Chapter 3

Group Action
Let “𝐺” be a group with identity “𝑒” and “𝑋”is a non-empty set. Then the action Of 𝐺 on
𝑋 is a function “𝜙” from 𝐺 ∗ 𝑋 to 𝑋. i-e:
𝜙: 𝐺 ∗ 𝑋 → 𝑋
Satisfying the following axioms.
1) 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑋 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
2) 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝑋
3) 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥)) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

Example:1 𝐺 = {𝑒, 𝑟, 𝑟 2 } 𝑋 = {1,2,3, 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 }

Check 𝐺 acts on 𝑋.
Sol; Total permutations= 6! = 720 3 3

1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠2
𝜙𝑒 = ( ) 𝑒
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
1 𝑠1 2 1 𝑠1 2
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
𝜙𝑟 = ( ) 3 2
3 1 2 𝑆3 𝑆1 𝑆2
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠1
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑟 = 1200
𝜙𝑟 2 =( )
2 3 1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆1 1 𝑠1 2 3 𝑠3 1
1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: - 3 1
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠1 𝑠3
𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 ∈ 𝑋 0
𝑟 = 240

𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 ∈ 𝑋 1 𝑠1 2 2 𝑠2 3

𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 ∈ 𝑋
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1 ∈ 𝑋
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠2 ) = 𝑠2 ∈ 𝑋
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠3 ) = 𝑠3 ∈ 𝑋
 𝜙𝑟 (1) = 3 𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 2

𝜙𝑟 (2) = 1 𝜙𝑟 2 (2) = 3

𝜙𝑟 (3) = 2 𝜙𝑟 2 (3) = 1

𝜙𝑟 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠3 𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 3

𝜙𝑟 (𝑠2 ) = 𝑠1 𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 3

𝜙𝑟 (𝑠3 ) = 𝑠2 𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 3
Type equation here.

Axiom (1) holds.

2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: -

𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠2 ) = 𝑠2

𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠3 ) = 𝑠3

Axiom (2) holds.

3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: -
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝜙𝑟𝑜𝑟 (1) = 𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 2

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝜙𝑟𝑜𝑟 (1) = 𝜙𝑟 (𝜙𝑟 (1)) = 𝜙𝑟 (3) = 2

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
Axiom (3) holds.
⇒ 𝐺 Acts on 𝑋 naturally.
Example:2 𝐺 = {𝑒, 𝑓 } 𝑋 = {1,2,3, 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 }
Check 𝐺 acts on 𝑋.

Sol: Total permutations= 6! = 720

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑋
𝐺
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
𝑒 ( )
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
. .
. .
. .
𝑓 1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
( ) ( )
( 2 1 3 𝑆1 𝑆3 𝑆2 )
 1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
𝜙𝑒 = ( ) ; 𝜙𝑓 = ( )
1 2 3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 2 1 3 𝑆1 𝑆3 𝑆2

3 3
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠3
𝑓
1 𝑠1 2 2 𝑠1 1

1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: -

𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑓 (1) = 2
𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 𝜙𝑓 (2) = 1
𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 𝜙𝑓 (3) = 3
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1 𝜙𝑓 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠2 ) = 𝑠2 𝜙𝑓 (𝑠2 ) = 𝑠3
𝜙𝑒 (𝑠3 ) = 𝑠3
𝜙𝑓 (𝑠3 ) = 𝑠2
Type equation here.
Type equation here.
Axiom (1) holds.
2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: -

𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1
𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1
𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 𝜙𝑒 (𝑠1 ) = 𝑠1

Axiom (3) holds.

3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: -
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙𝑓𝑜𝑓 (3) = 𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙𝑓𝑜𝑓 (3) = 𝜙𝑓 (𝜙𝑓 (3)) = 𝜙𝑓 (3) = 3

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
Axiom (3) holds.
⇒ 𝐺 acts on 𝑋 naturally.
Group Actions by left OR Right Multiplication: -
Let 𝐺 be a group with identity “𝑒” and 𝐺 is a non-empty set, then the action of 𝐺 on 𝐺 is a
Function “𝜙” from 𝐺 ∗ 𝐺 → 𝐺
i-e
𝜙: 𝐺 ∗ 𝐺 → 𝐺
Satisfying the following axioms.
1) 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) ∈ 𝐺 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

2) 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝐺
3) 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥)) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

Example:1 𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 }

Sol: 𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 }

• 1 𝜔 𝜔2
1 1 𝜔 𝜔2
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔2 1
𝜔2 𝜔2 1 𝜔

2 2 2
𝜙1 = (1 𝜔 𝜔2 ) , 𝜙𝜔 = (1 𝜔 2 𝜔 ) , 𝜙𝜔2 =(1 2 𝜔 𝜔 )
1 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 1 𝜔 1 𝜔
1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: -
𝜙1 (1) = 1 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙1 (𝜔) = 𝜔 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙1 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔2 ∈ 𝐺

𝜙𝜔 (1) = 𝜔 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙𝜔 (𝜔) = 𝜔2 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙𝜔 (𝜔2 ) = 1 ∈ 𝐺

𝜙𝜔2 (1) = 𝜔2 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔) = 1 ∈ 𝐺 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔 ∈ 𝐺

⇒ Axiom (1) holds.

