Today lecture

1. Entropy change in an isolated system

2. Exergy
- What is exergy?
- Reversible Work & Irreversibility
- Second-Law Efficiency
- Exergy change of a system
• For a fixed mass
• For a flow stream
- Exergy transfer by mass
- Exergy transfer by work
- Exergy transfer by heat transfer
- Exergy destruction
- Exergy balance

1
 Total entropy change in an isolated system
‰ The principal of entropy:
The total entropy change of an isolated system during a process
always increases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process,
remains constant.
Consider a general system exchanging mass as well as energy with its
surroundings.
Sum of entropy change = Entropy generation

S gen = ΔStotal = ΔS sys + ∑ ΔS surr ≥ 0

where = holds for the totally reversible process

> holds for the irreversible process
< impossible process

2
 Example
A heat source at 800 K loses 2000 kJ of heat to a sink at (a) 500 K.
Determine which heat transfer process is more irreversible.

(a) For heat transfer process to sink at 500 K

Qsource −2000 kJ
ΔS source = = = −2.5 kJ/K
Tsource 800 K

Qsink 2000 kJ
ΔS sink = = = 4 kJ/K
Tsink 500 K
Entropy generation

S gen = ΔStotal = ΔS source + ΔS sink = −2.5 + 4 = 1.5 kJ/K

Irreversible process!
3
 From Quiz 4
A 50 kg copper block initially at 80OC is dropped into an insulated tank that
contains 120 L of water at 25OC. Determine the final equilibrium
temperature and the total entropy change for this process.
Note 1 L = 10-3 m3, at 25OC cp,water = 4.18 kJ/kg OC, ρwater = 997 kg/m3, and
cp,copper = 0.386 kJ/kgOC.

Ein − Eout = ΔEsys

0 = ΔU cu + ΔU w
0 = ( mc p ΔT ) + ( mc p ΔT )
cu w

0 = mcu c p ,cu (T2 − 80 ) + mw c p , w (T2 − 25 )

T2 = 27 O C

4
(b) Total entropy change

ΔStotal = ΔScu + ΔS w
⎛ T2 ⎞
ΔScu = mcu ( s2 − s1 )cu= mcu ⎜ c p , cu ln ⎟ = −3.14 kJ/K
⎝ T1 ⎠cu
⎛ T2 ⎞
ΔS w = mw ( s2 − s1 )w = mw ⎜ c p , w ln ⎟ = 3.344 kJ/K
⎝ T1 ⎠ w

ΔStotal = −3.14 + 3.344 = 0.204 kJ/K

Misunderstanding
Qcu
Qcu = mcu c p , cu (T2 − T1 ) ΔScu =
T2
Qw = mw c p , w (T2 − T1 )
Qw
ΔS w =
T2 5
 ⎛ dQ ⎞
ds = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠
⎛ dQ ⎞
2
Δs = s2 − s1 = ∫ ⎜ ⎟
1⎝ ⎠
T

For ideal gas (pure substance)

⎧2 dT ⎫ v2 s2 − s1 = Cv ,av ln
T2 v
+ R ln 2
s2 − s1 = ⎨ ∫ cv (T ) ⎬ + R ln T1 v1
⎩1 T ⎭ v1

⎧2 dT ⎫ P2 T2 P2
s2 − s1 = ⎨ ∫ c p (T ) ⎬ − R ln s2 − s1 = C p ,av ln − R ln
⎩1 T ⎭ P1 T1 P1
6
 Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential
The objectives are

• Examine the performance of engineering devices in term of the second

law of thermodynamics.
• Define exergy, which is the maximum useful work that could be
obtained from the system at a given state in a specified environment.
• Define reversible work, which is the maximum useful work that can be
obtained as a system undergoes a process between two specified
states.
• Define the exergy destruction, which is the wasted work potential
during a process as a result of irreversibilities.
• Define the second-law efficiency.
• Develop the exergy balance relation.
• Apply exergy balance to closed systems and control volumes.
7
 Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential
Exergy and the Dead State
-The useful work potential of a system is the amount of energy we extract
as useful work.
-The useful work potential of a system at the specified state is called
exergy.
- A system that is in equilibrium with its surroundings has zero exergy and
is said to be at the dead state.

price
Investment

No profit 8
 Exergy
‰ Exergy is the work potential of a system in a specified environment
and represents the maximum amount of useful work that can be
obtained as the system is brought to equilibrium with the environment.

‰ Unlike energy, the value of exergy depends on the state of

environment as well as the state of the system.

