orapter 19 Non-Linear Control Systems We have alrendy introduced linear control systems and studied them from their pole-zero configuration, hich is an extremely powerful tool both in. frequency and time-domain analysis and synthesis. Unfor- tunately, systems that exist in nature are non-linear, Hence, the superposition principle which is well valid in linear systems js totally invalid in non-linear systems, There are control systems which do not have any linearized version and itis very difficult to linearize these control system. In some cases, it has been found that the non-linearities such as dead zone and hysteresis and combination of these are unde- sinble and unavoidable, The aim of this chapter is to discuss the methods to study non-linear systems aswell as their stability, : 19.1 The State Space Approach Figure 19.1 shows the block diagram representation of a class of non-linear control systems. The plant ‘dynamics is represented by the state ve /ector x. In Fig, 19.1, ris the reference, w is plant input ahd c is the controlled output vector, tr Controller uv Fig. 19.1, Non-linear control system. The mathematical models to represent the plant and controller are given below. Plant d= f(x,u) (19.1) and car (19.2) Controtier u=g(cr) (19.3)Qe 798 | Control Systems In Eqs. (19.1) and (19.2), the vectors are in general non-linear functions, and we have controller does not contain any energy storing elements. Substituting Eq. (19.2) in Eq, (lo: ioe 3) ete We ger = g(Cr) Substituting Eq. (19.4) in Eq. (19.1), we get (194 = £(,8(Cx,r)) = Fr) ne If the input vector r is assumed to be consiant, Eq. (19.5) can be written as » b= F(nr) = Fx x= F(x,r)= F(x) (199 Lot us take a single output system as shown in Fig. 19.2 to obtain the state space equations forty given system. +V py ic ie a . a(s+2) aE Fig. 19.2 Single output system For plant we can write 1 = VO This gives the differential equation w=€+2é. Putting c=x, and x, =u-2é=u-2x,. In state space form we can write the plant differential equations as follows: = fu)=x, and = f,(xu)=-2x, +u The maximum effort of the controller is +U,, to -U, when error é = r-c is positive and negative, respectively. Mathematically we can write roc rx, Ir-e] "~ [r=x] U,sen(r-2,) where the function sgn(r-x,) has a value + 1 when (r — x,) is positive and it has a negative value wheo (r-x,) is negative. In state space form wé can write the controller differential equations as follows: =F(x,r)=x, F,(x,r) = -2x, +U, sgn(r—,)Non-Linear Control Systems | 799 phase Plane Method e hserved that non-linear system may be simplified to a non-linear second-order system wit oss 220 aproximations. We can apply very easily a ‘graphical representation of the phase trajectory foe d-ordr system, Isoclnes in a phase plane area very general and convenient graphical i aoe ong other existing methods. The main disadvantage in the phase plane technique is that the gars aene ea explicitly inthe trajectory. Let us discuss a graphical method for determining the does nO for a second-order system represented by . rajectory ; e E+ fi(c,e+ F,(de=r (19.7) ye f(od)éand flGAE are functions of c and é respectively ere i =c and x, =6, we get form Eq. (19.7) putting %, (19.8) wd 1 ~fQ%)% —AGp)% , (19.9) From Eqs. (19.8) and (19.9) we have 3 x fie %) Lex) tte Z (19.10) 44 : Equation (19.10) gives the slope of the trajectory at any point (x, x,). Let us take ax, 4 A, 19.11) &, ™ (19.11) where m is constant. We can write F(x,x,)=m x ae FQ x)= =fiG%)- AOE (19.12) 2M Any trajectory can cross the curve described by Eq, (19.12) and