2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: - 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝐺
𝜙1 (1) = 1 ∈ 𝐺
𝜙1 (𝜔) = 𝜔 ∈ 𝐺
𝜙1 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔2 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ Axiom (2) holds.
3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: - 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥))

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙𝜔2𝑜𝜔2 (𝜔) = 𝜙𝜔 (𝜔) = 𝜔2

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙𝜔2 𝑜𝜔2 (𝜔) = 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔)) = 𝜙𝜔2 (1) = 𝜔2

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
⇒ 𝐺 acts on 𝐺 by left multiplication.
Example:2 𝑍3 = {0,1,2}
Sol: 𝑍3 = {0,1,2}
+ 0 1 2
0 1 2 0 0 1 2
𝜙0 = ( )
0 1 2 1 1 2 0
0 1 2 2 2 0 1
𝜙1 = ( )
1 2 0
0 1 2
𝜙2 = ( )
2 0 1
1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: - 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) ∈ 𝐺 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

𝜙0 (0) = 0 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙0 (1) = 1 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙0 (2) = 2 ∈ 𝑍3

𝜙1 (0) = 1 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙1 (1) = 2 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙1 (2) = 0 ∈ 𝑍3
𝜙2 (0) = 2 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙2 (1) = 0 ∈ 𝑍3 𝜙2 (2) = 1 ∈ 𝑍3
⇒ Axiom (1) holds.
2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: - 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝐺
𝜙0 (0) = 0
𝜙0 (1) = 1
𝜙0 (2) = 2
⇒ Axiom (2) holds.

3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: - 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥)) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙2+2 (1) = 𝜙1 (1) = 2

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙2+2 (1) = 𝜙2 (𝜙2 (1)) = 𝜙2 (0) = 2

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
⇒ 𝑍3 acts on 𝑍3 by left addition.
Group action by conjugation: -
Let 𝐺 is a conjugation group. “𝑎” and “𝑏” are the two elements of 𝐺 then “𝑎” is said to be
Conjugate of “𝑏” by “𝑔” if
𝑎 = 𝑔𝑏𝑔−1 , 𝑔 ∊ 𝐺
Example:1 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} Check 𝐺 acts on itself by conjugation.
Sol;

𝑔 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 𝑔−1
1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 1
−1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 −1
𝑖 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 −𝑖
−𝑖 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖

𝜙: 𝐺 ∗ 𝐺 → 𝐺
𝜙(𝑔, 𝑥) = 𝑔𝑥𝑔−1 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

𝐺×𝐺

1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
( )
1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
⋮
𝐺
1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
( )
1 −1 1 𝑖 − 𝑖
−1
( ) ⋮
𝑖
−𝑖 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
( )
𝑖 −𝑖 1 −1

1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖 ⋮
𝜙1 = ( )
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
( )
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 − 1
𝜙−1 = ( )
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖 ⋮
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖
𝜙𝑖 = ( )
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖
𝜙−𝑖 = ( )
1 − 1 𝑖 –𝑖
1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) ∈ 𝐺 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

𝜙1 (1) = 1 𝜙1 (−1) = −1 𝜙1 (𝑖) = 1 𝜙1 (−𝑖) = −𝑖

𝜙−1 (1) = 1 𝜙−1 (−1) = −1 𝜙−1 (𝑖) = 1 𝜙−1 (𝑖) = −𝑖

𝜙𝑖 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑖 (−1) = −1 𝜙𝑖 (𝑖) = 1 𝜙𝑖 (−𝑖) = −𝑖

𝜙−𝑖 (1) = 1 𝜙−𝑖 (−1) = −1 𝜙−𝑖 (𝑖) = 1 𝜙−𝑖 (−𝑖) = −𝑖

⇒ Axiom (1) holds.

2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝐺
𝜙1 (1) = 1
𝜙1 (−1) = −1
𝜙1 (𝑖) = 𝑖
𝜙1 (−𝑖) = −𝑖
⇒ Axiom (2) holds.

