Data Communication and

Computer Networks

Lecture # 4

Dr. Ehsan Munir

Department of Computer Science
COMSATS University Wah Campus
ehsanmunnir@gmail.com

The slides are adapted from the publisher’s material

Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach by J F Kurose, K W Ross, 6th Edition
Computer Networks, by L. Peterson, and B. Davie, 5th edition
Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan, 5th edition
 Switching Strategies
 Circuit switching: • Packet switching:
carry bit streams store-and-forward
a. establishes a messages
dedicated circuit a. operates on discrete
b. links reserved for use blocks of data
by communication b. utilizes resources
channel dynamically according
c. send/receive bit to traffic demand
stream at constant c. send/receive
rate messages at variable
d. example: original rate
telephone network d. example: Internet
2
 What next ?
 Hosts are directly or indirectly connected to
each other does not mean H-H connectivity

 Can we now provide host-host connectivity

?

 Nodes must be able to say which host it

wants to communicate with

3
Addressing and Routing
 Address: byte-string that identifies a node
 Usually unique
 Routing: forwarding decisions
 Process of determining how to forward messages
to the destination node based on its address
 Types of addresses
 unicast: node-specific
 broadcast: all nodes on a network
 multicast: some subset of nodes on a network

4
Network Overview
 What must a network provide ?
 Connectivity
 Cost-effective resource sharing
 Functionality (common set of services)
 Performance
 Manageability
 How are networks designed and built ?
 Layering
 Protocols

5
 Cost effective resource sharing
(Multiplexing)
 Physical links/switches must be shared among
users (simultaneous transmission of multiple signals)
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
S1 Multiple flows R1
on a single link

S2 R2

Switch 1 Switch 2
S3 R3
Do you see any problem with TDM / FDM ?
6
 Statistical Multiplexing
 On-demand time-division
 Schedule link on a per-packet basis
 Buffer packets in switches that are contending for
the link

Do you see any problem ?

7
Statistical Multiplexing
 An application needs to break-up its message in
packets, and re-assemble at the receiver
 Fair allocation of link capacity: FIFO, round-robin or
QoS
 If congestion occurs at a switch - buffer may
overflow, packets may be lost

8
What Goes Wrong in the Network?
Reliability
 Most important function that network
provide
 How networks can fail?
 Bit-level Vs Burst errors (electrical
interference)
 Packet-level errors (congestion)
 distinction between lost and late packet
 Link and node failures
 distinction between broken and flaky link
 distinction between failed and slow node 9
Network Overview
 What must a network provide ?
 Connectivity
 Cost-effective resource sharing
 Functionality (common set of services)
 Performance
 Manageability
 How are networks designed and built ?
 Layering
 Protocols

10
Protocol “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols …. or at least our
 hardware, discussion of networks?
software
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
… specific msgs sent governed by protocols
… specific actions taken protocols define format,
when msgs received, order of msgs sent and
or other events received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
req
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Layered Approach
 For successful communication two systems
must follow common set of rules for
generating and interpreting messages
 The set of rules to be followed is very
complex
 Layered approach provides a viable approach
to deal with a complex problem

14
Layered Approach
 A complex problem is divided into a number
of pieces of manageable and comprehensible
size
 It provides structured modular approach
 Each module can be developed and tested
independently

15
Layered Approach
 Allows easy enhancement and
implementation of the functions of a
particular layer without affecting other layers
 Layering provides 2 nice features
 Decompose the problem
 Provides modular design

16
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
 layering considered harmful?
 7 Layer Model / The OSI Network
Architecture
 OSI: Open Systems
Interconnection
 7 layers X. protocol
specifications for
each layer
 First three layers
are implemented in
all nodes

20
 Layers of the OSI model
 Physical Layer: Transmission/reception of raw bits
 Data Link Layer: Maps bits into frames, dictates sharing of
common medium, corrects/detects errors , re-orders frames
 Network Layer: Routes packets to destination, may perform
fragmentation and re-assembly, IP, routing protocols
 Transport Layer: Flow (congestion) control, transparent
transport to upper layers, TCP, UDP
 Session Layer: Establishes connection among hosts, duplex,
half-duplex, graceful connection termination, combination of
streams
 Presentation Layer: Negotiation of format of data exchanged
between hosts
 Application layer: Application services such as FTP, HTTP
21
 The Internet TCP/IP Architecture
FTP HTTP TFTP DNS

TCP Transport UDP

IP IP: Internet Protocol: Network or I

Net 1 Net 2
Ethernet FDDI

FTP: File Transfer Protocol TCP: Transmission Control

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Protocol UDP: User Datagram Protocol
TFTP: Trivial File TransferFDDI: Fiber Distributed Data Interface
22
Comparison of the two architectures

23
 Protocol layering and data
Each layer takes data from above
 adds header information to create new data unit
 passes new data unit to layer below

source destination
M application application M message
Ht M transport transport Ht M segment
Hn Ht M network network Hn Ht M datagram
Hl Hn Ht M link link Hl Hn Ht M frame
physical physical