Income
100OC 1000 kJ Total energy

90OC 800 kJ Exergy Available

money
80OC 600 kJ Environment
(dead state)
70OC 400 kJ
Investment
60OC 200 kJ

9
 Exergy of kinetic energy
‰ Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into
work.

‰ Kinetic energy itself is the work potential or exergy of kinetic energy independent of
the temperature and pressure of the environment.
G2
Exergy of kinetic energy: V
xke = ke = (kJ/kg)
2

Velocity, which is less than 10 m/s, can not

produce electricity

10
 Example: Exergy or work potential of the blowing air

The electric power needs of community are to be met by windmills with 10-m-
diameter rotors. The windmills are to be located where the wind is blowing
steadily at an average velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the number of windmills
that need to be installed if the required power output is 600 kW.

Prequired output
1 atm and 25OC
N= ,Available power = 
mke
Pavailable
(10 m/s )
2 2
V
Exergy = ke = = = 50 J/kg
2 2
= 0.05kJ/kg
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
 = ρAV = ρ ⎜
Find mass flow rate of Air; m ⎟ Vwind
⎝ 4 ⎠
P
ρ=
RT
11
From Table; gas constant of air at 1 atm and 25OC, R = 0.287 kPa.m3/kg.K
 Example: Exergy or work potential of the blowing air

P 101 kPa
ρ= = = 1.18 m 3
/kg
RT ( 0.287 kPa.m /kg.K ) ( 273 + 25 K )
3

⎛ πD 2 ⎞
Mass flow rate of Air; m = ρAV = ρ ⎜ ⎟ Vwind
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π× 102 2 ⎞
(
= 1.18 m /kg ⎜
3
) m ⎟ (10 m/s ) = 926.8 kg/s
⎝ 4 ⎠

Available Power  = ( 926.8 kg/s )( 0.05 kJ/kg ) = 46.3 kW

= mke

Problem gives the required power output = 600 kW

Thus minimum number of windmills

Prequired output 600 kW

N= = = 12.9 ≈ 13 windmills 12
Pavailable 46.3 kW
 Wind Turbine Generation 150 kW

13
Location of Promthep Peninsula, Alternative Energy Station, Phuket Island
14
Wind speed and output

1 atm and
25OC

- Useful work at v ≥ 12 m/s

- Useful work = Input work – loss work 15
 Exergy of potential energy

‰ Potential energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into
work.

‰ Potential energy itself is the work potential or exergy of potential energy

independent of the temperature and pressure of the environment.

Exergy of potential energy:

xpe = pe = gz (kJ/kg)

16
 Example :Exergy of potential energy
One method of meeting the extra electric power demand at peak periods is to
pump some water from a lake to a water reservoir at higher elevation at times
of low demand and to generate electricity at times of high demand by letting
this water run down and rotate a turbine. For an energy storage capacity of
5×106 kWh, determine the minimum amount of water that needs to be
stored at an average elevation (relative to the ground level) of 75m.

Exergy = PE = mgz (kJ)

PE
=
( 5 × 106 kWh ) ⎛ 3600 s ⎞ ⎛ 1000 m 2 /s 2 ⎞
m= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
gz ( 9.81 m/s 2 ) ( 75 m ) ⎝ 1 h ⎠ ⎝ 1 kW.s/kg ⎠

= 2.45 × 1010 kg

17
 Useful Work
‰ The work done by work producing devices is not always entirely in a useable
form.
‰ The work done by the gas expanding
in the piston-cylinder device is the
boundary work and can be written as

δ W = P dV = ( P − P0 ) dV + P0 dV
= δ Wb, useful + P0 dV

‰ The actual work done by the gas is

W = Wb, useful + ∫ P0 dV = Wb, useful + P0 (V2 − V1 )

‰ The word done on the surroundings is

Wsurr = ∫ P0 dV = P0 (V2 − V1 )

‰ Any useful work delivered by a piston-cylinder device is due to the pressure above
the atmospheric level.
Wu = W − Wsurr 18
 Reversible Work & Irreversibility
• Reversible work Wrev is defined as the maximum amount of useful work that can
be produced (or the minimum work that needs to be supplied) as a system
undergoes a process between the specified initial and final states.

Total work, W Useful work, Wu

Surrounding work, Wsur

Wu = W − Wsurr

19
 Reversible Work & Irreversibility
Irreversibility, I
• The difference between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work Wu is due to
the irreversibilities present during the process and is called the irreversibility I.