3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥)) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙−1−𝑖 (𝑖) = 𝜙−𝑖 (𝑖) = 𝑖

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙−1−𝑖 (𝑖) = 𝜙−1 (𝜙−𝑖 (𝑖)) = 𝜙−1 (𝑖) = 𝑖

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
⇒ 𝐺 acts on itself by conjugation.
Example:2 𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 } Check 𝐺 acts on itself by conjugation.
Sol: 𝐺 = {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 }
2 𝑔 1 𝜔 𝜔2 𝑔−1
𝜙1 = (1 𝜔 𝜔2 )
1 𝜔 𝜔 1 1 𝜔 𝜔2 1
2 𝜔 1 𝜔 𝜔2 𝜔2
𝜙𝜔 = (1 𝜔 𝜔2 ) 𝜔2 1 𝜔 𝜔2 𝜔
1 𝜔 𝜔
2
𝜙𝜔2 = (1 𝜔 𝜔2 )
1 𝜔 𝜔
1𝑠𝑡 Axiom: 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) ∈ 𝐺 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺

𝜙1 (1) = 1 𝜙1 (𝜔) = 1 𝜙1 (𝜔2 ) = 1

𝜙𝜔 (1) = 1 𝜙𝜔 (𝜔) = 1 𝜙𝜔 (𝜔2 ) = 1

𝜙𝜔2 (1) = 1 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔) = 1 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔2 ) = 1
 ⇒ Axiom (1) holds.
2𝑛𝑑 Axiom: 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈𝐺
𝜙1 (1) = 1
𝜙1 (𝜔) = 𝜔
𝜙1 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔2
⇒ Axiom (2) holds.

3𝑟𝑑 Axiom: 𝜙𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝜙𝑓 (𝑥)) ∀ 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺; 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙1𝑜𝜔2 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔2

𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝜙1𝑜𝜔2 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜙1 (𝜙𝜔2 (𝜔2 )) = 𝜙1 (𝜔2 ) = 𝜔2

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
⇒ 𝐺 acts on itself by conjugation.
Orbit or Orbit of an element 𝒙 of 𝑿: -
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑋 be a non-empty set, where 𝐺 acts on 𝑋. Then orbit of 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
Is denoted by 𝑂𝑥 “𝑜𝑟” 𝐺𝑥 and defined as.
𝑂𝑥 = {𝜙𝑔 (𝑥): 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 }

Example:1 𝐺 = {𝑒, 𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑟 3 } 𝑋 = {1,2,3,4}

𝜙: 𝐺 ∗ 𝑋 → 𝑋
Sol: 4 3 4 3

𝑒
1 2 3 4
𝜙𝑒 = ( )
1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2
4 3 3 2
1 2 3 4
𝜙𝑟 = ( ) 𝑟 = 900
4 1 2 3
1 2 4 1
1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
𝜙𝑟 2 = ( )
3 4 1 2 𝑟 2 = 1800

1 2 4
1 2 3 4 3
𝜙𝑟 3 = ( ) 4 3 1 4
2 3 4 1
𝑟 3 = 2700

1 2 2 3
 To find the orbits of elements of 𝑋.
𝐺1 =? 𝐺2 =? 𝐺3 =? 𝐺4 =?

𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 𝜙𝑒 (4) = 4

𝜙𝑟 (1) = 4 𝜙𝑟 (2) = 1 𝜙𝑟 (3) = 2 𝜙𝑟 (4) = 3

𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 3 𝜙𝑟 2 (2) = 4 𝜙𝑟 2 (3) = 1 𝜙𝑟 2 (4) = 2

𝜙𝑟 3 (1) = 2 𝜙𝑟 3 (2) = 3 𝜙𝑟 3 (3) = 4 𝜙𝑟 3 (4) = 1

𝐺1 = {1,2,3,4} 𝐺2 = {1,2,3,4} 𝐺3 = {1,2,3,4} 𝐺4 = {1,2,3,4}

Note: -A group action which has only one orbit is known as transitive group action. in
example (1) 𝐺 is called a transitive group action.
Stabilizer 𝒐𝒓 Stabilizer of an element of 𝒙 ∈ 𝑿: -
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑋 be a non-empty set, where 𝐺 acts on 𝑋, then stabilizer of an element
Of 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 is denoted by 𝐺 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥) and defined as
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥) = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑥 }

Example:1 𝐺 = {𝑒, 𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑟 3 } 𝑋 = {1,2,3,4}

𝜙: 𝐺 ∗ 𝑋 → 𝑋
Sol: 4 3 4 3
𝑒
1 2 3 4
𝜙𝑒 = ( ) 1 2 1 2
1 2 3 4 3 2
4 3
1 2 3 4 𝑟 = 90 0
𝜙𝑟 = ( )
4 1 2 3 1 2 4 1
4
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
𝜙𝑟 2 = ( ) 2
𝑟 = 180 0
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
𝜙𝑟 3 =( ) 4 3 1 4
2 3 4 1 𝑟 3 = 2700
1 2 2 3
To find stabilizer of elements of 𝑋.
𝜙𝑒 (1) = 1 𝜙𝑒 (2) = 2 𝜙𝑒 (3) = 3 𝜙𝑒 (4) = 4

