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BRDA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Define business research.


The application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about business
phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating ideas, monitoring performance, and understanding the business
process.

2. Explain how research would help a manager to make better business decisions.
• Business research is designed to facilitate the managerial decision-making process for
all aspects of the business: finance, marketing, human resources, and so on.
• Business research is an essential tool for management in virtually all problem-solving
and decision-making activities.
• By providing the necessary information on which to base business decisions, research
can decrease the risk of making a wrong decision in each area. However, it is important
to note that research is an aid to managerial decision making, never a substitute for it.
3. Do managers always need to conduct research to make business decisions? State the
criteria for deciding whether to conduct a business research or not.
• The need to make intelligent, informed decisions ultimately motivates an organization to
engage in business research. Not every decision requires research. Thus, when confronting
a key decision, a manager must initially decide whether or not to conduct business research.
• The determination of the need for research centers on
• Time constraints,
• The availability of data,
• The nature of the decision to be made,
• The value of the research information in relation to costs.
4. Describe the process of scientific research.
The scientific method is the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to
reach objective conclusions about the real world.
The scientific method is the same in social sciences, such as business, as in physical
sciences, such as physics. In this case, it is the way we come to understand business
phenomena.
5. What is review of literature? Why is it done?
• A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to
a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem
being investigated.
• Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored
while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits within a larger field of study.
The purpose of a literature review is to:
• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

5. List and briefly illustrate the four scales of measurement in statistics / data analytics.
There are four measurement scales (or types of data): nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
•Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without
any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could simply be called “labels.” Here are
some examples, below. Notice that all of these scales are mutually exclusive (no
overlap) and none of them have any numerical significance
• Ordinal scales, the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known. Ordinal scales are typically measures
of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.
• Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both the order and the exact
differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same. For
example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is
the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.
• Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis.
These variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios).
Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion,
such as standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio
scales
6. What are primary and secondary data? How are they useful in research?
• Primary Data:
• These are the data which are collected from some primary sources i.e., a source
of origin where the data generate. These are collected for the first time by an
investigator or an agency for any statistical analysis. “Data which are gathered
originally for a certain purpose are known as primary data.” — Horace Secris.
• Secondary data: which are gathered and recorded by someone else prior to
(and for purposes other than) the current project. Secondary data usually are
historical and already assembled. They require no access to respondents or
subjects.
• Often research entails asking people—called respondents—to provide answers to
written or spoken questions. These interviews or questionnaires collect data
through the mail, on the telephone, online, or face-to-face
• Secondary data are essential in instances when data cannot be obtained using
primary data collection procedures. For example, a manufacturer of farm
implements could not duplicate the information in the Census of Agriculture
because much of the information there (for example, amount of taxes paid) might
not be accessible to a private firm.

7. What is the difference between a questionnaire and an interview schedule? Explain their
relevance to research.
8. What is focus group discussion and why it is undertaken?
• A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some
common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the
group and its interaction as a way to gain information about a specific or focused
issue.
• A focus group is typically 7-10 people who are unfamiliar with each other. These
participants are selected because they have certain characteristics in common that
relate to the topic of the focus group.
• The moderator or interviewer creates a permissive and nurturing environment that
encourages different perceptions and points of view, without pressuring
participants to vote, plan or reach consensus (Krueger, 1988).
• The group discussion is conducted several times with similar types of participants
to identify trends and patterns in perceptions. Careful and systematic analysis of the
discussions provide clues and insights as to how a product, service, or opportunity
is perceived by the group.

• WHAT FOCUS GROUPS CAN TELL YOU?


• Give information on how groups of people think or feel about a particular topic
• Give greater insight into why certain opinions are held
• Help improve the planning and design of new programs
• Provide a means of evaluating existing programs
• Produce insights for developing strategies for outreach

9. What is probability sampling? What are its various types?


• For a design to be called random sampling or probability sampling, it is imperative
that each element in the population has an equal and independent chance of
selection in the sample.
• Equal implies that the probability of selection of each element in the population is
the same; that is, the choice of an element in the sample is not influenced by other
considerations such as personal preference.
10. What is non-probability sampling? When should go for it?
• Non-probability sampling designs do not follow the theory of probability in the choice
of elements from the sampling population.
• Non-probability sampling designs are used when the number of elements in a
population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. In such situations
the selection of elements is dependent upon other considerations
11. Explain descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics:
• The term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data
in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
• Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the
data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might
have made.
• They are simply a way to describe our data. Typically, there are two general types
of statistic that are used to describe data: Measures of central tendency and
Measure of Speed

Inferential statistics:

• Inferential statistics use a random sample of data taken from a population to describe and
make inferences about the population. Inferential statistics are valuable when examination
of each member of an entire population is not convenient or possible.
• For example, to measure the diameter of each nail that is manufactured in a mill is
impractical. You can measure the diameters of a representative random sample of nails.
You can use the information from the sample to make generalizations about the diameters
of all of the nails.

