BBHM4103

OUM Business School
BBHM4103
Festival and Special Event
Management
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

BBHM4103
FESTIVAL AND
SPECIAL EVENT
MANAGEMENT
Suryati Abd Shukor

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Wardah Mohamad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Suryati Abd Shukor

Universiti Utara Malaysia
Moderator: Hassan Abdullah

Universiti Teknologi MARA
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, July 2008
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2010, BBHM4103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide vii-xiv

Topic 1: Theory of Event Management 1
1.1 Twenty-first Century Global Event Management 2
1.1.1 Event Management Subfields 4
1.1.2 Stakeholders 7
1.1.3 The Event Management Professional Model 7
1.2 Models of Global Event Management 9
1.2.1 Research 9
1.2.2 Design 13
1.2.3 Planning 14
1.2.4 Coordination 15
1.2.5 Evaluation 15
1.3 Types and Size of Events 16
1.3.1 Mega Events 16
1.3.2 Hallmark Events 17
1.3.3 Major Events 17
1.3.4 Local or Community Events 17
1.4 The Importance of Events 18
1.5 Characteristics of Best Events 20
Summary 21
Key Terms 21
Self-Test 1 22
Self-Test 2 22
Topic 2: Event Administration 23

2.1 Key Steps of a Successful Event 24
2.2 Concept and Design 24
2.2.1 Developing the Concept 24
2.2.2 Analysing the Concept 26
2.2.3 Designing the Event 27
2.3 Event Planning 29
2.3.1 Developing Aims, Mission/Purpose Statement 29
2.3.2 Developing and Implementing the Event Plan 29

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4 Function and Concepts of Management 31

2.5 Management of Human Resources and Time 39
2.6 Event Leadership 43
2.6.1 Leadership Styles 44
2.6.2 Leadership Characteristics 44
Summary 46
Key Terms 47
Self-Test 1 47
Self-Test 2 47
Topic 3: Financial Administration 48

3.1 Financial Structures 49
3.2 Budgeting 51
3.2.1 Expenses 52
3.3 Cash Flow Analysis 53
3.4 Profit and Loss Statement 54
3.5 Balance Sheet 54
3.6 Financial Control System 54
3.7 Sources of Funding 55
3.8 Fund-raising 56
Summary 57
Key Terms 58
Self-Test 1 58
Self-Test 2 58
Topic 4: Event Coordination 59

4.1 Managing Vendor Contracts ă Challenges of Teamwork 60
4.1.1 Developing Appropriate Resources 61
4.1.2 Working with Suppliers and Vendors 63
4.1.3 Catering Management 63
4.2 Staging 64
4.2.1 Choosing the Event Site 65
4.2.2 Developing the Theme 66
4.2.3 Managing the Environment 67
4.3 On-site Management 68
4.3.1 Improving Event Performance 68
4.3.2 The Production Schedule 69
4.4 Accommodating Special Needs 70
4.4.1 Developing Special Events within Events 70

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Summary 72
Key Terms 73
Self-Test 1 73
Self-Test 2 73
Topic 5: Event Marketing 74

5.1 Market Research 75
5.2 Promotions 75
5.2.1 Image/Branding 76
5.2.2 Advertising 77
5.2.3 Media Relations and Publicity 78
5.2.4 Public Relations 78
5.3 Online Marketing-Internet Marketing for Events 79
5.3.1 Web Design and Management 80
5.4 Sponsorship 81
5.4.1 Sponsorship Goals 83
5.4.2 Reason for Sponsoring Events 86
5.4.3 Sponsorship Categories 87
Summary 88
Key Terms 89
Self-Test 1 89
Self-Test 2 90
Topic 6: Legal, Ethical and Risk Management 91

6.1 Risk Management: Legal and Financial Safeguards 92
6.2 Principles of Risk Management 94
6.3 Critical Steps in Conducting Professional Event Risk
Management 95
6.4 Key Components of an Event Management Agreement or
Contract 95
6.5 Other Agreements 97
6.5.1 Permits 98
6.5.2 Licensing 98
6.5.3 Contracts, Permits and Licenses: A Synergistic
Relationship 98
6.6 Safety and Security 102
6.6.1 Police Service 102
6.6.2 Security Services 102