this curve is known as an isocline. Let us consider a second-order linear system as shown in Fig. 19.3 with input r(¢)=2u(#) and output c(t) having the following initial conditions: (0) =I and (0) = 0 From Fig. 19,2, we can write 5 - (8? +25+5)C(s) = 5R(S) z y 5(6+2) & Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get 64264+5e=5r210 (19.13) Fig. 19.3 Second-order linear systemFo 800 | Control systems Putting x, =c and x, = é, comparing Eq. (19.13) with Eq. (19.7) we get Alem) =2 aGiv%)= 5 As per Eq. (19.13), we get x10 m=-2-5++— aE The family of isoclines will have the following equation: SL ply nt med which describes a family of straight lines. The slope of these lines is given by These lines intersect the x axis at a point having the following value at the x coordinate: ie, 22. The common point of all isoclines is (2, 0). If m= 0, the equation for the isoclines will be aa-Sa45 Figure 19.4 shows the isoclines for different values of m. To get the phase plane trajectory foranon-linear system, let us consider Fig. 19.5 where inductance Land capacitance C are linear but resistance R is non-linear. Let the current characteristics of the non-linear resistance be given by Fig. 19.4 Isoclines of Fig. 19.3 i=-AV+BV? From Fig. 19.5, we get L v i 1 av lV -DarcT—av +B =0 (19.16) Differentiating Eq. (19.16) wars. 1, we get av av —— + —[3LBV? — = wat Fb ALJ+V =E i Fig. 19.5 A systemNon-Linear Control Systems | 01 (19.17) wd #.(4 (ae 49.18) . ae \icyae sing Eqs. (19-17) and (19.18), we get from Eq. (19.16) as av dv ot Oly af aa [E rer a w 19.19) its Brae ery bere anale panes A Form Eq, (19.19), we have 2 oT a -bY)]4V =E the standard values a = 0.2 and b = 1, we can Setting x,(t) = v(t) and x (D=VO) and assuming wit the following: x, =020-33)-% aS -4- 0.20-. -2)-3 “m= The equations of isoclines are given by 42 q-5m) 3 (19.20) For m = 0, the isoclines are given bY 5:- 802 | Control systems | Fig. 19.6 Isoclines and trajectories for a non-linear system Figure 19.6 shows the isoclines and trajectories for a non-linear system for different values of m. Fora non-linear system, we get a family of trajectories. Therefore, this diagram is also called phase portrait 19.3 Describing Function Analysis The steady-state output of a non-linear device will have the same period of output, but there is 0 guarantee that the output will be sinusoidal in spite of sinusoidal input. We know that the Fourier analysis of the fundamental ‘wave form will lead to a fundamental component as well as several harmoniss. It is assumed that subharmonics do not exist. If the feedback system shown in Fig. 19.7 is of low pis nature, the harmonics will be attenuated and may be neglected to get a reasonable approximation tothe performance of the system. There are possibilities of oscillations if the loop gain is one with a phat shift of 180°, + Non-linear Als) G(s) oa Gis) His) Fig. 19.7 Non-linear system- I Non-Linear Control Systems lex " 1 son ‘ofa nonlinear element and itis given by a Cd fac "ah isthe am te he OUP go the input faxes ot and @, is the phase shift of the fundamental harmonic component d= A +E (4 sine B, coset) =, +57, sin(nar +4) 2 pe JF vO cosnestd (or), B, = ok ‘y(e) sin n aot d (1) y= (AB ww (2) | oven non-linearity is symmetric, The fundamental component of the output is y, = A,cosat +B, sinant= ¥,sin(o+9,), where 1 [y@eosaraco amd ani ‘y(t)sin oot dct) 4 T ‘The amplitude and phase angle of ‘the fundamental component of the output are given by Ee “() "Pectively. 