I AS 2O7 Propulsion 1 obp 1

Historical perspective
Gas TUrbine power is cleaner and more versatile as compared to
IC engines.
* ve aspects
1. Absence of reciprocating and rubbing parts ensures less
friction. One does not need lubricants to reduce the friction.

2. It is continuous combustion engine heat addition could be of

external type. In the absence of compression in large number
of cylinders, one need not worry about firing sequence.

3. Any reasonable fuel could be burnt if one can ensure complete

combustion.

I Windmills - These are in existence for a long time where

moderate speed of wind turns propeller, which with the help of
bevel gear mechanism could turn a generator to produce
electricity or reciprocate a pump to draw water. These are
making comebacks once again as non-conventional ener$/
sources.
II Water Turbines - Potential head of water stored is converted
into kinetic for turning purposes. This is in use for
hydroelectric purposes since 2}th century. Flowing water
would also achieve similar result. Main operational
disadvantage is its dependence of availability of assured and
continuous water supply. Scientifically since water is an
incompressible medium, large volumes a-re required to do
work. Equipment for machines seen so far would be bulky and
not suitable for transport purposes (prime mover).
III Steam Turbine - Instead of incompressible medium or water,
one can generate steam with the help of heat from coal
combustion. The steam so produced can turn turbine wheel.
Popularly this could be used for marine propulsion
applications. These could as well be used for electricity
generation (500 MW plant with 4oo/o efficiency). Equipment is
still bulky.
IVGas Turbines - This eliminates water to steam conversion
step. Working medium being compressible stronger container
or equipment is necessary.
I AS 207 propulsion I obp 1 I

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINES

Basic Units of the Gas Turbine Engine
a) compressor - rises pressure, temperature and density;
and is driven by turbine.

b) Combustor - fuel itself doesn't give power but chemical ener5/

gets converted into high-grade heat.

c) T\.rrbine - compressed and hot working medium is

expanded to obtain useful shaft power or thrust.

d) Nozzle - used for direct thrust production or shaft power is

used to derive rotaional power. Lot of heat would escape into
atmosphere as a low-grade heat but this is unavoidable.

rtant fitrbine which influence the

pefformance

a) component Efficiencies - science of aerodynamics, cFD,

experimntal data has helped in improving this a whole Iot.

b) Trrrbine entry temperature - Efficiency of a heat engine

depends on the maximum cycle temperature, which occurs at
the exit of the combustor or beginning of a turbine. one must
have sufficiently advanced material technologA to handle high
temperatures. These high strength materials pose
manufacturing problems as well.

c) Combustor - Factor affecting useful work output is the

combustor. In constant volume combustion, even though one
can achieve better thermal efficiency, it also needs
cumbersome valve mechanism for entry and exhaust of air
and gases respectively. Also, combustion is intermittent, and
hence the turbine operations would become much more
difficult. In gas turbine operations one uses constant pressure
combustion devices which offer greater possibilities for future
development as well as ease in using variety of fuels.

4
I AS 2O7 Propulsion 1 obp 1 i

d) Since all the components are separate and are arranged in a

modular fashion, individual design, development and testing is
possible. usually, GT development is quite time
"or"r*irrg
process. However, one can have various confiqurations.

Gas Turbine applications

) Aircraft - It is a must for supersonic flights. Performance
parameters are less prone to altitude variations. It has better
thrust to weight ratio - key element for aircraft applications.

) Surface Transport - with shaft power one can use it for

railways, trucks, armored vehicles, and marine power plants.

F Electricity Generation - It is possible to have electricity

generation at remote locations without accounting for
transmission losses common in long lines. Much better speed
and thus voltage control is possible.

) oil and Gas - To overcome piping losses in gas transmission

one can use high-pressure air available from compressor side.
one can also use the shaft power for drilling or pumping
applications.

