“Effect of fire on structure with case study on collapse of

World Trade Centre”

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

Urmi Vyas [160320106560]

Sristi Tripathi [160320106555]
Riddhi Jain [160320106029]
Ashvini Parmar [160320106058]
Puja Lohia []
In fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In

Department of Civil Engineering

L.J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Ahmedabad

Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad

“November, 2019”

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 CERTIFICATE

Date: 21/09/2019

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Effect of fire on structure with

case study on collapse of World Trade Centre” has been carried out by Urmi

Vyas, Sristi Tripathi, Ashvini Parmar, Riddhi Jain, Puja Lohia under my

guidance in fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil

Engineering (7th Semester) of Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad

during the academic year 2019-20.

Internal Guide HOD

[Mr. Hitesh Murari] [ Ms. Zalak Bhavsar]

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

L.J.I.E.T. L.J.I.E.T.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are sincerely thankful to all those people who have been giving us any kind of assistance in
making of this project.

We express our gratitude to Mr. Hitesh Murari, who has through his vast experience and knowledge
has been able to guide us, both ably and successfully towards the completion of our project. We
express our gratitude to L.J. Group of Institutes for encouraging us to implement our project and
providing support us for our project.

We would hereby, make most of the opportunity by expressing our sincerest thanks to all our
faculties whose teachings gave us conceptual understanding and clarity of comprehension, which
ultimately made our job easier. Credit also goes to our friends whose encouragement kept us in good
stead.

Last of all but not the least, we would like to acknowledge our gratitude to the companies without
whom this project would have been incomplete.

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 ABSTRACT

This paper provides a 'state of the art' review of research into the effects of high
temperature on concrete and concrete structure s, extending to a range of forms of
construction, including novel developments. The nature of concrete-based structures
means that they generally perform very well in fire. However, concrete is
fundamentally a complex material and its properties can change dramatically when
exposed to high temperatures.

The principal effects of fire on concrete are loss of compressive strength, and spalling
- the forcible ejection of material from the surface of a member. Though a lot of
information has been gathered on both phenomena, there remains a need for more
systematic studies of the effects of thermal exposures. The response to realistic fires of
whole concrete structures presents yet greater challenges due to the interact ions of
structural elements, the impact of complex small-scale phenomena at full scale, and
the spatial and temporal variations in exposures, including the cooling phase of the
fire. Progress has been made on modelling the thermomechanical behaviour but the
treatment of detailed behaviours, including hyg ral effects and spalling, remains a
challenge. Furthermore, there is still a severe lack of data from real structures for
validation, though some valuabl e insights may also be gained from study of the
performance of concrete st ructures in real fires.

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Table Description Page No.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Description Page No.

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 Table of Content

Acknowledgement i
Abstract ii

List of Table iii

List of Figures v

Table of Content vii

Chapter : 1 Introduction

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 1.1 02
1.2 04
1.3 05

Chapter : 2 Need

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 2.1

Chapter : 3 Methodology

3.1 Preparatory work

3.2 Starting of block work
3.3 Block laying, alignment & jointing
3.4 Curing

Chapter : 4 Objectives

4.1 Uses
4.2 Advantages

Chapter : 5 Analysis

5.1 Thermal performance test

5.2 Cost analysis of aac blocks v/s clay bricks
5.3 Comparision between clay & red brick

Chapter : 6 Literature review

Chapter : 7 Conclusion

Chapter : 8 References

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a load bearing building material with a low density due to
its higher porosity compared to other load bearing building materials. By varying production
parameters, AAC can be produced in a wide variety of densities in the range of 93–1800 kg/m^3
whereas its constituent particle density is around 2600 kg/m^3. In other words 30–90% of its
volume consists of pores. Consequently, at low densities AAC reaches a low thermal
conductivity that is an advantage in terms of thermal insulation at ambient temperatures as well
as an asset for resistance against fire. The lighter weight implies a better sustainability too
assuming the benifit for less material outweighs potentially higher energy costs for production,
which together with non-combustibility represent additional assets of this material in the building
industry. Since the mechanical strength of this material decreases as the density decreases,
optimisation for the intended application is required. A recent review of AAC gives only a short
account of the fire-resisting properties of this material and refers to a study made half a century
ago. Most of the published studies deal with the mechanical performance of different type of
AAC and investigate methods to enhance it. Recently, Andreinietal have investigated the
mechanical behaviour of masonry materials including AAC at fire temperatures without going
into the details of the thermo-physical properties and their change with temperature. The
constituent materials oF AAC are lime, gypsum, finely dispersed aluminium, cement and sand
(SiO2). Its structure is similar to that of Tobermorite with water molecules absorbed between
crystallographic planes. For an ACC of 530 kg/m^3 a typical raw composition of 67% sand, 19%
cement, 10% hydrated lime and finally 4% gypsum (anhydrite) has been reported. The present
research investigates the thermo-physical properties of AAC subjected to fire at different
dimensional scales. Hereby, thermal analysis methods, fire tests and transient numerical
simulations complemented each other in enabling a general view and providing a plausible
physical explanation of the observed behaviour.