12. What do you understand by testing of hypothesis? Why is it necessary?


• Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem, but are not
essential for a study. You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing a
single formal hypothesis.
• The importance of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction, specificity and
focus to a research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to collect,
and thereby provide greater focus.

13. Describe parametric test. Give examples.


• Parametric statistics involve numbers with known, continuous distributions. When the
data are interval or ratio scaled and the sample size is large, parametric statistical
procedures are appropriate.
• Parametric statistics are based on the assumption that the data in the study are drawn
from a population with a normal (bell-shaped) distribution and/or normal sampling
distribution. For example, if an investigator has two interval-scaled measures, such as
gross national product (GNP) and industry sales volume, parametric tests are
appropriate.
• Possible statistical tests might include product-moment correlation analysis, analysis
of variance, regression, or a t-test for a hypothesis about a mean.
14. Describe non-parametric test. Give examples.
• Nonparametric methods are used when the researcher does not know how the data are
distributed. Making the assumption that the population distribution or sampling
distribution is normal generally is inappropriate when data are either ordinal or
nominal.
• Thus, nonparametric statistics are referred to as distribution free.3 Data analysis of both
nominal and ordinal scales typically uses nonparametric statistical tests.
15. What is a research report? What is the purpose of it?
• The last step in the research process is writing the research report. Each step of the
process is important for a valid study, as negligence at any stage will affect the quality
of not just that part but the whole study.
• In a way, this last step is the most crucial as it is through the report that the findings of
the study and their implications are communicated to your supervisor and readers.
16. Describe the structure of a good research report.
The makeup or arrangement of parts necessary to a good research report

17. What are the purposes served by citing references?


• The purpose of a citation is usually to provide support or evidence for what you are
saying; it tells the reader where this support or evidence can be found.
• It
typically does
this by
providing a
reference to

a bibliography, a list of detailed bibliographic information provided at the end of your


document.
20. Difference between independent and dependent variable:
1 Independent variable – the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in
a phenomenon or situation.

2 Dependent variable – the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an


independent variable.

• Eg: In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the
independent variable is length of time spent sleeping while the dependent variable is the
test score.

21. Mixed Method in Research:


• Mixed methods research requires a purposeful mixing of methods in data collection, data
analysis and interpretation of the evidence. The key word is ‘mixed’, as an essential step
in the mixed methods approach is data linkage, or integration at an appropriate stage in the
research process.

• Purposeful data integration enables researchers to seek a more panoramic view of their
research landscape, viewing phenomena from different viewpoints and through diverse
research lenses.

22. Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

• Quantitative business research:

o Business research that addresses research objectives through empirical assessments


that involve numerical measurement and analysis.

• Qualitative business research:

o Research that addresses business objectives through techniques that allow the
researcher to pro- vide elaborate interpretations of phenomena without depending
on numerical measurement; its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new
insights.

23. Types of exploratory Test:

24. Ethical issues involved in Business Research:

• Business ethics is the application of morals to behavior related to the exchange


environment. Generally, good ethics con- forms to the notion of “right” and a lack of
ethics conforms to the notion of “wrong.” Those involved in research face numerous
ethical dilemmas.

• Researchers serve clients or, put another way, the doers of research serve the users.
It is often easy for a doer to compromise professional standards in an effort to please
the user. After all, the user pays the bills.
• Given the large number of ethical dilemmas involved in research, ethics is highly
applicable to business research.

25. What is snowball sampling?

• Snowball sampling is the process of selecting a sample using networks. To start with,
a few individuals in a group or organization are selected and the required information
is collected from them.
• They are then asked to identify other people in the group or organization, and the people
selected by them become a part of the sample.
• Information is collected from them, and then these people are asked to identify other
members of the group and, in turn, those identified become the basis of further data
collection .
• This process is continued until the required number or a saturation point has been
reached, in terms of the information being sought.