Irreversibility, I = loss
• It is equivalent to the exergy destroyed and is expressed as

I = X destroyed = T0 S gen

where Sgen is the entropy generated during the process.

I = Wrev, out − Wu, out = Wu, in − Wrev, in

Exergy destroyed represents the lost work potential and is also called the wasted
work or lost work.
20
 Second-Law Efficiency
The second-law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a device relative to
the performance under reversible conditions for the same end states and is given by

ηth Wu
ηII = =
ηth , rev Wrev

for heat engines and other work-producing devices and

COP Wrev
ηII = =
COPrev Wu
for refrigerators, heat pumps, and other work-consuming devices.

In general, the second-law efficiency is expressed as

Exergy recovered Exergy destroyed

η II = = 1−
Exergy supplied Exergy supplied 21
 Example (1) : Second law efficiency
How much of the 100 kJ of thermal energy at 800 K can be converted to
useful work? Assume the environment to be at 25OC

Amount of heat can be converted to work is simply the

amount that a reversible heat engine can be convert
to work

Wmax, out = Wrev , out = ηth, rev Qin

Maximum thermal efficiency from Carnot cycle
TL To
ηth , rev = 1− = 1−
TH TH
298
= 1− = 0.6275
800
Thus Wmax, out = Wrev , out = ( 0.6275 )(100 )
22
 Example (2) : Second law efficiency
A heat engine that receive heat from a furnace at 1200OC and rejects waste
heat to a river at 20OC has a thermal efficiency of 40%. Determine the
second law efficiency of this power input.

Thermal efficiency of a reversible heat engine is

TL T
ηth , rev = 1 − = 1− o
TH TH
30 + 273
= 1− = 0.801
1200 + 273

ηth 0.4
ηII = = = 49.9%
ηth , rev 0.801

23
 Example (3) :Second law efficiency
A heat engine receives heat from a source at 1500 K at rate of 700 kJ/s, and
it rejects the waste heat to a medium at 320 K. The measured power output
of the heat engine is 320 kW, and the environment temperature is 25OC.
Determine (a) the reversible power, (b) the rate of irreversibility, and (c) the
second-law efficiency of this heat engine.

(a) The reversible power

Carnot cycle gives the maximum efficiency
TL 320
ηth,max = ηth,rev = 1 − = 1− = 0.787
TH 1500

( )
Wrev ,out = ηth,rev × Q in

= ( 0.787 )( 700 kJ/s ) = 550.7 kW

(b) Rate of irreversibility

I = Wrev ,out − Wu , out

24
= 550.7 − 320 = 230.7 kW
Example (3) :Second law efficiency

(c) The second law efficiency

Wu,out
η II =
Wrev,out
320 kW
= = 58.1%
550.7 kW

25
 Exergy of change of a system

At dead state, pressure is P0

δ Ein − δ Eout = dEsystem

0 − δ Q − δ W = dU

Consider Piston Work

The work is the boundary work and can be written
as
δ W = P dV = ( P − P0 ) dV + P0 dV
= δ Wb, useful + P0 dV
Consider HE work

Find HE work (which is of a reversible process) from heat transfer to Heat

engine
δ WHE = η thδ Q = (1 − T0 )δ Q = δ Q − T0 δ Q 26
T T
 Exergy of change of a system
Definition of entropy; δ Qnet −δ Q
dS = =
T T
HE work
δWHE = δ Q + T0dS or δ Q = δWHE − T0dS
From energy balance;

−δQ − δW = dU
− (δ WHE − T0 dS ) − (δ Wb, useful + P0 dV ) = dU

−δ WHE − δ Wb, useful = dU − P0 dV − T0 dS

δ Wtotal useful = δ Wb, useful + δ WHE
= − dU − P0 dV + T0 dS
27
 Exergy change of a system

δ Wtotal useful = −dU − P0 dV + T0 dS

Integrating from the given state (no subscript) to the dead state (0 subscript)

Wtotal useful = −(U 0 − U ) − P0 (V0 − V ) + T0 ( S0 − S )

= (U − U 0 ) + P0 (V − V0 ) − T0 ( S − S0 )

This is the total useful work due to a system undergoing a reversible

process from a given state to the dead state

28
 Exergy of a fixed mass: Nonflow (or closed system) exergy
Including the kinetic energy and potential energy, the exergy of a closed
system is
G2
V
X = (U − U 0 ) + P0 (V − V0 ) − T0 ( S − S0 ) + m + mgz
2
on a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy is
G2
V
φ = (u − u0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz
2
= (e − e0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 )
Here, u0, v0, and s0 are the properties of the system evaluated at the dead
state.