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2. NEED

AAC is well suited for high-rise buildings and those with high temperature variations. Due to its
lower density, high-rise buildings constructed using AAC require less steel and concrete for
structural members. The mortar needed for laying of AAC blocks is reduced due to the lower
number of joints.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preparatory work:

Ensure the availability of detailed layout of the building showing room dimensions, thickness of
walls at various locations in the building, details of openings to be provided in the walls for
doors, windows, ventilators, exhaust fan openings & other openings, details for doors, window,
ventilator frames and their fixing means like holdfast, anchor bolts etc and their levels of cross
walls to ensure proper bond in main walls, locations of concealed items such as electrical
conduits, telephone conduits location details of items such as water supply pipes with details of
inlet, outlet and crossings of service lines, sanitary pipes with details of inlet, out et and pipe
sleeves to be left in walls for other services pipes.

3.2 Starting of Block work:

1. Mark on the surface to establish the wall lines to attain proper layout of block work &
maintain mark till the first course is fully laid.

2. Scrub& clean with proper tool, Hack the concrete surface where new block work is to be done.

3. Before commence block work, check reference point such as bench mark, damp proof course
level, lintel level, bed block level, cross beam level etc & be sure where to terminate the top most
block course, after the same is studied in detail as stated above.

4. Blocks should not be damp at the time of staring masonry. When much water is present on the
blocks then the mortar will become watery leading to a weak masonry. The blocks must be semi
dry or skin wet.

5. Mix quantity of mortar, which will be consumed in next 2 hours only. Mixing shall be done
with proper measurement of ingredients. Mixing platform must be clean.

6. Mixing mortar shall be in accordance with IS:2250. The mortar mix for laying shall be one

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part cement to four parts of sand (1:4) for 100mm masonry wall.

7. Add water to dry mix of cement and sand in required quantity. No wet cement to be mixed to
get the mortar.

8. RCC mullions & transom shall be provided as per the approved drawings.

3.3 Block laying, alignment & jointing:

1. Carry out one row of block work with dry bond, wall to establish the proper spacing of blocks.

2. Lay one block at a time & gently pressing it in the mortar bed.

3. Use a line thread from one end to end with a line pin.

4. Excess mortar coming out on the edge to be taken by trowel & buttered to the cross directional
joint or head joint surface of the next block being laid.

5. Use straight edge & sprit levels on the top of the blocks laid & check the top level. Make sure
that the spirit level is in working condition & read the bubble carefully.

6. Repeat the above points for building more courses. After every two courses of block work
laid, check the verticality & level by plumb bob and level tube, sight down the wall.

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3.3.1 Slurry tank

3.3.2 Main mixture and mould

3.3.3 Autoclave

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3.4 Curing
1. In hot & dry weather the mortar is likely to dry up before it has attained its final set in the
block work. This leads to crumbling of mortar and resulting in weak block masonry. This shall be
prevented, by keeping the new block work constantly wet.

2. Curing for seven days if cement sand mortar is used.

4. OBJECTIVES

4.1 Uses
AAC is a highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both interior and
exterior construction. Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its advantages is quick and
easy installation, because the material can be routed, sanded, or cut to size on site using standard
power tools with carbon steel cutters.
AAC is well suited for high-rise buildings and those with high temperature variations.
Due to its lower density, high-rise buildings constructed using AAC require less steel and
concrete for structural members. The mortar needed for laying of AAC blocks is reduced due to
the lower number of joints. Similarly, the material required for rendering is also lower due to the
dimensional accuracy of AAC. The increased thermal efficiency of AAC makes it suitable for
use in areas with extreme temperatures, as it eliminates the need for separate materials for
construction and insulation, leading to faster construction and cost savings.
Even though regular cement mortar can be used, most of the buildings erected with AAC
materials use thin bed mortar in thicknesses around ⅛ inch, depending on the national building
codes. AAC materials can be coated with a stucco or plaster compound to guard against the
elements, or covered with siding materials such as brick or vinyl.