1.
26) Defining a research problem
• One of the first tasks, therefore, on the way to deciding on the detailed topic of
research is to find a question, an unresolved controversy, a gap in knowledge or an
unrequited need within the chosen subject.
• This search requires an awareness of current issues in the subject and an inquisitive
and questioning mind
• . So what features should you look for which could lead you to a suitable research
problem? 1) It should be of great interest to you
• 2) the problem should be significant
• 3) It should be delineated
• 4) You should be able to obtain the information required
• 5) You should be able to draw conclusions related to the problem
• 6) You should be able to state it clearly and concisely
27) Variables, types/categories (independent, dependent, extraneous / influencing /
intervening) examples
• Variable is anything that varies or changes from one instance to another. Variables can
exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or strength, or in direction. In research,
a variable is either observed or manipulated, in which case it is an experimental variable.
• Continuous variable is one that can take on a range of values that correspond to some
quantitative amount .A categorical variable is one that indicates membership in some
group. The term classificatory variable is sometimes also used and is generally
interchangeable with categorical variable
• Dependent variable is a process outcome or a variable that is predicted and/or explained
by other variables. An independent variable is a variable that is expected to influence the
dependent variable in some way.
• That is another way of saying that dependent variables do not change independent
variables.
• Extraneous variable: Variables that naturally exist in the environment that may have
some systematic effect on the dependent variable
• Intervening variables: link the independent and dependent variables. In certain
situations the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable does not
eventuate till the Intervention of another variable – the intervening variable. The cause
variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an intervening variable.
28)

28) Research designs / types / methods


A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or programme of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and
their operational implications to the final analysis of data. (Kerlinger 1986: 279)
Types:
• Qualitative and Quantitative Research designs
• Descriptive Research designs
• Experimental research designs
• Correlational Research designs
• Diagnostic Research design
• Explanatory research Design
29) Descriptive Research Design:
• In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under his/her research study.
• It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents
collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher
can provide insights into the why and how of research.
Experimental Research Design:
• Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the cause and
effect of a situation.
• It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on the
dependent variable is observed.
• For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on a dependent variable
such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly practical
research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two
groups – affect of one group on the other.
Diagnostic Research Design:

• In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the root
cause of a specific topic.
• Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this research
design method.
• There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

• Inception of the issue


• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue.

30) Survey method:

• A survey is defined as a method of collecting primary data based on communication with