If a system has energy same as environment or dead state, exergy is zero

Note that the exergy of the internal energy of a system is zero at the
29
dead state is zero since u = u0, v = v0, and s = s0 at that state.
 Exergy change between two states
G1
V1
X 1 = (U1 − U 0 ) + P0 (V1 − V0 ) − T0 ( S1 − S0 ) + m + mgz1
2G
V21
X 2 = (U 2 − U 0 ) + P0 (V2 − V0 ) − T0 ( S2 − S0 ) + m + mgz2
2
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the
difference between the final and initial exergies of the system,
ΔX = X 2 − X 1 = m(φ2 − φ1 )
= ( E2 − E1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S2 − S1 )
G2 G2
V − V1
= (U 2 − U1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S2 − S1 ) + m 2 + mg ( z2 − z1 )
2
On a unit mass basis the exergy change of a closed system is

Δφ = (φ2 − φ1 )
= (e2 − e1 ) + P0 (v2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 )
G2 G2
V − V1
= (u2 − u1 ) + P0 (v2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 ) + 2 + g ( z2 − z1 ) 30
2
 Example: work potential of a fixed mass
A 200-m3 rigid tank contains compressed air at 1 MPa and 300 K. Determine
how much work can be obtained from this air if the environment conditions are
100 kPa and 300 K.

Take control volume in rigid tank

- No mass crosses the system boundary
during the process
- This problem is the work potential of a fixed
mass
Assumptions
- Air is an ideal gas
- KE and PE are negligible
Find useful work or exergy
G1
⎧ V1 ⎫
X 1 = mφ = m ⎨(u1 − u0 ) + P0 (v1 − v0 ) − T0 ( s1 − s0 ) + + gz1 ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭
Pv
m= 1 1 =
(1000 kPa ) ( 200 m 3
) = 2323 kg
RT1 ( 0.287 kPa.m3 /kg.K ) ( 300 K )
31
 ⎛ RT1 RT0 ⎞ ⎛ P0 ⎞
P0 (v1 − v0 ) = P0 ⎜ − ⎟ = RT0 ⎜ − 1⎟ (T1 = T0)
⎝ P1 P0 ⎠ ⎝ P1 ⎠
⎛ T1 P1 ⎞ ⎛ P1 ⎞
T0 ( s1 − s0 ) = T0 ⎜ c p ln − R ln ⎟ = − RT0 ⎜ ⎟ (T1 = T0)
⎝ T0 P0 ⎠ ⎝ P0 ⎠

X 1 = mφ = m { P0 (v1 − v0 ) − T0 ( s1 − s0 )}
⎧⎪ ⎛ P0 ⎞ P1 ⎫⎪ ⎧ P1 P0 ⎫
= m0 ⎨ RT0 ⎜ − 1⎟ + RT0 ln ⎬ = mRT0 ⎨ln + − 1⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ P1 ⎠ P0 ⎪⎭ ⎩ P0 P1 ⎭
⎧ 1000 kPa 100 kPa ⎫
= ( 2323 kg )( 0.287 kJ/kg.K )( 300 K ) ⎨ln + − 1⎬
⎩ 100 kPa 1000 kPa ⎭
= 280,525 kJ = useful work can be obtained from the
compressed air stored in the tank in the
specified environment 32
 Exergy of flow
The energy needed to force
mass to flow into or out of a
control volume is the flow work
per unit mass given by
wshaft
wflow = Pv
exergy

The exergy of flow work is the excess of flow work done against atmospheric
air at P0 to displace it by volume v.
The useful work potential due to flow work is wflow, energy = Pv − P0 v

Thus, the exergy of flow energy is

xflow energy = Pv − P0 v = ( P − P0 )v 33
 Flow Exergy
Since flow energy is the sum of nonflow energy and the flow energy, the
exergy of flow is the sum of the exergies of nonflow exergy and flow exergy.

x flowing fluid = xnonflowing fluid + xflow exergy

G2
V
= (u − u0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz + ( P − P0 )v
2
G2
V
= (u + Pv) − (u0 + P0 v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz
2
G2
V
= (h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz
2

34
 Flow Exergy
The flow (or stream) exergy is given by
G2
V
ψ = (h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz
2
The exergy of flow can be negative if the pressure is lower than atmospheric
pressure.

The exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from state 1

to state 2 is
G2
V1
state 1 ψ 1 = (h1 − h0 ) − T0 ( s1 − s0 ) + + gz1
2G
2
V
state 2 ψ 2 = (h2 − h0 ) − T0 ( s2 − s0 ) + 2 + gz2
2
G2 G2
V2 − V1
Δψ = ψ 2 − ψ 1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 ) + + g ( z2 − z1 )
2 35
 Example: Exergy change of a system
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 2 L of air at 100 kPa and 25OC. Air
is now compressed to a final state of 600 kPa and 150OC. The useful work
input is 1.2 kJ. Assuming the surroundings are at 100 kPa and 25OC,
determine (a) the exergy of the air at the initial and the final states,

Exergy of the air at the initial and the final states

G2
V
X = (U − U 0 ) + P0 (V − V0 ) − T0 ( S − S0 ) + m + mgz
2

Assume: (1) Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.

(2) KE and PE are negligible
Since air initially is at the dead state,
the initial state X1 =0
X 2 = m ⎡⎣cv ,avg (T2 − T0 ) − T0 ( s2 − s0 ) ⎤⎦ + P0 (V2 − V0 )
36
 Example: Exergy change of a system
From Table A-1, Gas constant R = 0.287 kPa.m3/kg.K.
Specific heat of air at average temperature of (298+423)/2 = 360 K are
(from Table A-2) cp,avg = 1.009 kJ/kg.K
cv,avg = 0.722 kJ/kg.K

Constant mass and m=

Pv
1 1
=
(100 kPa ) ( 0.002 m 3
) = 0.00234 kg
ideal gas RT1 ( 0.287 kPa.m /kg.K ) ( 298 K )
3

Pv P2 v2 Pv ⎛
1 1 T2
⎞ (100 kPa )( 2 L ) ⎛ 423 K ⎞
ideal gas; 1 1
= v2 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 0.473 L
T1 T2 T1 ⎝ P2 ⎠ ( 298 K ) ⎝ 600 kPa ⎠
T2 P
s2 − s0 = c p , avg ln − R ln 2
T0 P0
423 K 600 K
= (1.009 kJ/kg.K ) ln − ( 0.287 kJ/kg.K ) ln
298 K 100 K

= −0.1608 kJ/kg.K 37
 Example: Exergy change of a system

Thus exergy of the air at the final states

X 2 = m ⎡⎣cv ,avg (T2 − T0 ) − T0 ( s2 − s0 ) ⎤⎦ + P0 (V2 − V0 )

X 2 = ( 0.00234 kg ) ⎡⎣( 0.722 kJ/kg.K ) (423 − 298 K) − ( 298K ) (−0.1608 kJ/kg.K) ⎤⎦

+ (100 kPa ) (0.000473 − 0.002 m3 )
= 0.171 kJ

38
 Example
Refrigerant-134a is to be compressed from 0.14 MPa and -10OC to 0.8 MPa
and 50OC steadily by a compressor. Taking the environment conditions to be
20OC 95 kPa, determine the exergy change of the refrigerant during this
process and the minimum work input that needs to be supplied to the
compressor per unit mass of the refrigerant.

Take control volume on compressor

- Mass crosses the system boundary during
the process
- This problem is the exergy change of a fluid
stream
Assumptions
- Steady flow condition
- KE and PE are negligible
Exergy change G2 G2
V2 − V1
Δψ = ψ 2 − ψ 1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 ) + + g ( z2 − z1 )
2 39
Δψ = ψ 2 −ψ 1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 )

P1 = 0.14 MPa ⎫ h1 = 243.4 kJ/kg

Inlet
T1 = − 10 O C ⎬⎭ s1 = 0.9606 kJ/kg.K

P2 = 0.8 MPa ⎫ h2 = 284.39 kJ/kg

Outlet ⎬
T2 = 50 O C ⎭ s2 = 0.9711 kJ/kg.K

Δψ = ψ 2 −ψ 1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 )
= (284.39 − 243.4 kJ/kg) − ( 293 K ) (0.9711 − 0.9606 kJ/kg.K)

= 37.9 kJ/kg

Minimum work required for win ,min = ψ 2 −ψ 1 = 37.9 kJ/kg

compressor 40
 Exergy transfer by heat transfer
‰ Exergy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass flow, and exergy
transfer accompanied by heat, work, and mass transfer are given by the
following.
‰ From the second law, temperature can be converted into work.

