Connection between the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System

The human nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS),
consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
consisting of the neurons and nerves. The two systems work together to relay information
around the body. The central nervous system is localised in the torso and the head, while the
peripheral nervous system is spread out across the entire the body. The PNS therefore, is able
to send information from the extremities to the brain and the brain can send information to the
different parts of the body via the nerves.
The human body is divided into certain segments called dermatomes which encircle
the spinal column in a stack of rings. The spinal cord runs down the middle of the back and
has some basic functions of relaying information to and from the nerves. It has 30 segments:
8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 5 sacral. The nerve fibres exiting each segment connect
directly to the corresponding dermatomes. Therefore, the cervical segments control the arms,
thoracic segments control the torso and the lumbar segments control the legs. Fibres entering
the dorsal part of the spinal cord bring information from the sensory areas converge and form
the dorsal root. Fibres that leave the ventral part of the spinal cord send information out to the
muscles in a strand known as the ventral root. The outer part of the spinal cord consists of the
white matter or tracts. The inner part of the cord are made of grey matter, composed of cell
bodies, which organize movement.
Movements dependent only on spinal cord function are called reflexes, which are
specific movements elicited by specific forms of sensory stimulation, like temperature, pain,
pressure, and touch. When the limb experiences pain or temperature produces a flexion
movement, where the limb is drawn back or inward. Fine touch and pressure usually produce
the extensor reflex, where the limb is pushed outwards.
The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS and is the main functional centre
located at the top of the spinal cord. It consists of various parts:
The brainstem: the functions of the brainstem are more complex. It responds to most
of the sensory stimuli reaching the body, it regulates primitive mechanisms like sleeping,
eating, drinking, body temperature and regulation of sexual behaviour. It has three parts: the
diencephalon, midbrain and hindbrain.
The diencephalon consists of the thalamus, the epithalamus, and the hypothalamus.
In the thalamus, certains cells are specialised to relay specific information to the cortex of the
brain. The lateral geniculate body receives visual projections, the medial geniculate body
receives auditory projections and the ventral-posterior lateral nuclei receive touch, pressure,
pain and temperature projections from the body. These centres project these sensory
information to the relevant areas of the cortex. The reticular activating system controls the
waking and sleeping or maintaining general arousal or consciousness.
Almost all the information received by the cortex is relayed by the Thalamus.
Moreover, an important part of the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland, a central hormone
regulator. Hypothalamus is involved in almost all motivated behaviour: feeding, sleeping,
sleeping, sexual and emotional behaviour, temperature regulation, endocrine function and
movement.
The Midbrain: It has two divisions: the tectum and the tegmentum. The tectum
consist of the superior colliculi, receiving projections from the retina and mediate visually
oriented behaviour. The inferior colliculi receive projections from the ear and they mediate
auditory regulated behaviour. The colliculi are also involved in orienting behaviour.
The Hindbrain: Apart from the vestibular system governing balance and orientation,
the most distinctive part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum. It plays a role in learning skilled
movement and muscle coordination.
There are 12 sets of cranial nerves in the brain sending sensory information from the
specialised sensory systems of the head and many have nuclei of the brain stem and send
axons to the muscles of the head.
The cortex is the outermost layer of cells. It is divided into two hemispheres, the
right and the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere is responsible for verbal, memorization,
speech and factual information. The right hemisphere is responsible for processing of visual
and spatial material in the environment. There are four lobes which are demarcated by certain
fissures, which are deep clefts in the brain, and sulcus, which is shallower. A gyrus is the
ridge around the fissure. The right and left hemisphere is, hence, separated by the longitudinal
fissure. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the
temporal lobe and the occipital lobe.
The limbic system consists largely of the hippocampus, the cingulate gyrus and the
septum. It has involvement in memory (by the hippocampus), olfaction, emotion, and spatial
behaviour. The basal ganglia includes the putamen, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus and the
amygdala. It regulates muscle tone and muscle movements, and habit learning.
The primary function of the peripheral nervous system is to connect the various parts
of the body to the CNS. This is done by transmitting the information that is received from
various stimuli. The sensory receptors of the human body include the proprioceptors,
interoceptors and the exteroceptors. The proprioceptors are specialised cells detecting stimuli
changes in the body, for example pain or twitching. The interoceptors are specialised to detect
internal impulses from voluntary muscles, bone marrow and blood pressure. The
exteroceptors include the cells specialised to detect the stimuli from the outside world of pain,
sound, local gravity, etc.
This is the kind of information received and transmitted through nerves, which are
bundles of neurons, from the parts of the body to the brain. The neurons may have 1 to 20
dendrites and its branches divide into smaller branches called dendritic spines. Each neuron
has a single axon, expanding into an axon hillock, and may also branch out into axon
collaterals or telodendria, at the end of which exists the end foot or the terminal button. The
space between the terminal button and the dendrite of the next neuron is the synapse, which
plays a central role in communication using neurotransmitters.
The neurons that make up the communication channels are connect the two systems
are divided into three types:
 a) The First Order neurons conduct impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord
(CNS) directly, whey come into contact with the second order neurons.
b) Second Order neurons which receives the inputs from the first order neurons and carry
these signals to the thalamus of the brain.
c) The Third Order neurons originate at the thalamus, carry forward the received
information from the second order neurons and terminate at the primary sensory
cortex.
These three neurons together form the sensory pathway of the human body. For
example, the sensation of pain travels upwards through the first order neurons and reaches the
spinal cord. Through the chemical transmission of information through the synapse, using the
transfer of neurotransmitters from one end of the axon to the dendrites of the second order
neurons, this information reaches the thalamus. From the thalamus, the third order neurons
take the information and terminate at the primary sensory cortex, in the parietal lobe at the
postcentral gyrus.
The transmission within the first, second and third order neurons can be chemical
and electrical. The electrical transmission involves changes in the voltage of the cell as the
intracellular and extracellular fluids with their ions interact. There is a difference in the axon
when the neuron is at rest of 70 mV; this is called the resting potential. As the ionized fluid
exchanges positions, the body of the target neuron becomes more positive. When this
polarization reaches a threshold, a relatively larger electrical signal is produced called the
action potential. This signal is them transmitted across the neuron at speeds of about 150 m
per second.
The information is them transmitted chemically from one neuron to another using
neurotransmitters. The axon of one neuron has a small space between the dendrites of the
receiving neuron. This small space is called the synaptic cleft. It is a part of the synapse
where the exchange of information occurs. A neurotransmitter or a chemical agent is a
released which is absorbed by the dendrites of the receiving neuron. And the impulse is
transmitted till the brain and the spinal cord receive the message.
The connection between the CNS and the PNS is, therefore, made by the first,
second and third order neurons which play the role of channels through which necessary and
essential information is transmitted. Not just sensory, but even motor impulses are transmitted
by these neurons, from the brain to the dictated area to react to the stimulus. This system
works for the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems too, as it directs the
activity of the visceral organs to cope with stressful stimuli. Therefore, both acting in
conjunction through the neurons is essential for the survival of the human body.
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