) Chemical and Process Industry - These gas turbines have an

ability to compress or expand large quantity of gases at
various pressures & temperatures. 2 2
F
Air Standard Brayton Cycle
1. Work done on the qas during compression.
W. = Cp(T2 - Tl) = CpI(TR- 1)

2. Work done by the eas during expansion T'

W, = Cp(T3 - T4) = CpT3(1 - /rp_)
3. Constant pressure (pZ=pg) heat addition = Cp (TS-TZ)
Constant pressure (n t =R+; heat reiection : Cp (T+-Tt)
I AS 2O7 ProPulsion I obP 1 I

No pressure loss p! = p4.

Denote PR : pressure ratio and TR = temperature ratio.
'1-l
Tr-Tr-[rr)?
\p,/ T-T-l.tJ ry1
It*
Thermal Efficiency (Enersv conversion)
A,f
net work done
I*, =
heat added
/-
lo P*o 30

(r, - r, )- (ro T, T.
l'ltr' = 'Tr T2

y-1

l'lm =
r,-1-
(r, -ro)-(r, -r,)__ 1_ j_t_
= 1_
1 1\t
-r-fr)'_t
(r, -r,) T, TR
TR PRJi
\PR

\rpically
PR= 15=TR= 2.167 &qth=0.538.
Specific Work output (size in relation to power requirement)
Work output given bY
('
w -.0(T, -To)-.r(T, -T,) t'6

,) t,o b
=.0r,[,
t)-cor,[?
wlt
el
cfT ^l
4 0= 2-

6
JAS 2O7 Propulsion 1 obp 1

Specific Work:

_1
-e I- _[,.*_,)
y-l.
crT,
PRY
maximum temperature in cycle
where 0 - -Tr- -
I inlet ambient temp.
Te is limited by the material one can u.se and Tr ambient
temperature varies between 216 - 300 K approximately (at 1 1 km
and SL respectively). Tlrpically e = 4 with Ts = l2OO K for
industrial stationary plants & 0 = 5.5 for aircraft gas turbines
corresponding to the maximum temperature at SL - 16OOK and
@rt km - 12OOK

To obtain the optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific

work, equate the derivative to zeto

orr-)
toT,
I -e
------:--l=0
J
;GRT TR,
TR _JE
w : (Je - r)'
(c o T, ),nu*
- e (, - #) - (G-- 1)

TRo* - (rn*,)+ -.rrc-

Both are temperature ratios

Tz_ T3
or TZ= T3*T1
E T1

Higher 0 (=T3) i.e. maximum temperature better would be the

specific work output.
I AS 2OT pr"prlrir, I t
"Up t

THRUST EQUATION

ho l- -l h* o- inlet condition
Uol lue
-r EN 6tNL f
e- exit condition
u- velocity
p-
,*l I I

lEXr r
pressure
A. - area
-l

1. Control volume - arbitrary volume fixed in space through

which fluid flows. Thrust with units of force, is merely rate of
change of momentum.

F=m(u"-uo) +A"(p.-po) (1)

1\\><-
i) Gen er ally;mfrnentum thru st contribution i s ma>rimum.
ii) Pressu6 thrust comes into effect with fixed exhaust & varying
altitude (p. changes)

2. Propulsive Efficiencv is the ratio of the useful propulsion

ener$/ or thrust power to the mechanical power (KE). For
simplicity one can neglect pressure thrust contribution. In any
case for an ideal or full expansion the exit plane pressure is
equal to the ambient pressure.

m (, e - u o )* u F:T uo
Tlp = o

;((2yL- {-)
2)
vL -2u;
;(1..2
)

uo 2
rr p = ,=;;= ,iV1 Q)
2 \ ,/uo)
flight conditions
engine conditions (Z )
(r,, )- o
rn
fuel addition
altiude

8
I AS 2OT Propulsion 1 obp I

It is important to find out at what conditions thrust and

efficiency is defined. Generally, it is done as sea level (SL) - static
(uo = o) (ssl,). This would be different from cruise conditions.