‰ The maximum useful work is produced from it by passing this heat transfer
through a reversible heat engine.

⎛ T0 ⎞
Exergy transfer by heat: X heat = ⎜1 − ⎟ Q
⎝ T ⎠

Note that exergy transfer by heat is zero for adiabatic systems.

41
 Exergy transfer by work
Exergy is the useful work potential, and the exergy transfer by work can
simply be expressed as

⎧W − Wsurr (for boundary work)

Exergy transfer by work: X work =⎨
⎩W (for other forms of work)

where Wsurr = P0 (V2 − V1 )

P0 = atmospheric pressure
V1 = the initial volumes of the system.
V2 = the final volumes of the system.

The exergy transfer for shaft work and electrical work = the work W itself.

Note that exergy transfer by work is zero for systems that have no
work. 42
 Exergy transfer by mass
Mass flow is a mechanism to transport exergy, entropy, and energy into or
out of a system. As mass in the amount m enters or leaves a system the
exergy transfer is given by

Exergy transfer by mass: X mass = mψ

Note that exergy transfer by mass is zero for systems that involve no
flow.

43
The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction
The exergy of an isolated system during a process always decreases or, in
the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. This is known as
the decrease of exergy principle

ΔX isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 )isolated ≤ 0

Exergy Destruction
Irreversibilities such as friction, mixing, heat transfer through finite
temperature difference, always generate entropy, and anything that
generates entropy always destroys exergy.
The exergy destroyed is proportional to the entropy generated

X destroyed = T0 Sgen
⎧> 0 Irreversible proces
⎪
X destroyed ⎨= 0 Reversible process
⎪< 0 44
⎩ Impossible process
The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction
The exergy of an isolated system during a process always decreases or, in
the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. This is known as
the decrease of exergy principle

ΔX isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 )isolated ≤ 0

45
 ΔX isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 )isolated ≤ 0

For isolated system, decrease of exergy is equal exergy destroyed.

46
 Exergy Balances
Exergy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed
as
⎛ Total ⎞ ⎛ Total ⎞ ⎛ Total ⎞ ⎛ Change in the ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ exergy −
⎟ ⎜ exergy −
⎟ ⎜ exergy =
⎟ ⎜ total exergy ⎟
⎜ entering ⎟ ⎜ leaving ⎟ ⎜ destroyed ⎟ ⎜ of the system ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
General:

X in − X out − X destroyed = ΔX system

 

 
  

Net exergy transfer Exergy Change

by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy

General, unit-mass basis:

( xin − xout ) − xdestroyed = Δxsystem

47
 Exergy Balances
General, rate form:

X in − X out − X destroyed = ΔX system

 
 

 

Rate of net exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of change

by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy

 ⎛ T0 ⎞ 
where X heat = ⎜ 1 − ⎟Q
⎝ T ⎠
X work = Wuseful
X mass = mψ
ΔX system = dX system / dt

For a reversible process, the exergy destruction term, X destroyed, is zero.

48
 Exergy Balances
Considering the system to be a general control volume and taking the
positive direction of heat transfer to be to the system and the positive
direction of work transfer to be from the system, the general exergy balance
relations can be expressed more explicitly as

⎛ T0 ⎞
∑ ⎜1 − T ⎟ Qk − [W − P0 (V2 − V1 )] + ∑ miψ i − ∑ meψ e − X destroyed = X 2 − X 1
⎝ k ⎠
Rate form

⎛ T0 ⎞ ⎡ dVCV ⎤ dX CV
∑ ⎜1 − T ⎟ Qk − ⎢W − P0
⎣ dt ⎦⎥ + ∑ m iψ i − ∑ m eψ e − X destroyed =

⎝ k ⎠ dt

where the subscripts are i = inlet, e = exit, 1 = initial state, and 2 = final state
of the system. For closed systems, no mass crosses the boundaries and we
omit the terms containing the sum over the inlets and exits.
49
 Example
Oxygen gas is compressed in a piston-cylinder device from an initial state of
0.8 m3/kg and 25oC to a final state of 0.1 m3/kg and 287oC. Determine the
reversible work input and the increase in the exergy of the oxygen during this
process. Assume the surroundings to be at 25oC and 100 kPa.

We assume that oxygen is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. From
Table A-2, R = 0.2598 kJ/kg⋅K. The specific heat is determined at the
average temperature

T1 + T2 (25 + 287)D C
Tav = = = 156D C
2 2
= (156 + 273) K = 429 K

Table A-2(b) gives Cv, ave = 0.690 kJ/kg⋅K.

