CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EARLIER STUDIES

Theodore P. Zoli (2007) conducted a case study on Long span bridges have not been designed
to resist progressive collapse explicitly; many long span bridge forms, due to reasons of
structural efficiency, are intrinsically non-redundant, i.e. they incorporate elements whose
localized failure would precipitate collapse. There are also long span bridge forms that are
susceptible to progressive collapse due to the loss of a series of adjacent members as a result of a
single loading event. In either case, this class of structures may be termed to have single point
vulnerability. Herein, aspects of long span bridge design as they relate to single point
vulnerability and progressive collapse are discussed together with some suggestions for potential
improvements in design strategies. Concluded that it is high time that progressive collapse
considerations be brought into the forefront of long span bridge design in order to enhance the
reliability and safety of these major structures in the built environment. Progressive collapse
resistance as a primary design consideration will lead to a more rational approach from assigning
factors of safety to key elements such as suspenders and stay cables, to setting depth and
stiffness requirements for cable stayed bridge and arch bridge superstructures, even to choosing
appropriate design forms for major bridges (network tied arch versus conventional arches with
vertical suspenders). A progressive collapse framework also provides a rational basis for
assessing the safety and vulnerability of our existing bridge population, and will help us focus
our resources in a manner consistent with reducing the risk catastrophic failure.

AbolhassanAstaneh (2008), conducted a case study on progressive collapse of the entire bridge
due to loss of a single gusset plate in the case of I-35W steel decktruss bridge located in the city
of Minneapolis in United States; and summarized the structure of the bridge, the condition of the
bridge prior to collapse, a likely scenario for its progressive collapse. He finally concluded that,
In the collapsed I-35W deck truss bridge, gusset plates U10 at four locations on the main trusses
were under-designed originally and had already developed edge buckling during or prior to 2003
due to addition of dead load of 5 cm wearing surface and curbs.
Akihiro MANDA (2010), Deteriorated steel truss bridges have caused catastrophic problems in
the USA and Japan. Progressive collapse analysis is carried out for the three continuous steel
truss bridges using large deformation elastic plastic analysis. It is intended to clarify how the live
load intensity and distribution affect structural safety and ductility for these two truss bridges.
Although the collapse process is different depending on live load distribution and length of the
spans, the steel truss bridge collapses due to plastic buckling or elastic buckling. It is found that
ductility of Model Bridge-B with a span ratio of 1:1.3:1 is larger than that of Model Bridge-A
with a span ration of 1:2:1. Concluded Considering the number of yield members when the
buckling occurred, when the live load is distributed in full span or in main span, many members
yielded and redistribution of load is formed. Also redistribution of load is larger in Model bridge-
B.On the other hand, when the live load distributed only near the intermediate support, less
members yield and redistribution of load is small. It is found that common span ratio of Model
Bridge-B is more ductile than Model Bridge-A. And has higher redistribution of loads. Other
researchers have concerned about redundancy analysis or analysis of the gusset plate for the truss
bridge collapse problem. On the other hand, it is found in our studies that collapse process and
buckling member significantly depend on the live load distribution and the span ratio.

E. YAMAGUCHI (2011), Partial failure of a bridge may or may not lead to further damage or
even to the collapse of the entire bridge. The difference arises from the redundancy of the bridge,
and this issue attracts many researchers and engineers in recent years. Herein the post-member-
failure analysis method of a steel truss bridge is studied. For the investigation of redundancy,
simple analysis is preferred since a number of analyses are required in general. However, the
present study reveals that static analysis yields quite different result from that due to dynamic
analysis. A post-member-failure analysis method is then proposed. Example problem confirms
the effectiveness of the proposed method while it requires computational time only as much as
the static analysis does. Concluded the post-member-failure behavior of a truss bridge was
investigated by the static analysis and the dynamic analysis. Large discrepancy between the
results due to the two analyses was observed, which was found attributable to the fact that the
two analyses resulted in different deformed configurations. Then an analysis method of the post-
member-failure behavior was proposed in an effort to include the dynamic effect in the static
analysis. The effectiveness of the proposed method has been verified by comparing the result
with that due to the dynamic analysis. Since the computational time of the proposed method is
not much different from that of the static analysis and much less than that of the dynamic
analysis, it is believed that the proposed method is promising for the post-member-failure
analysis.