a representative sample of individuals.
• Surveys provide a snapshot at a given point in time. The more formal term, sample
survey, emphasizes that the purpose of contacting respondents is to obtain a
representative sample, or subset, of the target population.
31) Observation:
• In business research, observation is a systematic process of recording behavioral patterns
of people, objects, and occurrences as they happen. No questioning or communicating
with people is needed.
• Researchers who use observation as a method of data collection either witness and record
information while watching events take place or take advantage of some tracking system
such as check-out scanners or Internet activity records.
• These tracking systems can observe and provide data such as whether or not a specific
consumer purchased more products on discount or at regular price or how long an
employee takes to complete a specific task.
32) TYPES OF QUESTIONS:
• Open-ended question the possible responses are not given. In the case of a
questionnaire, the respondent writes down the answers in his/her words, but in the case of
an interview schedule the investigator records the answers either verbatim or in a
summary. I
• Closed question the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire or schedule and the
respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent’s
answer. It is usually wise to provide a category ‘Other/please explain’ to accommodate
any response not listed.
33) Case study
• The case study design is based upon the assumption that the case being studied is
atypical of cases of a certain type and therefore a single case can provide insight into the
events and situations prevalent in a group from where the case has been drawn.
• In a case study design the ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a thorough, holistic and
in-depth exploration of the aspect(s) that you want to find out about. It is an approach in
which a particular instance or a few carefully selected cases are studied intensively.
• Case study it is important to treat the total study population as one entity. It is one of the
important study designs in qualitative research.
34) Census / sample / population
• Census is an investigation of all the individual elements that make up the population—a
total enumeration rather than a sample.
• Sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger population. The purpose of sampling is to
estimate an unknown characteristic of a population.
• Population (universe) is any complete group—for example, of people, sales territories,
stores, or college students—that shares some common set of characteristics. The term
population element refers to an individual member of the population.
35) Parameter and statistics
Statistics:
• statistics are measures computed from sample data. Since business researchers typically
deal with samples—we rarely talk to every consumer, manager, or organization—we
normally base our decisions off of sample data.
• The primary purpose of statistics is to make a judgment about a population, or the total
collection of all elements about which a researcher seeks information, based from a
subset of that population.
Parameters:
• parameters are measured characteristics of a specific population. In other words,
information about the entire universe of interest.
• Sample statistics are used to make inferences (guesses) about population parameters
based on sample data.2 In our notation, we will generally represent population parameters
with Greek lowercase letters for example, or sample statistics with English letters, such
as X or S.
36) Sampling frame
A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn is called a sampling frame. The
sampling frame is also called the working population because these units will eventually provide
units involved in analysis.
37) Hypothesis, types, examples
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know and
you set up your study to find this truth.
• A researcher refers to these assumptions, assertions, statements or hunches as hypotheses
and they become the basis of an enquiry. In most studies the hypothesis will be based
either upon previous studies or on your own or someone else’s observations.
• Broadly, there are two categories of hypothesis:
1. Research hypotheses; 2 alternate hypotheses.
• The formulation of an alternate hypothesis is a convention in scientific circles. Its main
function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered as true in case the
research hypothesis proves to be wrong. In a way, an alternate hypothesis is the opposite
of the research hypothesis. Conventionally, a null hypothesis, or hypothesis of no
difference, is formulated as an alternate hypothesis.
38) Confidence interval
Confidence interval: A specified range of numbers within which a population mean is expected
to lie; an estimate of the population mean based on the knowledge that it will be equal to the
sample mean plus or minus a small sampling error.
39) Confidence / significance level
• The confidence level is a percentage or decimal that indicates the long-run probability
that the results will be correct. Traditionally, researchers have used the 95 percent
confidence level. While there is nothing magical about the 95 percent confidence level, it
is useful to select this confidence level in our examples. As mentioned, the point estimate
gives no information about the possible magnitude of random sampling error. The
confidence interval gives the estimated value of the population parameter, plus or minus
an estimate of the error.
• Significance level is a critical probability associated with a statistical hypothesis test that
indicates how likely it is that an inference supporting a difference between an observed
value and some statistical expectation is true. The term p-value stands for probability-
value and is essentially another name for an observed or computed significance level.
40) Chi-square test, application
• A chi-squared test, also written as χ2 test, is any statistical hypothesis test where
the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared distribution when the null
hypothesis is true. Without other qualification, 'chi-squared test' often is used as short
for Pearson's chi-squared test.
• The chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a significant difference
between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more
categories.
Application:
• In cryptanalysis, chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of plaintext and
(possibly) decrypted cipher text. The lowest value of the test means that the decryption
was successful with high probability. This method can be generalized for solving modern
cryptographic problems.[12]
• In bioinformatics, chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of certain property
of genes (e.g., genomic content, mutation rate, interaction network clustering, etc.)
belonging different categories (e.g., disease genes, essential genes, genes on a certain
chromosome etc.)
41) T-test, application:
• The t test is one type of inferential statistics. It is used to determine whether there is a
significant difference between the means of two groups.
• With all inferential statistics, we assume the dependent variable fits a normal distribution.
• When we assume a normal distribution exists, we can identify the probability of a
particular outcome. We specify the level of probability (alpha level, level of
significance, p) we are willing to accept before we collect data (p < .05 is a common
value that is used). After we collect data we calculate a test statistic with a formula.
• We compare our test statistic with a critical value found on a table to see if our results fall
within the acceptable level of probability. Modern computer programs calculate the test
statistic for us and also provide the exact probability of obtaining that test statistic with
the number of subjects we have.
42) Research report, audiences, purposes, types
• A research report is an oral or written presentation of research findings directed to a
specific audience to accomplish a particular purpose.
• Report preparation is the final stage of the research project. It is important because the
project can guide management decisions only if it is effectively communicated.
• The theory of communications emphasizes that the writer (communicator) must tailor the
report (message) so that it will be understood by the manager (audience), who has a
different field of experience.
Types of Research Reports:

1) Journal Articles (define refereed)

• Peer review

• Blind review

• Primary vs. secondary source

2) Presentations at conferences

3) Theses and Dissertations

4) Books.