4.2 Advantages

 Improved thermal efficiency reduces the heating and cooling load in buildings.

 Porous structure gives superior fire resistance.

 Workability allows accurate cutting, which minimizes the generation of solid waste
during use.

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 Resource efficiency gives it lower environmental impact in all phases of its life cycle,
from the processing of raw materials to the disposal of waste.

 Lightweight saves cost and energy in transportation, labour expenses, and increases
chances of survival during seismic activity.

 Larger size blocks leads to faster masonry work.

 Reduces project cost.

 Environmentally friendly: It produces at least 30% less solid waste than traditional
concrete. There is a decrease of 50% of greenhouse gas emissions.

 Fire resistant: As with regular concrete, AAC is fire resistant.

 Great ventilation: This material is very airy and allows diffusion of water. This reduces
the humidity inside the building. AAC will absorb moisture and release humidity. This
helps to prevent condensation and other problems that are related to mildew.

 Non-toxic: There are no toxic gases or other toxic substances in autoclaved aerated \
concrete. It neither attracts rodents or other pests nor can it be damaged by such.

 Accuracy: The panels and blocks made of autoclaved aerated concrete are produced to
the exact sizes needed before leaving the factory. There is less need for on-site trimming.
Since the blocks and panels fit so well together, there is less use of finishing
materials such as mortar.

 Long lasting: The life of this material is extended because it is not affected by harsh
climates or extreme weather changes. It will not degrade under normal climate changes.

5. ANALYSIS

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Wall is a major structural component of a structure constituting 75% of the structure. Therefore
to improve the thermal performance of the structure we need to improve the thermal performance
of the walls by using insulating and low conductivity materials like AAC blocks masonry.
Following compressive strength, density and thermal behaviour is studied and analysed.
Materials used: AAC blocks of 600X200X150mm size with joint mortar in bonding and plaster
with mortar blocks. Various checks are done by following tests:
Compressive strength test, bond behaviour check, crack visibility and thermal comfort study.
1. Strength behaviour check under varying temperatures :
Test specimens were of size 150mm×150mm×200mm
• Total 6 specimens from which 3 specimens were subjected to varying temperature of
600C, 1200C and 1800C with duration of 60 min each block using hot air and brought
them to room temperature and tested individually for the load carrying capacity.
• Similarly, other 3 were tested for its load carrying capacity at room temperature by
immersing them immediately in water after subjecting them to temperatures 600C, 1200C
and 1800C for 60min

Following observations were made after the tests

• Average Compressive strength of the AAC block was 4.5MPa.
• For the study of strength behaviour both the sets of specimens were exposed to varying
temperatures for a constant duration of 60 min and different cooling conditions no cracks
were observed on the surface of both the set of specimens
• When the comparison for strength was made with 2 sets not much variation in strength.
• In the case of set 2 specimens the ones water cooled, around 20-30% reduction in
strength was observed up to 1200c.
• Compressive strength drastically reduced when it exposed to 1500c about 35 %
followed by cooling the blocks to room temperature.
• At 1500c slight colour change to pale yellow observed.

2. Prisms were casted for 2 sets of blocks using Cement mortar of 1:3 ratio and 1:6 ratio
Test specimens were of size 150mm×150mm×200mm
• The casted prisms were air cooled for first 24 hours followed by 72 hours of water-
cooling.
• Then cured prisms were subjected to varying temperature cycles of 400c for 1 hour
followed by 500 c for 2 hours and 600 c for 3 hours in controlled hot air oven.
• The prisms were visually analysed for the bond behaviour with varying mortar
thickness and ratios.
OBSERVATIONS:
• With mortar mix of (1:6) of 2mm thickness the blocks were separated due to poor
bonding. Hence, 2mm thickness may not be recommended in this case .Based on the
trials conducted with 2mm,4mm and 6mm thick cement mortar it was observed that a
minimum of 4 mm thick CM is preferred in case of 1:6 ratio.