19, 3.1 Dead-Zone Non-Linearity Rig ee 8 shows idealized characteristics of non Aen input. No output can be obtained within ratio of the fundamental harmonic component of the output to the input define | 803 s the Jitude of the input sinusoid, Y, is the amplitude of the fundamental harmonic compo- of the output with ibe the input to a non-linear element, by Fourier series the output is given by (19.21) (19.22) linearity having dead-zone and its response due to the dead-zone amplitude for inputs to a dead-zonex() =X sin ot Fig. 19.8 Sinusoidal response of non-linearity with dead-zone linearity From Fig. 19.8 the output y(/) for 0 < wt $ mis given by 0 for O] 7] 20° (19.26) 4 goro| eM {ps (2) see A Figure 19.9 shows the plot of N/K versus =a (19.25) ‘he dese 08 06) xlz 04 02 “0 602 04 06 08 1.0 & x Fig. 19.9 Describing function for the dead-zone non-linearity | | | | | 183.2 Saturation Non-Linearity Fue 19.10 shows a typical input-output characteristic for the saturation non-linearity. In this case, the Of the saturation element is proportional to the input for small input signals, the output will not Proportionally for larger input signals and at last the output is constant for very large signals. Figure 19.10 shows thatthe output is odd and the fundamental component contains only sine terms, ntal harmonic component of output is given by WO) = B, sinoWit) = yy Sin ot x(t) = X sin at Fig. 19.10 Sinusoidal response of non-linearity with saturation non-linearity where 1 yosinaxd wr) = {Rosin ord (wr) (19.27) i © From Fig. 19.10, the output y(t) for 0< @r 0. K(X-A) forazor2B y()=4K(S-A) for B2ar>(n-B) K(X-A) for (n-B) 2 of 2 (n-@) 0 for (n-0) 20127 Since the output is an odd term, w= D8, coset. el The output has also half-wave as well as quarter-wave symmetry also, The fundamental harmonic component is given by »()= B, sinot 14 i a 12 CI Y 10 na a ‘San N fir 6 rt 4 my 3 LH Fig. 19.16 Describing function for the on-off non-linearity Fig. 19.17 Sinusoidal response of non-linearity with dead zone and saturationrrr Se i Non-Linear Control Systems | 814 “ x . : [xo sinaraco=2 [7 y@sinotd(ot) 4g F : Ji KCxsinwt—A)sinord(on += ff K(S—A)sin ord(o [2(B— 0) + (sin 2B -sin 2a.)] he describing function is given by 0 for|X| N _} 1-2 @+sineccoso. for A<|X|<5,B== 19.35) ( | K x 2 | 1 2@@-a)+(sin2B-sin2a)] for|X|>S © Forsaturation non-linearity A=0 and a=0 Therefore, the describing function in given by 1 : for|X|S (19.36) Figure 19.18 shows the describing function of saturation non-linearity. Dead-zone non-linearity In this case S—> o, B = 1/2. Therefore, the describing function is given by 0 for|X|A Figure 19.19 shows the describing function with dead-zone non-linearity.812 | contro! systems XN K N 10 K a 1.0 08 as os 04 02 oq Poe ee ote2e4680 X 24 6 8 10 s x é Fig. 19.18 Describing function of Fig. 19.19 Describing function of saturation non-linearity dead-zone non-linearity For relay with dead zone In this case S = A and slope K = eo and the saturation value is |0|. Taking a= B, the expression for N/M is given by 0 for|X|A 19.3.6 On-Off Non-Linearity with Hysteresis Figure 19.20 shows the input-output characteristic curve of an on-off element. Let the input (4) = X'sin ot, X> h where h is the dead zone of the on-off non-linearity with hysteresis. The output is given by M fort, sts(E+s) -M tor(Eo)si<(224 ) o o 4) Due to odd symmetry of the output, its fundamental contains only sine tems. The fundamental harmonic component is given by = (1939) where of, = sin where Pipettes a zB, =f y(Osinotd(cr) = 212" yosinard (a) =2 fa sinavd (on = ne : ple S X WXNon-Linear Control Systems | 813 output yi) ym” -h ym Bn ' Beat * ee xt) =Xsin of 8 iv rig. 19.20 Sinusoidal response of relay with hysteresis-type non-linearity wave and it lags behind the input by an angle ~sin' (WX) and the describing ‘pe output is a square fuooion for the non-linear element is given by 4M. Nelo Z-sio aX ‘N versus h/X. ( Jin arr instead of. x x Generally its convenient fo plot (HIMYN = Figure 19.21 shows the plot Of ANIM versus HX. {9.3.7 Relay with Dead Zone and Hysteresis Figure 19.22 shows the input-output characteristics of @ relay with dead-zone hysteresis. The output yO) isgiven by 9 foros wt S™ 4M for 0S oF sm yt=7° for (n-B)S OFS (n+0) M for (ara) sos 2R-P) 9 foran-BS% <2n 1 [4 —2h/X]- here c= sin! (A/X) and B= sitPr ae ee. 814 | Control Systems aa 10° 20° 10 ape — 40° 08 50" 60° 06 ~70° hn A) -e0e 04 M -80° 02 0 02 04 06 08 1.0 Fig. 19.21 Describing function for the non-off non-linearity with hysteresis (n+) ot | 2x (2n+B) Fig. 19.22 Sinusoidal response of relay with dead-zone and hysteresis 2p 2 ie 4Mh 4 =f YQ) cos ar d(at) = S(t cose daw) =— =F gi aleNon-Linear Controt Systems "| 815 i ZU 0 sinex ator = 25 a sinc dwt) = A (eosa.tcosp) 22M) Winfia yi 4-2hy A -F 2%) 3B, _2M ay A-2hy Xo ax x) Md Yao 1-(2) + 1-(224) herefore, . 7 e 4 ) 3 B, 4) fA tf Be Re (4 x | <1 4 for |X|2 4 2 19.4 Stability The stability characteristic of a non-linear system canbe determined using Lyapunov method. The fol- loving definitions are important before studying the Iyapunov method. Letus consider a scalar function F of state variable Bie, Fl) = Pict, xy xy. x). If the function Phas always a positive or negative sign in a region ‘bout the origin except at the origin, the function is ‘id to be positive or negative definite. The function Feal+a2+32 is positive definite in three- ensional space except at the origin. The function 2x'~3x3 Sx? is negative definite in three- oenionl space except at the origin. The function -60° ,, “i~5)+ (x, ~7) isnot positive definite because = values at x,=5 and x,=7 also. This -90° nis called positive semi-definite. Similarly, the Fax 5) —3(x, —7)? is not negative us 5 ‘ithas zero valuesat x, =5 and x,=7 Fig. 19.25 Describing function of backlash ion is called negative semi-definite. non-linearity IKI “Nxa 818 | Control Systems 19.4.1 Lyapunov’s First Theorem If there exists a scalar function F(x) for an autonomous system x= F(x) such F(x) is real, continuous with continuous first order partial derivatives and FQ)=0 : F(x)>0. forall x#0, and AFC) © forall x#0 dt 1m is asymptotically stable in the neighbourhood of the origin.'On the other hand, it Then, the syste F(2) — o, the system is stable but there is no assurance for asymptotic stability. The function F(x) is dt known as Lyapunov's function. Let us consider and autonomous system expressed as Rex 5 =m % Let us take Lyapunov’s function as Faxtx Here F = x? +x2 is positive definite. Therefore, F(0)=0. Now, dF _ OF ox, OF ax, ‘dt dx, Ot Ox, at = 2x,8, + 2x, (-m,%, — m,X,) = 23 ,¥, — Dx. — 24 MH = 2(4, =x, — 4%) = [20-—m, )x, - 2m, x5], For m,=1 and m,>0, we get aF ia Therefore, for any value of x,,d¥/dt = 0 if x, 19.4.2 Lyapunov’s Second Method IfA is a positive matrix, we can write © F(@)=x7Ax 8F(x) or Again i= Bx. Therefore, 37 = x7 BT 3F@) & XT AR+XTAR = Axt x7 At = x7 Bl Ax+ x7 AB = x! (BT A+ AB)xNon-Linear Control Systems | 819 C=-(BYA+ AB) ut aF@) _ - se oO = F()=-x7Cx. selecting arbitrarily a positive definite or semi-definite matrix for C, we can solve for C. The neces- se sufficient condition for asymptotic stability is thatthe matrix C must be positive definite. 