarchical order of social groups which determines
the economic rights of members that are determined by birth and are hereditarily followed. Social
exclusion deprives people of choices and opportunities to escape from poverty and denies them a
voice to claim their rights. Social exclusion engenders insecurity, uncertainty, and social and
economic vulnerability.