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.7 Occupational Safety and Health 103

6.7.1 Insurance 103
6.7.2 Safe Lifting Techniques 103
6.7.3 Safety Steps for Electrical Equipment 103
6.7.4 Other Considerations 103
6.7.5 Safe Use of Machinery 104
6.7.6 Safety Signs 104
6.7.7 First Aid 104
6.7.8 Parking Lot Safety 104
6.8 Crowd Management and Evacuation 105
6.9 Types of Crowds 105
6.10 The Crowd Management Plan 106
6.11 Major Risk 107
6.12 Emergency Planning 107
6.13 Implementing Emergency Procedures 109
6.14 Fire Procedures 109
6.15 Evacuation Procedures 109
6.16 Morality, Law and Ethics in Event Management 110
6.16.1 Differences between Morals, Laws and Ethics 110
6.17 Common Ethical Problems in the Special Events Industry 110
6.18 Avoiding or Addressing Ethical Problems 111
6.19 Establishing Policies and Procedures for Ethical Issues 112
Summary 112
Key Terms 113
Self-Test 1 113
Self-Test 2 113
Topic 7: Technology and Career Advancement 115

7.1 Technology for Modern Event Management 116
7.1.1 Data Processing Systems 117
7.1.2 Hardware Configuration 118
7.1.3 Interactive Web 120
7.1.4 Event Management Database 120
7.2 Advancing Career in the Twenty-first Century 121
7.2.1 Education 121
7.2.2 Professional Experience 122
7.3 Case Studies in Twenty-first Century Event Management 123
7.3.1 Festival Challenge 124

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Summary 126
Key Terms 126
Self-Test 1 127
Self-Test 2 127
Answers 128

TOPIK 2 KAEDAH DAN TEKNIK W 17

COURSE GUIDE

x X PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
BBHM4103 Festival and Special Event Management is one of the courses offered
by the Faculty of Business and Management at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for students pursuing the degree in Bachelor of Tourism
Management program.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY
STUDY ACTIVITIES
HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain environment of festival and special events management;
2. Compose and design to develop an event;
3. Administer financial administration;
4. Apply marketing environment, sponsorship, risk and crowd management,
safety and security; and
5. Formulate technology and career advancement in 21st century.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 7 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 is an introductory topic which covers the theory of event management,

the Twenty-First-Century Global event management, the various types and
importance of events, as well as and characteristics of the best event.
Topic 2 explains the concept and design of event administration, the development
and implementation of the event plan, human resources management and the
leadership style in event organisations.

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
Topic 3 explores the event financial administration. It describes the financial

control, budgeting, cash flow etc.
Topic 4 describes event coordination as one of the event management phases,

including staging which points out event site and theme, and on-site
management.
Topic 5 focuses on concepts and event marketing tools processes and online
marketing. It also includes sponsorship as one part of the promotional mix and
the benefits of sponsoring for both sponsors and organisers.
Topic 6 explores the issues of risk management and the principles. Agreement or
contract becomes an important part for any side in event management. It also
explores all about crowds and ethical problems in the event industry.
Topic 7 describes technology and career advancement in the Twenty-first Century.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one sub-
section or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a
question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you
come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already gone
through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be
able to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely
or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-
section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers to the
questions can be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures
throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various
forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an

xiv COURSE GUIDE
observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a
given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what
you have gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should
engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside
the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every
topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the
suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Learners of this course are required to pass BBPP1103 Principles of Management
course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Allen, J., OÊToole, W., McDonnell, I., & Harris, R. (2005). Festival and special
event management. (3rd ed.) Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism. New York: Cognizant
Communication Corporation.

COURSE GUIDE xv
Goldblatt, J. (2005). Special events: Event leadership for a new world. (4th ed.)
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management & planning.