50
 Example (cont.)
T2 v2
s2 − s1 = c p , avg ln − R ln
T0 v0 m3
0.1
⎛ kJ ⎞ ( 287 + 273 ) ⎛
K kJ ⎞ kg
= ⎜ 0.69 ⎟ ln − ⎜ 0.2598 ⎟ ln
⎝ kg.K ⎠ ( 25 + 273 ) K ⎝ kg.K ⎠ 0.8 m 3

kg
kJ
= −0.105
kg.K
We calculate the reversible work input, which represents the minimum work
input Wrev,in in this case, from the exergy balance by setting the exergy
destruction equal to zero.
X in − X out − X destroyed = ΔX system
 

 
  

Net exergy transfer Exergy Change

by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy

Wrev,in = X 2 − X 1 51
 Example (cont.)
Therefore, the change in exergy and the reversible work are identical in this
case. Substituting the closed system exergy relation, the reversible work
input during this process is determined to be
wrev,in = φ2 − φ1
= (u2 − u1 ) + P0 (v2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 )
= Cv,ave (T2 − T1 ) + P0 (v2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s2 − s1 )
kJ m3 kJ
= 0.690 (287 − 25)K + 100 kPa(0.1 − 0.8)
kg ⋅ K kg m 3 kPa
kJ
− (25 + 273)K( −0.105 )
kg ⋅ K
kJ
= 142.1
kg
The increase in exergy of the oxygen is
kJ
x2 − x1 = φ2 − φ1 = wrev, in = 142.1
kg 52
 Example
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa, 600°C, and 80 m/s and leaves
at 50 kPa, 100°C, and 140 m/s. The surroundings to the turbine are at 25°C.
If the power output of the turbine is 5MW, determine
(a)the power potential of the steam at its inlet conditions, in MW.
(b) the reversible power, in MW.
(c)the second law efficiency.

We assume steady-flow and neglect changes in potential energy.

53
 Example (cont.)
The mass flow rate of the steam is determined from the steady-flow energy
equation applied to the actual process,

E in − E out  0 (steady)
= ΔEsystems
 

 

Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change

by heat, work, and mass of energy
G2 G2
V1 V2
m 1 (h1 + ) − m 2 (h2 + ) − Wout = 0
2 2
Conservation of mass for the steady flow gives
m in − m out = Δm system
 

 

Rate of net mass transfer Rate of change

of mass

m 1 − m 2 = 0
m 1 = m 2 = m 54
 Example (cont.)
The work done by the turbine and the mass flow rate are
G2 G2
⎡ ⎛ V1 V2 ⎞ ⎤

Wout = m ⎢ (h1 − h2 ) + ⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Wout
m =
(h1 − h2 ) − Δke

where G2 G2
⎛ V2 V1 ⎞
Δke = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(140 m/s) 2 − (80 m/s) 2 ⎛ 1kJ/kg ⎞
= ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ 1000 m /s ⎠
kJ
= 6.6
kg
55
 Example (cont.)

From the steam tables:

⎧ kJ
⎪ h1 = 3658.8
P1 = 6 MPa ⎫ ⎪ kg
⎬⎨
T1 = 600o C ⎭ ⎪ kJ
s1 = 7.1693
⎪⎩ kg ⋅ K
⎧ kJ
h = 2682.4
P2 = 50 kPa ⎫ ⎪⎪ 2 kg
⎬⎨
T2 = 100 C ⎭ ⎪
o
kJ
s = 7.6953
⎪⎩ 2 kg ⋅ K
⎧ kJ
h ≅ h = 104.83
P0 = 100 kPa ⎫⎪ ⎪⎪ 0 f@25o C
kg
⎬⎨
T0 = 25 C ⎪⎭ ⎪
o
kJ
s0 ≅ sf@25o C = 0.3672
⎩⎪ kg ⋅ K
56
 Example (cont.)