Jyoti .P. Sawant, (2013) now a day there is pronounced application of Post-tensioning to steel
trusses. The bridges which were earlier designed for lighter loads has to bear the increased load
due to rapid urbanization and increased population and thus to replace the earlier bridge is
uneconomical and also disrupts the transportation. So, these bridges are strengthened by the
application of post-tensioning. Now post tensioning is most widely accepted all over since
trusses consume a lot of less material compared to beams to span the same length and transfer
moderate to heavy loads. In countries like India where labor cost is less post-tensioning can be
utilized to the fullest extent. In the current study post tensioning has been applied to both angular
and tubular trusses for 30m span Mansard and Pratt trusses with single and double drape tendons
using SAP2000v15 software it has been found that with the application of Post tensioning with
single and double drape tendons at the eccentricity of 0.9 m and 1.2 m the pre-stressing force in
the members have been reduced. External Post-tensioning is considered in the present study
since the tendons are outside the trusses. Here the trusses are examined for member forces, pre-
stressing forces at zero deflection at the mid span of the truss, the reduction in the cross sections
and weight of the members of trusses. Concluded that Post tensioning by external tendon layout
are suggested to strengthen and to increase useful life of steel truss. The trusses configuration
with different tendon profile for post tensioning the truss with different eccentricities are
considered and the effect of post tensioning on member forces, cross section of members and
weight of truss is studied in this analytical work.

Ravindra P M (2013) conducted a case study on truss bridges in India and abroad is either
structurally deficient and/or functionally obsolete. There is a desperate need to enhance the
performance of these existing bridges by an appropriate technique which should be economical
and with minimum disturbance to the traffic. The aim of the present analytical work is to know
the effect of post tensioning on the member forces and deflections of a statically determinate
Pratt type of the truss. Pratt type of truss has been considered in our study, as it is one of the most
commonly used truss configuration in truss bridges. Because of its relative economy and less
disturbance to the traffic, post tensioning technique has been adopted to upgrade the performance
of the truss. Bottom chord of the truss is post tensioned with high tensile steel cable and the
profile of the cable is straight. The truss is analysed for member forces and deflections using
direct stiffness approach of matrix analysis. From the obtained analytical results, it is seen that
there is a noticeable improvement in the performance of the structure: Member forces have been
reduced significantly in the entire bottom chord members and there is reduction in deflections at
all the joints after post tensioning concluded modification in all the remaining member forces.
Bottom chord members which are nearer to the cable ends have significant effect in comparison
with the members located away from the cable ends and Vertical deflections at all the joints of
the truss have been decreased due to post tensioning and the decrease in maximum deflection at
mid span is by 6.51 %. There is reduction in horizontal deflections along both the chords; the
percentage reduction in horizontal deflection is more along bottom chord joints when compared
to joints along top chords. At some of the top chord joints, change in nature of horizontal
deflection is also noticed.

Hoang Trong Khuyena (2016), Linear static analysis with an alternate load path using dynamic
amplification factor (DAF) is often used for redundancy and progressive collapse analysis of
steel truss bridges to avoid using the more time-consuming dynamic analysis. This study presents
an empirical equation to calculate the DAF for this type of analysis against the initial sudden
member fracture. Currently, this analysis employs an approximate model with a single degree of
freedom to calculate the DAF. With a 5% damping ratio, the constant DAF of 1.854 is used for
all types of steel truss bridges. However, this approach is inaccurate because the DAF varies
between bridges and with the location of the fractured members as well. Considering some of the
approaches developed for building structures but adapting them to steel truss bridges, this paper
proposes an empirical equation that allows for the computation of the DAF from the maximum
norm stress _is/_iyin static linear elastic analysis of the damaged model with a member removal.
A total of 30 illustrative cases for two typical steel truss bridges are investigated to obtain the
data points for the empirical equation. The proposed empirical equation is the enveloped line
offset from the best fit line for the data points in illustrative cases. Concluded that Conclusions
Data points of dynamic amplification factor DAF versus max _is/ _iy of a total of 30 illustrative
cases in two typical truss bridges showed that the DAF can be approximated by a function of
max _is/ _iy. The empirical equation to calculate the DAF for redundancy and progressive
collapse analysis of steel truss bridges against the initial fracture of a member was proposed. The
empirical equation means an advance to the field of providing an approximation, which could
help in the analysis of a dynamic event. With this method, the analyses can all be static,
becoming an easy problem that is quick to solve with accuracy. It is also noted that, although the
proposed empirical equation for DAF calculation is expected to be applicable to any steel truss
bridge, the conclusions and the findings of the empirical equation derived in this paper are solely
based on the illustrative cases of only two types of steel truss bridges. Hence, the validation of
the empirical equation to general steel truss bridges may not be immediately filled; therefore,
further research is needed. Additionally, the value of max _is/ _iy in the data points for the
empirical equation ranged from 0.4 to 1.8. Although this value rarely extends beyond this range
in modern bridge conditions, this situation needs further investigation. However, when the norm
stress is large, the linear analysis may be inaccurate. In this case, it is recommended to use a
nonlinear analysis with a dynamic amplified factor derived from nonlinear dynamics to analyze
the structure.