America: Halsted Press.
Shone, A., & Parry, B. (2001). Successful event management. London: Continuum
Skinner, B. E., & Rukavina, V. (2003). Event sponsorship. New Jersey: John Wiley
& Sons.
Tarlow, Peter E. (2002). Event risk management and safety. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Wagen, L., V., D., & Carlos, B., R. (2005). Event management: For tourism,
cultural, business, and sporting events. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Watt, D. C. (1998). Event management in leisure and tourism. New York:

Addison Wesley Longman.
Yeoman, I., Robertson, M., Ali-Knight, J., Drummond, S., & Beattie, U. M. (2004).
Festival and events management: An international arts and culture
perspective. Britain: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

TOPIK 2 KAEDAH DAN TEKNIK W 17

Topic X Theory of
1 Event
Management
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the event management subfields and professional model;
2. Explain the models of global event management;
3. Identify the various types and sizes of events;
4. Determine the importance of events; and
5. Differentiate the characteristics of the best event.
X INTRODUCTION
Since Malaysia is a multiracial and multicultural
country, we celebrate many types of events and
festivals throughout the year. Many of these
religious or traditional events play an important
role in attracting tourists to a particular
destination. For example, the annual Hindu
festival of Thaipusam, which is celebrated at Batu
Caves in Selangor, attracts millions of local and
foreign visitors (Figure 1.1).
Therefore, it is vital for us to ensure that these Figure 1.1: Thaipusam at Batu
events are well organised and coordinated in Caves, Selangor
order to meet the expectation of the locals as well Source: http://thestar.com.my/
as tourists. Topic 1 introduces Event archives/2006/2/12/nation/p1t
Management as an important field in the world haipusam.jpg
today. This topic focuses on the event
2 X TOPIC 1 THEORY OF EVENT MANAGEMENTS
management subfields and Professional Model, as well as the event management

process which comprises research, design, planning, coordination and
evaluation. Apart from that, the types and size of events are also discussed.
Finally, this topic concludes with the importance of events, as well as
characteristics of the best event to assist the management in organising successful
events.
1.1 TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY GLOBAL EVENT

MANAGEMENT
ACTIVITY 1.1
Before you go on reading further, take a moment to contemplate the
festive events which you have been celebrating in your life. Share this
with your classmates.
Events have long played a vital role in our lives. We always try to find excuses to
celebrate, to mark important days to make our dull lives more meaningful by
finding a way to look forward toward something new in our future. These
events, whether religious or traditional in origin, play contemporary role in
society by attracting tourists thus tourist income to a particular place (Shone,
2001).
Festivals and events provide authenticity and uniqueness, especially with events
based on interest in indigenous values; convenience, hospitality and
affordability; and make use of colourful symbolism and themes for participants
and spectators (Derret, 2004).
According to Goldblatt (2005), special events are different from everyday life.
Events require research, design, planning, management, coordination and
evaluation. In addition, Goldblatt also points out that special events are a
unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific
needs.

TOPIC 1 THEORY OF EVENT MANAGEMENTS W 3
The most important person in event management is the event manager.
He also defines event management as a profession that requires public assembly

for the purpose of celebration, education, marketing, and reunion. The
professions of Event management are represented by three unique characteristics
as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Three unique characteristics of the professions of event management
As the event industry grows, it is essential for event managers to obtain and
possess relevant skills and knowledge in the area. Apart from generic
management skills, based on research done by Perry, Foley and Rumpf (1996,
cited in Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell, & Harris, 2005), there are additional areas of
knowledge that event managers are required to have and utilise:
Ć Budgeting
Ć Time management
Ć Media relations
Ć Business planning
Ć Human resources management
Ć Marketing
Ć Contingency management
Ć Obtaining sponsorship
Ć Networking
Ć Break-even analysis
Ć Ethics
Ć Economic impact analysis
Ć Marketing research
Ć Employment legislation
Ć Other legal issues
Ć Project management software
Ć Local government regulations
1.1.1 Event Management Subfields