𝜙𝑟 (1) = 4 𝜙𝑟 (2) = 1 𝜙𝑟 (3) = 2 𝜙𝑟 (4) = 3

𝜙𝑟 2 (1) = 3 𝜙𝑟 2 (2) = 4 𝜙𝑟 2 (3) = 1 𝜙𝑟 2 (4) = 2

𝜙𝑟 3 (1) = 2 𝜙𝑟 3 (2) = 3 𝜙𝑟 3 (3) = 4 𝜙𝑟 3 (4) = 1

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(1) = {𝑒} 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(1) = {𝑒} 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(1) = {𝑒} 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(1) = {𝑒}
 Note: - Every stabilizer is a subgroup of group. Stabilizer is also called little group and
Isotropy group.
Recall: - in order to prove the orbit stabilizer theorem we recall the some old concepts.
1) Lagrange Theorem: -
|𝐺| = 𝐾𝑛
This theorem says that order of the group is equal to the product of index of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and
Order of subgroup 𝐻. By the index we mean that number of distinct cosets (left or right)
2) If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 then 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻. ( it is obvious )
We explain both these 2 concepts by example
1) 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} 𝐻 = {1, −1}
1𝐻 = {1, −1} 𝑖𝐻 = {𝑖, −𝑖}
same same
−1𝐻 = {−1, 1} −𝑖𝐻 = {−𝑖, 𝑖}

Number of distinct cosets= 2

I-e 1𝐻 , 𝑖𝐻
⇒ index of 𝐻 in 𝐺 = 𝐾 = 2
Also |𝐺| = 4 ; 𝑛 = |𝐻| = 2
Now by Lagrange theorem
|𝐺| = 𝐾𝑛
4 = 2(2)
4=4
2) 𝐻 = {1, −1}
−1 ∈ 𝐻
−1𝐻 = {1, −1}
⇒ −1𝐻 = 𝐻
Also note that if “𝑓” is bijective from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
Then
|𝐴| = |𝐵|
Orbit Stabilizer Theorem: -
Statement: - If 𝐺 is a group and 𝑋 is a non-empty set .where 𝐺 acts 0n 𝑋 then for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
|𝐺| = |𝑜𝑟𝑏(𝑥)||𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥)|
Proof: - As we know from Lagrange´s theorem that
|𝐺| =(Number of distinct cosets)|𝐻|
We also know that 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥) is also a subgroup of 𝐺, so the main objective of
Our proof is to prove;
Number of distinct cosets= |𝑜𝑟𝑏(𝑥)|
For this we define a function 𝜙 and check that either 𝜙 is a bijective function
Or not if it is bijective then
Number of distinct cosets= |𝑜𝑟𝑏(𝑥)|
𝜙: 𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥) → 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡(𝑥)

𝜙(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥)) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥)

For simplicity
𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑔𝐻

𝜙(𝑔𝐻) = 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) (1) ⇒

Onto:- let 𝑦 ∈ 𝑜𝑟𝑏(𝑥)

Such that 𝜙𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑦

⇒ 𝜙(𝑔𝐻) = 𝑦 From (1)

⁖
𝜙 determines all values of 𝑜𝑟𝑏(𝑥)
⇒ 𝜙 is onto
One-one: - 𝜙(𝑔1 𝐻) = 𝜙(𝑔2 𝐻)
𝜙𝑔1 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔2 (𝑥) From (1)
⁖
Now 𝑥 = 𝜙𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔1−1 𝑔1 (𝑥)

= 𝜙𝑔1−1 (𝜙𝑔1 (𝑥))

= 𝜙𝑔1−1 (𝜙𝑔2 (𝑥)) ⁖ 𝜙𝑔1 (𝑥) = 𝜙𝑔2 (𝑥)

 𝑥 = 𝜙𝑔1−1 𝑔2 (𝑥)

⇒ 𝑔1−1 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐻 ⁖ 𝑎∈𝐻
⇒ 𝑔1−1 𝑔2 𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻

⇒ 𝑔1 (𝑔1−1 𝑔2 𝐻) = 𝑔1 𝐻
⇒ 𝑔2 𝐻 = 𝑔1 𝐻
Or 𝑔1 𝐻 = 𝑔2 𝐻
⇒ 𝜙 is one-one
Hence 𝜙 is bijective.