S. I. S Atapattu (2016), conducted a case study on the failure of the Meeliyadda Bridge, which
occurred, when two trucks carrying metal were crossing the bridge. It was reported that some of
the lateral bracings of the top chord had removed with the failure of the bridge. Finite element
(FE) analysis was carried out using the SAP2000 FE software, where two different FE models
were developed: one with all the lateral bracings and the other without three consecutive lateral
bracings at the entering end of the trucks. Results from the FE analysis show that removal of the
top lateral bracings increases the unbraced length of the top chord members in the lateral
direction, reducing their compressive load capacity. This initiates a compression failure in the
top chord which could be the reason for the failure in the Meeliyadda Bridge. Concluded that By
analyzing the results from FE analysis it can be concluded that the bridge could withstand the
loads of the two trucks if all the top lateral supports were held in their positions without failure.
However, failure of the top lateral bracings increases the unbraced length of the top chord
members in the lateral direction considerably, reducing the compressive load capacity of the top
chord. This could be the reason for the failure of the bridge as the removal of the top lateral
bracings was observed in the failed bridge. This paper therefore highlights the importance of the
lateral supports in a truss type steel bridge, where their failure can cause the failure of the entire
bridge.

Xianzhong Zhao (2017), presents an experimental study on the dynamic progressive collapse
behavior of planar trusses. A specially designed member-breaking device has been invented to
‘break’ a predefined structural member suddenly, particularly a diagonal member in the
experiments. Videogrammetric technique was adopted to obtain the full field 3D displacement of
the remaining structure, and strain instrumentation was carefully used to monitor the internal
forces of all members. In association with the experiments, finite-element simulations of the test
trusses have also been performed, with extended analysis on the effect of removal of members at
different locations. Experimental results in conjunction with the numerical analysis have shown
that: (1) the truss with directly welded joints (specimen truss-WJ) was able to quickly regain
balance upon member loss, and the load-redistributing capacity was provided mainly through
catenary action developed in the bottom chord; (2) the truss with pinned joints (truss-PJ) behaved
almost identically to truss-WJ, suggesting that when computational models of truss structures
need to be developed to obtain structural responses under a collapse scenario, pinned-joints with
continuous chord could be assumed; (3) the truss with rigid joints (truss-RJ) experienced
progressive buckling of three diagonal members and was damaged severely, indicating a
detrimental influence of excessive joint stiffness on the collapse resistance of trusses. Concluded
that this paper presented an experimental study on the dynamic progressive collapse of trusses. A
dynamic testing apparatus for the progressive collapse test of truss structures was developed, and
three planar trusses were tested. One diagonal member in each tested truss was suddenly
removed by a member-breaking device, which was invented to break a predefined structural
member suddenly. Video gram metric technique and strain instrumentation were employed to
monitor the global and local deformations of the remaining structure and the redistribution of
internal forces. In conjunction with the experiment, finite-element simulations of the tests were
also performed to assist in the interpretation and confirmation of the experimental observation.
Shubhank Gupta (2017) conducted a case study on the analysis and design of steel truss
Railway Bridge of span 50 m. The bridge with same railway loadings of 32.5 tones has been
assigned in different types of truss sections to determine the best stable and economical section.
Analysis and design is completed using tool Staad pro to optimize the section and determine best
stable sections for comparison. The design of structural members of the truss is done in
accordance with provision of Indian railway standard code and Indian roads congress code.
Concluded Deflection: They observed that Maximum deflection is observed in Howe bridge
whereas least in warren, which indicates that in terms of deflection warren, is stable than others.
Shear Force: In terms of unbalance forces Howe type truss bridge is more stable showing less
shear forces, whereas maximum is observed in warren truss.
Axial Force: For the case of axial force analysis, It is observed that out of the four pratt type
bridge gives maximum values whereas owe has least value i.e. 4583.729 kN. Steel Structure
Weight: As India is a developing country therefore there is a need of economical sections to have
a cost effective design to bear same loading in lesser cost.
In this study they observed that out of all four cases Howe type truss bridge shows least values
which mean for the same loading it will take less weight of construction material which makes it
more economical than others. i.e. 697.683 Newton.