As Goldblatt (2005) has indicated, there are ten major event management
subfields:
(a) Civic Events

An event which celebrates civic pride
through parades, festivals and other
annual traditional programmes which
are also known as public events. For
example, the Colours of Malaysia
Parade which is held in conjunction
with Visit Malaysia Year 2007
showcases the diversity of Malaysian
culture through traditional and
contemporary dance, puppetry, live
music, and state-of-the-art lighting
and sound (Figure 1.3). Figure 1.3: Colours of Malaysia
Parade
Source:
http://www.tourismmalaysia.gov.my
/com2007/default.htm

(b) Expositions
According to marketing analysts,
expositions are the most cost-effective
way to achieve sales because they
influence customers and assist them in
making positive buying decisions.
Through expositions, retailers can meet
wholesalers or suppliers to introduce
their goods and services to buyers. For Figure 1.4: Malaysia Technology
Expo 2004
example, the Malaysia Technology Expo
2007 (Figure 1.4) was a three-day trade Source: http://www.mte.org.my/
event which had more than 100 download.htm
exhibitors from the region and
showcased over 400 latest inventions
and innovations.
(c) Fairs and Festivals

Fairs refer to a public celebration that
includes commercial and civic activities,
whereas a festival is a public celebration
that conveys, through a kaleidoscope of
activities, bringing meanings to the lives
of participants and spectators. For
example, the MATTA (Malaysian
Association of Tour and Travel Agents) Figure 1.5: Malaysian Association of
Fair which is held twice yearly and Tour and Travel Agents
offers air tickets and tour packages at Source:
competitive prices (Figure 1.5). http://www.matta.org.my/
mattav2b/index.cfm
(d) Hallmark Events
These events contribute largely to the economy and they bring in a huge
number of tourists, providing a large amount of revenue. In addition,
according to Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005), Âhallmark eventsÊ
refer to events which become identified with the spirit or ethos of a town,
city or region. For example, Visit Terengganu 2008 will promote the east
coast stateÊs various attractions. For more information on Terengganu, you
can visit http://www.tourism.terengganu.gov.my/sitemap.html
(e) Hospitality
Nowadays, the hospitality industry not only includes renting rooms, selling
food and beverages but also includes expanding the business planning
events. Therefore, most hotels today have their own special events
departments to plan and make profit from events independently held by
their hotel.

(f) Meetings and Conferences

A meeting is an assembly of individuals gathered to discuss items of
mutual interest or engage in professional development through learning
activities. These events are primarily educational seminars which provide
networking opportunities for both association members and corporate
employees.
(g) Retail Events

A retail event is an event whose
purpose is to introduce or sell
merchandise to prospective customers
(Figure 1.6). Retailers rely more on
marketing research to design long-
range promotional events which use
an integrated approach. This means
combining a live event with
advertising, publicity and promotions Figure 1.6: Retail events
in order to build a loyal customer base Source:
and improve sales. For example, the http://img206.imageshack.us/img20
department store Isetan which has its 6/3261/mainpromotionut7.jpg
annual holiday sale.
(h) Social Life-cycle Events

This refers to events which mark the passage of time with a milestone
celebration. These types of events such as weddings and golden wedding
anniversaries are growing in both length of days and the size of budgets.
(i) Sport Events

Sport events are where athletes compete and
spectators view the athletic activities and
ceremonies. Examples of sport events are the
World Cup, Olympics, Commonwealth
Games and others (Figure 1.7).
(j) Tourism
Tourism is an industry which provides
services and facilities for business and
leisure travellers. Tourism is of direct
concern to governments, carriers, lodgings, Figure 1.7: FIFA World Cup
restaurants, entertainment and event Source:
management industries and is an indirect http://www.020.com/webs/020/i
concern to virtually every industry and mages/PhotoDB/fifa-world-cup-
business in the world. In fact, tourism is
believed to be the worldÊs largest industry.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the benefits which the event industry brings to a destination?
1.1.2 Stakeholders
Stakeholders are people or organisations (either internal or external) which have
invested in an event. An internal stakeholder can be:
Ć A member of the board;
Ć The organisationÊs professional staff; or
Ć A guest or other closely related person.
On the other hand, an external stakeholder can include:

Ć Media; or
Ć Municipal agencies and others.
1.1.3 The Event Management Professional Model

Figure 1.8 shows the event management professional model.