38 arin isd tobe postive definite if ts symmetic component is positive definite. Now [eras an)Lura+20)] <_[gr( Ata), (4447 “ [=( 2 Jef 2 a] Let A o-(? Z ) 2 vihere D is symmetric, ‘Therefore, we can write C=-[B"D+ DA] Let us consider an autonomous system expressed as For the system we can write EHS ai} Fad Leste ae, Let C=(B'D+DB)=1 is (aye 2he aye {eRe 1 Mm, Dy Dy Dy Dy a My, 3 0 From the above equation, we can write (19.43) -2m,D,, = (19.44) Dy —™Di— Pig 2D,,-2m,D,, =-) (19.45)H 820 | control Systems From Eqs. (19.43)-(19.45) we set 1 meemitm, me ee +1 1 = Dye and Pa = 3mm, sitive definite To make D po: Pet 2 DyDn- Da? From Eqs. (19.46) and (19.47) we get mtmitm, 4 ‘2mm, and nt +(m, +1] > 0 vine ae oe To make Eq. (19.49) true, m, > 0 and [{mz +(m, +1)?}/m}] is greater than zero. (1945 (1947, (19.48) (19.49) Here m,>0 and to make D positive definite, m, must be greater than zero. For stability fom Lyapunov’s second method, m, > 0 and m, >0. In Lyapunov's first method we have already considered m,>0 and m, must be greater than zero. Therefore, Lyapunov’s first method is highly conservative. SIGNIFICANT POINTS Non-Linear Control Systems: There are control systems which do not have any linearized version and its vey 0, = 1/2. Therefore, the describing function is given by 0 for|X|A Off Non-Linearity with Hysteresis =f eso mX822 | Control Systems Relay with Dead-Zone Hysteresis 4) (4) -(4) for |X|>4 4) +(2) eam ( By ett> 0 for|X|0- forall x#0 dF (x) FO <9 forall x40 <0 forall: ‘Then, the system is asymptotically stable in the neighbourhood of the origin. On the other hand, if a = <0, the system is stable but there is no assurance for asymptotic stability. The function F(x) is known as Lyapunov's function. Lyapunoy’s Second Method: If 4 is a positive matrix, we can write P(x)=x7 Ar BFC) tad era or Again i= Bx. Therefore 7 = x"BT, Fe HT Att x" A= xBT Ax x ABr= x1 (BTA + AB)x Let C=~(BTA+ AB) Therefore, ee) =FQ)=-"'e Selecting arbitrarily a positive definite or semi-definite matrix for C, we can solve for C. The necessary #0 sufficient condition for asymptotic stability is that the matrix Camust be positive definite,824 | Control systems TEST YOURSELF A non-linear control system A=(0,0) and B=(x,0) will be, respectively, (b) centre and focus (@) centre and saddle 2. Alinear control system is shown below. Ithe intercept of Ga) on the negative real axis org, aa lang 0) , the amplitude of the limit eycle is (- described by the equation 6+ sin @=0, The type of singly (©) focus and saddle (qy Sada Gs) wok ale Figure 1 (@) m () 2m © 3m 3. For determination of stability of a non-linear control G(j@) and -1/N(s) drawn as shown below for an input (©) unstable and stable P and Q will be respectively, (@) stable and stable (b) stable and unstable 4. Non-linearities can be (@) incidental 5. The intentional non-linear systems are (@) On-off transducers (©) non-linear pitch or dampers in airéraft control 6. Non-linearity occurs in servomotor due to (a) dead space (b) static friction (@) backlash (©) saturation 7. Introduction of non-linearities (@) produces non-linear motion of the system (b) intentional (©) simplifies the system (4) all of theses i ANSWERS 1@20 3@ 4@ s@ 6@ (©) linearized @ 4m system by the deseribing function metho, te paso x= X sin aw. The types of limit eyes atthe pone (@ unstable and unstable @) either (@) orb) (b) contractors servos @all of these (©) coulomb friction (b) achieves special characteristics, (©) both (b) and (c) 7©| . a SECOND EDITION Control Systems mHEORY Aenee APPLICATIONS TTY a ‘A Smarajit Ghosh Fc) a” ae ee aT Oe ee