43) APA style, in-text citation


• APA Style is a writing style and format for academic documents such as
scholarly journal articles and books.
• It is commonly used for citing sources within the field of behavioural and social sciences.
• It is described in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA),
which is titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
• The guidelines were developed to aid reading comprehension in the social and behavioral
sciences, for clarity of communication, and for "word choice that best reduces bias in
language"
• In Text Citation: APA style uses an author-date reference citation system in the text
with an accompanying reference list. That means that to cite any reference in a paper, the
writer should cite the author and year of the work, either by putting both in parentheses
separated by a comma (parenthetical citation) or by putting the author in the narrative of
the sentence and the year in parentheses (narrative citation).
• Example narrative citation: Schmidt and Oh (2016) described a fear among the public
that the findings of science are not actually real.
• Example parenthetical citation: In our postfactual era, many members of the public
fear that the findings of science are not real (Schmidt & Oh, 2016).
44) Theoretical / conceptual framework
Conceptual framework:
• A conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually,
on one section of that theoretical framework which becomes the basis of your study.
• The latter consists of the theories or issues in which your study is embedded, whereas the
former describes the aspects you selected from the theoretical framework to become the
basis of your research enquiry. The conceptual framework is the basis of your research
problem
Theoretical framework:
• As you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you wish to
investigate has its roots in a number of theories that have been developed from different
perspectives.
• The information obtained from different sources needs to be sorted under the main
themes and theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the authors. This
process of structuring a ‘network’ of these theories that directly or indirectly has a
bearing on your research topic is called the theoretical framework
45) Concept and context of data analytics
• Data Analytics refers to the set of quantitative and qualitative approach in order to derive
valuable insights from data.
• It involves many processes that include extracting data, categorizing it in order to analyze
the various patterns, relations, connections and other such valuable insights from it.
• Today almost every organization has morphed itself into a data-driven organization and
this means they are deploying an approach in order to collect more data that is related to
the customers, markets and business processes.
• This data is then categorized, stored and analyzed in order to make sense of it and derive
valuable insights out of it.

46) Confirmatory research:


• Confirmatory research (a.k.a. hypothesis testing) is where researchers have a pretty good
idea of what's going on. That is, researcher has a theory (or several theories), and the
objective is to find out if the theory is supported by the facts.
• It is an analytical process guided by classical statistical inference in its use of
significance and confidence.
47) Statistical errors
• A manager who is evaluating the quality of a survey must estimate its accuracy. They
have two major sources: random sampling error and systematic error.
• Statistical errors are due to statistical uncertainties:
• arise from stochastic fluctuations (random quantum processes),
• are uncorrelated with previous measurements,
• follow well-developed theory;
• examples are finite statistics (Poisson distribution) and measurement resolution
48) Difference between data analytics and data analysis
DATA ANALYTICS:

• Data analytics (DA) is the process of examining data sets in order to draw conclusions
about the information they contain, increasingly with the aid of specialized systems and
software.
• Data analytics technologies and techniques are widely used in commercial industries to
enable organizations to make more-informed business decisions and by scientists and
researchers to verify or disprove scientific models, theories and hypotheses.

DATA ANALYSIS:

• Data analysis is the application of reasoning to understand the data that have been
gathered. In its simplest form, analysis may involve determining consistent patterns and
summarizing the relevant details revealed in the investigation.
• The appropriate analytical technique for data analysis will be determined by
management’s information requirements, the characteristics of the research design, and
the nature of the data gathered.
• Statistical analysis may range from portraying a simple frequency distribution to more
complex multivariate analyses approaches, such as multiple regression.

49) Applied research:


• Applied research is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical problem of an
individual or group.
• The study and research is used in business, medicine and education in order to find
solutions that may cure diseases, solve scientific problems or develop technology.
50) Causal research:
• Causal research, also called explanatory research, is the investigation of
(research into) cause-and-effect relationships.
• To determine causality, it is important to observe variation in the variable assumed to
cause the change in the other variables, and then measure the changes in the other
variables.

51) Sample size:


Sample size measures the number of individual samples measured or observations used in a
survey or experiment.

52) Cleaning of data:


Data cleansing or data cleaning is the process of detecting and correcting (or removing)
corrupt or inaccurate records from a record set, table, or database and refers to identifying
incomplete, incorrect, inaccurate or irrelevant parts of the data and then replacing, modifying, or
deleting the dirty or coarse data.

53) Coding of data:


• Data coding is the process of driving codes from the observed data. In qualitative
research the data is either obtained from observations, interviews or from
questionnaires.
• The evaluation of data the researcher assigns values, percentages or other numerical
quantities to these codes to draw inferences.

54) Spss:
• SPSS is short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and it’s used by various
kinds of researchers for complex statistical data analysis.

• The SPSS software package was created for the management and statistical analysis of
social science data. It was originally launched in 1968 by SPSS Inc., and was later
acquired by IBM in 2009.

• SPSS is used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government


entities, education researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and many more for
the processing and analyzing of survey data.

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