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 • Whereas in the case of cement mortar plastering of 1 :3 ratio, no surface cracks were
seen on the surface of specimen up to 500 c. But beyond this temperature, surface cracks
appeared on the surface.
Fire resistance tests affected colour, weight and especially compressive strength of AAC blocks.
Samples colour start becoming darker from its original whitish colour as temperature increases
up to 900 oC, whereas samples subjected to 1000 oC that showed a brighter white colour. Weight
and compressive strength of all samples started to decrease comparing to its original dry state,
this indicates that AAC losses its mass and mechanical properties subjected to the elevated
temperature. I the decreasing in the mechanical properties subjected to the elevated temperatures
is acceptable up to 500 oC, up to which shows only a slight reduction in AAC properties.

5.1 THERMAL PERFORMANCE TEST:

Thermal performance tests were carried out at three different conditions:
1) Three different humidity conditions.
2) AAC panel tested with and without coating. Gypsum coating was applied on the both faces of
the panel of thickness of 10 mm.
3) AAC block wall tested at three different temperatures under constant conditions. Samples
were kept at specified temperatures for 95 minutes.
According to the test results after 15% to 45% increasing in humidity conditions,
including 280 minutes heating under constant conditions, temperature on the outside
surface of AAC wall increased with average amounts of

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5.1.1 FIRE RESISTANT TEST APARATUS

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5.1.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY TEST APPARATUS

5.2 Cost analysis of aac blocks v/s clay bricks

COST CALCULATION FOR AAC Parameter Clay Bricks AAC Blocks

BLOCKS AND CLAY BRICK FOR 1
M³ [1:4] S. No.
1. Quantity Analysis 200mmx 600mm x
100mm x 200mm x
100mm 200mm
2. No. of bricks / blocks 500 No. 37 No.
3. Mortar Quantity 0.2766 M³ 0.1344 M³
4. No. of begs of cement 1.65 NO. 1 No.
5. Quantity of Sand 0.221 M³ 0.1075 M³
6. Quantity of Water 31 Liters 16 Liters
7. Rate Analysis 5252.00 Rs. 5052.00 Rs.
per square per square
meter meter

Plaster Work
1. Volume of mortar for 1.8M³ 1M³
plaster
2. The volume of mortar 2.25 M³ 1.25 M³
by 25% for wastage
and frog filling
3. Quantity of cement 0.45 M³ 0.25 M³

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 4. No. of begs of cement 13.5 NO 7.5NO.
5. Quantity of Sand 1.8 M³ 1 M³
6. Quantity of Water 236.25 Liters 131.25 Liters
7. Rate Analysis 171.00 Rs .per 91.10.00 Rs.
square meter per square
meter

5.3 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS TABLE BETWEEN CLAY AND RED BRICK

S. Parameter Clay Bricks AAC Blocks Remarks
No.
1. Material Silica (sand) + Quartz sand + claimed The raw materials used for AAC Blocks
composition Alumina (clay) gypsum + production, have been found to be eco –
+ lime (mineral) and/or friendly, as very little cement is used. The
Lime + Iron cement use of fly ash in this venture makes us to
oxide Aluminium powder + utilize a waste material from thermal
+ Magnesia fly ash plants. AAC blocks can use fly ash(70%
In other words- In Other Words-Cement of its weight), thus provides the most
Top Soil +Fly Ash constructive solution to the nation’s fly-
ash utilization problem
2. Size 225 mm x 100 600 / 625 mm x 200 / Bricks need more mortar since size is
mm x 65 mm / 240 mm x100-300 mm smaller. But Mortar requirement is lesser
230 mm x 75 in AAC blocks due to Bigger size.
mm x 115 mm
3. Precision in 5 mm (+/-) 1.5 mm (+/-) The AAC block is dimensionally more
Size accurate as it is produced with wire cut
technology in a certified factory.
4. Compressive 2.5-3 N/mm2 3-4 N/mm2 (IS 2185, AAC blocks has higher compressive
Strength Part-3) strength i.e.it can withstand greater loads
than bricks
5. Dry Density 1800-2000 kg/ 600-800 kg/m3 Using AAC Blocks reduces the load on
m3 the foundation and other structural
components in a structure due to its lower
self-weight. 55%reduction in weight of
walls. Up to 15% savings in cost of
structure has been observed. Because of
reduction in self-weight, AAC block