3. Thermal Efficienclz: Efficiency of the powerplant as a whole is

ratio of useful KE for propulsion to the eners/ supplied by fuel

n. - *G3- rr3)
2mrh

4. It is imperative from the two expressions that as exit velocity

tte increases, the propulsive efficiency decreases whereas the
thermal efficiency increases. Thus it is imerative to develop
another important parameter, which will reflect both these
aspects, called Overall Efficiencv.

qo=rlerp- {*o
mrh

5. Specific Thrust - Thrust per Unit mass flow rate of working

medium.

F, =+ (%r,,)
m

6. Fuel to air ratio f or specific fuel consumption sfc

a

."mf (np)
a

9
I AS 2O7 pr"prlri". t t
"Up f

vsfc-d,*;-I
( n, =_ks_)
F ; 4 \^nrZkg/s N-s/
a

mf
sfc - [--/s/N=ffi)
Thus

lL"
uo m/s
Io: N.D.:
ks/ 2t- L
sfc*h {< J/ f-
/N-s /ke l
i) Fuel economy depends on the overall effi ciency (i.e. on both
thermal and propulsive efficiency)

ii) Specific fuel consumption could be expressed in terms of kg /

N.s or kg/N-hr. In later case number would not be very small.

7 . Another important parameter is Specific Impulse, which is

thrust per unit mass flow rate of propellant and is defined as:

,A/
Ir= = SEC
eil,
* *kg
S,S
a
If mg is in weight units (N/s) then 'g' is not needed in the
denominator. Physically this parameter implies that one unit of
fuel will produce one unit of thrust for so much of time. Naturally
higher the number better it would be

8. i) SpScific_fnrus! as it is classically defined is not a non-

dimensional parameter. We could use an alternate defn.
N
. or . ,In this CASe -:-
kgm =
ND
ffioo ffiuo
SS

10
3.o or Uo are linked through inlet. Mach Number and as such
function of flight condition (flight altitude and flight speed). pure
ND specific thrust is small & varies between 1 and 8.

ii) m is a function of (alt,Uo), where Uo flight speed

Aircraft Range:
Maximising range of aircraft for given mission is an important
and simple criteria as it links with the economics of operation.
Ignoring takeoff, climb, descent and landing, aircraft spends
considerable time in a steady level flying conditions at a given
altitude. Under such a situation, thrust is equal to the drag and
the weight is equal to the lift.
,' L',t
M*9,
F=D=L(D/L; =
./
(L/DI h or"', 'J t-
Lt'h r tt
y1? ,
rh1*drry' /ton n4t
0rl1 c
).L
EI^$^uo
J
c( A,r'rt-
viy
Thrust power F*ug =
(LID)
:
*w*hN
In civilian aircraft, the weight changes with time only due to the
fuel, that is consumed.
Fl
r\: /n #*> #:*
rirr = -dyt/dt = -udrl/as
.F? ,luy!-Et4o
'fi*
\, h ,1,
where s is the distance along the flight path or range.
l.,j t4
ary{l as = (fr*gl I ho.h.[L/D])
If we assume the denominator of the above expression to remain
constant then integration between two limits would yield

s = (r'lo .(h/g). [L/D]). In (mr lrrrrr)

r i:
,.1
where mr and rfrz are initial and final masses of the vehicle.
From this, it is clear that the range is directly proportional to the
overall efficiency of the engine.

11
In a single propellant stream, if f << 1 simplified form of overall
efficiency yields
frp:l 'i,*
l-_-"
no = uo*(u. - uo) / (f. h) Ue, Aa'\) rE/"=-6oD*h
:.2t60k4q
"
For givefr lfe overall efficiency nowill be maximum for uo = v" /2.
lY o = 0, 8f -> t/,1 2 2g4l
It can also be shown that range s is Ilt|e-

s = (L/D). (F/ ,h,)* (uo/g)*ln (rlrrlrrn)

= +n lc"tL
The formula confirms with our belief regarding the way in which
things are supposed to be happening.
Fr equentlu require d constants :
Re = 8314 J/(kg-mole K) universal gas constant