Wout
m =
(h1 − h2 ) − Δke
5 MW ⎛ 1000 kJ/s ⎞
=
kJ ⎜⎝ MW ⎟⎠
(3658.8 − 2682.4 − 6.6)
kg
kg
= 5.16
s

57
 Example (cont.)

The power potential of the steam at the inlet conditions is equivalent to its
exergy at the inlet state. Recall that we neglect the potential energy of the
flow.
G2 0
 ⎛ V1 ⎞
Ψ1 = mψ 1 = m ⎜ (h1 − h0 ) − T0 ( s1 − s0 ) + + gz1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ kJ kJ ⎞
⎜ (3658.8 − 104.83) − (298 K )(7.1693 − 0.3672) ⎟
kg kg ⋅ K
 = 5.16 kg ⎜
Ψ ⎟
s ⎜ (80m/s) 2 ⎛ kJ/kg ⎞ ⎟
1

⎜⎜ + ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎝ 1000 m /s ⎠ ⎠
kg ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ MW ⎞
= 5.16 ⎜ 1533.3 ⎟⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ kg ⎠ ⎝ 1000 kJ/s ⎠
= 7.91MW
58
 Example (cont.)

The power output of the turbine if there are no irreversibilities is the

reversible power and is determined from the rate form of the exergy balance
applied on the turbine and setting the exergy destruction term equal to zero.

X in − X out − X destroyed = ΔX system

 
 

 

Rate of net exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of change

by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy

X in = X out
mψ = W
1 rev, out + mψ 2

Wrev, out = m (ψ 2 − ψ 1 )
= m [ ( h1 − h2 ) − T0 ( s1 − s2 ) − Δke − Δpe ]
0 0

59
 Example (cont.)

⎛ kJ kJ ⎞
⎜ (3658.8 − 2682.4) kg − (298 K )(7.1693 − 7.6953) kg ⋅ K ⎟
kg ⎜ ⎟
Wrev, out = 5.16
s ⎜ kJ ⎟
⎜ −6.6 kg ⎟
⎝ ⎠
kg ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ MW ⎞
= 5.16 ⎜ 1126.5 ⎟⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ kg ⎠ ⎝ 1000 kJ/s ⎠
= 5.81MW

The second-law efficiency is determined from

W 5 MW
ηII =  = = 86.1%
Wrev 5.81MW

60
 Example
Chickens with an average mass of 2.2 kg and average specific heat of 3.54
kJ/kg.OC are to be cooled by chilled water that enters a continuous-flow-type
immersion chiller at 0.5OC and leaves at 2.5OC. Chicken are dropped into the
chiller at a uniform temperature of 15OC at a rate of 500 chickens per hour
and are cooled to an average temperature of 3OC before they are taken out.
The chiller gains heat from the surroundings at a rate of 200 kJ/hr. Determine
(a) the rate of heat removal from the chicken, in kW and (b) the rate of exergy
destruction during this chilling process. Take TO = 25OC.

Chilled water input

Chicken of 2.2 kg
Tw,in = 0.5OC. chiller
Tchicken,in = 15OC. Tchicken,out = 3OC.

Tw,out = 2.5OC.
61
Heat from surroundings = 200 kJ/hr.
62
63
From entropy balance

64
65
66
 Example
An ordinary egg be approximated as a 5.5 cm diameter sphere. The egg is
initially at a uniform temperature of 8OC can is dropped into boiling water at
97OC. Taking the properties of egg to be ρ = 1020 kg/m3 and cp = 3.32
kJ/kg.OC, determine how much heat is transferred to the egg by the time
average temperature of the egg rises to 70OC and the amount of exergy
destruction associated with this heat transfer process. Take TO = 25OC.

67
68
69
70
71
72
 Example
A 0.04-m3 tank initially contains air at ambient conditions of 100 kPa and
22OC. Now, a 15 liter tank containing liquid water at 85OC is placed into the
tank without causing any air to escape. After some heat transfer from the
water to the air and the surroundings, both the air and water are measured to
be at 44OC. Determine (a) the amount of heat lost to the surroundings and (b)
the exergy destruction during this process.

73
74
75
76
77
78
79
 Example
Hot combustion gases enter the nozzle of a turbojet engine at 260 kPa,
747OC, and 80 m/s and exit at 70 kPa and 500OC. Assuming the nozzle to be
adiabatic and the surroundings to be at 20OC, determine (a) the exit velocity
and (b) the decrease in the exergy of the gases. Take k = 1.3 and cp = 1.15
kJ/kg.OC for the combustion gases.

80
81
82
83
 Example
Liquid water at 15OC is heated in a chamber by mixing it with saturated steam.
Liquid water enters the chamber at the steam pressure at a rate of 4.6 kg/s.
The mixture leaves the mixing chamber as a liquid at 45OC. If the
surroundings are at 15OC, determine (a) the temperature of saturated steam
entering the chamber, (b) the exergy destruction during this mixing process,
and (c) the second-law efficiency of the mixing chamber.

84
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