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 Construction attracts, Less earthquake
load.
6. Fire Around 2 hours Up to 7 hours. AAC blocks have air voids and hence
Resistance (8″ have better fire resisting property
wall) compared to red clay bricks. The melting
point of AAC blocks are over 1600
Degree Celsius, more than twice the
typical temperature in building fire 650
degree Celsius.
7. Energy Saving Low Approx. 25% reduction AAC blocks are resistant to thermal
in air variations. It reduces the total load of
conditioner load /25 – refrigeration and air conditioning.
30% less electricity Though initial installation cost may
consumption on HVAC remain same but AAC blocks reduces
operation and maintenance cost
drastically.
8. Reuse of None Fly ash AAC blocks use Bio product of power
waste product plants
9. Efflorescence Generally Absent AAC blocks don’t have efflorescence,
Present superior than Bricks
10 Pigmentation Mineral oxides Natural and synthesized
. in clay plus mineral oxide pigments -
natural and
synthesized
miner a oxide
pigments
11. Thermal K value = 0.81 K value = 0.16 W/mk AAC Blocks with very low thermal
Conductivity W/mk conductivity keeps interior remain cool in
summer and warm in winter and best for
both internal and external construction
12 Embodied High (900-1000 Low. (50-100 kWh/m3) AAC Blocks consume approx. 70% less
. Energy kWh/m3) energy than Clay bricks. AAC block
/Energy covers greater area for the same mass of
needed to brick used thus saves on transportation
produce the costs and conserves precious fuel.
building
material
13 Speed of Comparatively Very high due to bigger The Productivity of the mason (with
. construction lower size, light weight. Can AAC blocks) increases up to 3 times,
have a Tongue -Groove because of less number of joints
Profile, which results in
faster
construction, saving on
Labor and jointing
mortar due to
elimination of vertical

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 joints

14 Moisture Average Very Good AAC Blocks do not have any ‟micro-
. Resistance pores‟ or continuous ‟capillaries‟
through which exterior surface water can
be absorbed to interiors. It means longer
life to the paints and interiors free from
growth of any kind of fungus, providing
healthier and long lasting interiors to the
occupants.
AAC Block’s water barrier properties are
further enhanced by adding silicon based
additives.
15 Water 22 – 30 (suction 4 – 6 (no continuous Use of AAC Blocks leads to Long life of
. Absorption through pores and capillaries) paint and healthy interiors.
Coefficient capillary action)
in Kg/ m2 x
h0.5
16 Water High. 20% by Very High. 45% by The volume of AAC is 20% solid
. absorption volume volume material and80% air. Due to the closed
% by weight cell structure of AAC, the water
absorption only takes place through the
soli material. This solid is only 20% of
the volume, which the water absorption
of AAC strongly reduces.
17 Noise More than 50db 40-45db for 200mm The AAC Block has better sound
. Transmission / for 230mm thick thick wall insulation properties, due to its air voids
Sound wall presence. AAC blocks have an excellent
Insulation Sound transmission Class (STC) rating of
up to 45 db. Therefore it is an ideal
material for wall construction in hotels,
auditoriums, studios, hospitals etc.
18 Ease of Use / Low High Can be cut into AAC Blocks can be easily cut, drilled,
. Workability require sizes. nailed, milled and grooved to fit
It can be sawn, drilled, individual requirements. Available in
nailed, grooved etc. Can custom sizes. Simplifies hydro-sanitary
be used to create arches, and electrical installations, such as pipes
curves etc. Can have or ducts, which can be installed after the
Hand Grips, which gives main construction is complete.
ease in lifting &
placement.
19 Cost Benefit None Dead weight reduction AAC blocks reduce overall cost of
. leads reduction in construction
consumption of steel
and cement and lesser
excavation for