R = R* / MW and MW"i.= 28.g kg/kg-mole, Rai, = 2BTiJ/(kg-X) )

Standard Atmosphere: Sea Level f N_4yt ? -

b"*,*
.---f*---.-
){ l(
LE.\_.]
T = 288.2K, P = 1.0132. 1Os N/m2, p = l.22Skg/rn, : [;1st)
L--J"-:#
l<
Variation upto 11 km (notional flight altitude) for 'alt' in m
T/T"r = 1- 2.256.10-salt,
s'2s6,
P/P"r = (T/T"r)
p/p"r = exp(-altl9L44l
Local speed of sound: ao = { yRT
ao = 340 m/s at sl, ao= 295 m/s at 1L km altitude.

Sp e cific Impuls e Comp aris on:

Rockets: Mono- 150 s, Solid-225 s, Liquid - 350 s, Cryo - 425 s
Airbreathing Engines: Ramjet -1500 s, Gas T\rrbines -3000 s

t2
 tr
OO
6
E.gHErl6
96 9>
ixi seH
E*€r bq
Eiflf!d
rEEts?&
E8€EEfr
s E E * ;=-
dL,ir\RH
( oorJYiio
o
k EflA8Efi
A /\AA.^-AA
fi,
o
.F{
d
E z
o
A
fl a
a
o rrl
\-/ d
Or

o oi
U 29, r,
XBE
=?H
xz8
IiHE
&tu
 $

I
H
o
.r{
a
EI
--
ro
k
fr
(,
o
cl
E
a
tAS2O7 Propulsion 1 obp 2r

Kegcepts for TJ + 49
1. There are two material limiting conditions for TJ with AB
- One corresponds to turbine blades (a lower no.) the
other being AB material limiting condition. Both of them
figure in an expression for TJ + AB.

2. TJ + AB are higher compression engines. These engines

have higher speed possibility due to dual control.

3. Mathematical expressions for TJ with AB could be

obtained by substituting (t" tuy for (tur of pure m4g,
,7

4. 30 - 5oo/o thrust augmentations for a short duration is

possible without greatly affecting the size of the engines
as well as complicating it to a great extent.

5. For ideal expansion, variable nozzle area control will be

necessary.

6. The efficiency calculations should be carried out in a

straightforward fashion, as the engine is really a straight
TJE. Visibility of Uz explicitly is rather poor in this type of
analysis. But one can deduce it from Mz and az.

7. Condition for no AB

T,u
Tto -. T,,
L- (0.)",,. - 0,x r, -
To T,o

i.e. by substituting (0")*i" = (0, td in STJ + AB expression,

one can get pure STJ expression.

Summary of Jet Engine Configuration:

Velocity increment is more in GT engines.

achieved by improving Ip or by lowering u. ->TF engine.

Itte )) tlo fir, q{h
(f
lrt , 2--
,*ffi
' I 'tt' th hY- 15
 I
i-

100
9 t {+ */l /T(
a,
["
ol't lo
d
{t aVt
4a
= t(t* #)
g,T
0t -) , l4of
l,D l'5
tul o

Tc-+ Uot Arl Tty. /1,

0,0+ gof Wl, Ttrl {nof
:
0,0! \ Moi ir"l r4f TU+ f .L
tn (t-zr ),t zt J alrJ { aa f

4
4a o'oL ,/ N') o'o
U

0,0t )

/t.--- L

-l

t5-- 2o 3-O
/tc
<- A /{o\ huurr'r-z e'Plon')' tP*t'T
rr +AD 4 uL
No.
"ryy".
,5tr (T/ ,rr/a* UP'cll"1 t toh*re't 6/)
t\ ac h lro /,;, n ( A) LA
(^\

tf i= Mo' O
<;.'\

L -l
I 4
Yo
I
\\

Ofi h' vn w'*: /t"n r--

n-tf
/tc 2-o 2s-
'/1" ,) rwlt/ lntavn
Cat.,I"/t'oY