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 foundations.
20 Speed of Low High AAC Reduces construction time by 20%.
. manufacturing Different sizes of blocks help reduce the
number of joints in wall masonry.
Lighter blocks make construction easier
and faster. Easy to install. Sets and
hardens quickly.
21 Quality / Normally varies Uniform and finished AAC Blocks being produced in a factory
. Durability with automated processes, so, they have
uniform quality and hence are more
durable.
22 Water usage Water Usage High, needs curing Low, needs only surface
. during during before use wetting before use
manufacturing Manufacturing
23 Applicability Load bearing & -Load Bearing masonry Band width of applicability is higher in
. Non-load up to 2 to 3 story. AAC Blocks, they are especially used in
bearing -Partition walls in Load
Bearing and Framed
Structures.
-Infill walls in Multi-
storey Building Frames
both internal and
external
Walls.
-All Filling are as
including in flat slabs
and instead of brick bats
in
Weathering course, over
roof.
24 Earth quake Average. Good. Generally, they Earthquake forces on structure are
. resistant Conditional have Conformance to proportional to the weight of the
Conformance to requirement of seismic building, hence AAC blocks shows
seismic zones zone IV & V. excellent resistant to earthquake forces.
IV & V They absorb and transmit less seismic
forces in event of any earthquake. The
structure has millions of tiny cells which
cushions buildings from major force,
preventing progressive collapse. Regions
of the seismic activities like exclusively
use AAC blocks. It has been proven to
withstand wind loads of category 5
tropical storms
25 Mortar 1.40 bag of 0.5 bag of cement AAC blocks are 7 times bigger than the
. consumption cement size of the conventional bricks. Bigger
per M3 with size means less number of joints. Less

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 1:6 joints results in lesser quantity of mortar
for building. There is overall60%
reduction in use of Mortar.
26 Savings in - Overall 35% reduction AAC blocks have uniform shape and
. Plaster in the cost of plastering. texture which gives even surface to the
walls. The AAC Block, when built has
both faces as fair faces unlike brick work,
which has only one face as a fair face.
Hence, the thickness of Plaster for AAC
block is much less compared to
conventional bricks
27 Maintenance High Comparatively Lesser -AAC block reduces operating cost by
. due to its superior 30% to40%.
properties -Reduces overall construction cost by
2.5% as it requires less jointing and
reduces need for cement and steel.
-High-insulation blocks save up to 30%
in energy costs.
-Wall painting and plastering last longer
as almost nil efflorescence affects AAC.
This translates into lower maintenance
costs.
29 Wastage Due Approximate 10 Minimal (1-2%) If any breakage in the AAC blocks, it
. to to 12% would be into two or three pieces which
Breakages can be utilized in masonry as "brick bat".
30 Pest & Termite Low High.AAC blocks are in AAC Blocks do not allow spread of
. Resistance organic, insect resistant termites and growth of pests and hence
and solid wall provides longer life to expensive wooden
Construction material. interiors.
Termites and ants do not
eat or nest in AAC
Blocks.
31 Fume Average Good. AAC Blocks are completely inorganic
. Resistance and hence do not generate any toxic
fumes or poisonous gases harmful to the
occupants. The air tight nature of blocks
also prevents toxic fumes from spreading
into

6. LITERATURE REVIEW

7. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a technical review of the process, lab scale production method and some

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preliminary data of AAC blocks. The main advantages of concrete obtained are:
• it is large in size, however light in weight;
• lightweight, in turn, saves foundation costs;
• high load-bearing strength;
• highly durable, which means, long life.
• highly economical;
• easy handling, rapid construction;
• best thermal insulation, 6-10 times better than regular concrete;
• unsurpassed fire-resistance;
• excellent sound adsorption, ideal for the hospitality industry;
• good workability, better than wood (can be sawn, drilled, nailed and milled at site).

8. REFERENCES

1.Implementing the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) - Featuring

Country Reports 2012. ADENE 2013, 307-318.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
2.Europe’s Buildings under the Microscope. A Country-by-Country Review of the
Energy Performance of Buildings. Build. Perform. Inst. Europe (BPIE), 2011.
3.Thermal Regulation for Buildings. C107 – 1997… 2011.
4.Elements for Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Masonry. SR EN 771 – 4/2004.
5.Thermal insulation – Determination of Steady-State Thermal Transmission
Properties – Calibrated and Guarded Hot Box. SR EN ISO 8990:2002.
6.Thermal Performance of Building Products and Components – Specific Criteria for
the Assessment of Laboratories Measuring Heat Transfer Properties – Part 3:
Measurements by Heat Flow Meter Method. SR EN 1946 – 3:2004.
7.Standard for the Design and Execution of Thermal Insulation of Buildings. C 107/0
– 2002.
8.Thermal Performance of Building Materials and Products – Determination of

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Thermal Resistance by Means of Guarded Hot Plate and Heat Flow Meter
Methods – Dry and Moist Products of Medium and Low Thermal Resistance.
SR EN 12664:2002.
9 . Elhaddad M.H., Improvements of concrete properties to resist local climatic conditions in
the
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