Figure 1.8: The event management professional model

Source: Adapted from Goldblatt, J. (2005). Special events: Event leadership for a new
world (4th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons
ACTIVITY 1.2
Recall a recent event which you participated in. Suggest ideas on how to
improve the event.

1.2 MODELS OF GLOBAL EVENT

MANAGEMENT
Goldblatt (2005) admits that to ensure events are successful, there are five crucial
stages that need to be carried out consistently and effectively (refer Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.9: Event management process

1.2.1 Research
Event research should be reliable and valid in order to reduce risks as well as be
defendable. It is crucial to understand the research findings because it pinpoints
the needs, wants, desires and expectations of prospective customers.
Goldblatt (2005) points out those events which are a product that is placed before
the public with the reasonable expectation that they will attend. Therefore, it is
vital to conduct careful and accurate consumer research to reduce the risk of non-
attendance. He also adds that there are many types of research but for event
management, three types of research are used, as follows:
(a) Quantitative Pre-event Research

Quantitative research is to determine demographic information such as
gender, age, income and other facts about the events future market. Fill,
Elliot-White and Walton (2000) defined quantitative research as empirical
research where the data comes in the form of numbers. It can be conducted
whether using a written survey, in-person interview or telephone
interview. Indeed, questions can be developed in two different styles:

(i) Likert scale (to allow a respondent to select the response that states
opinion precisely).
(ii) Semantic differential scale (to allow a respondent to select a
continuum between two opposing adjectives)
(b) Qualitative Pre-Event Research

There are three forms of qualitative pre-event research which are as follows:
(i) Focus Group
The focus group is comprised of 8 to 12 people of similar backgrounds
and experience who assemble for the purpose of discussion. A trained
facilitator leads the group through specific questions that will provide
clues to the goals or outcomes desired from the research.
(ii) Participant/Observer
This form involves placing the researcher in a host community to
participate in and observe the culture of those being studied.
(iii) Case Study
In this style, a preexisting event is singled out as a specific case to be
studied in depth. The event may be studied from a historical context,
or the stakeholders may be interviewed to determine how personality,
skill, and other factors drive the success of the event. The case study
enables the event researcher to draw conclusions based on the
research from a comparable event.
Adding to that, Finn, Elliot-White and Walton (2000) maintain that
where the data does not come in the form of numbers, qualitative
research is an important step in the research process. However,
qualitative research is generally more expensive than quantitative
research because the time that is required for a deeper and more
meaningful answer.
(c) Combination of Quantitative and Qualitative

Combinations of quantitative and qualitative research are widely used
among event managers to make decisions about future events. Thus,
research must be valid and reliable to ensure that the findings are
defendable. Finn, Elliot-White and Walton (2000) note that combining
methods seems to be a strategy that will enhance the research findings.
Communicating your research findings is an essential phase in the research

process. The findings should support the goals and objectives of the research
plan.

THE FIVE WÊS: HOW TO PRODUCE CONSISTENTLY EFFECTIVE EVENTS

Goldblatt (2005) declares the Five WsÊ as important questions to ask in
developing the event concept. These are:
(a) Why is the event being held? There must be compelling reasons that
confirm the importance and viability of holding the event.
(b) Who will be the stakeholders in the event? There are two stakeholders:
internal stakeholders, such as the board of directors, committee, staff and
audience or guests; and external stakeholders such as media and
politicians.
(c) When will the event be held? Is there sufficient time to research and plan
the event? Does the timing suit the needs of the audience, and if the event is
held outdoors, does it take into account climatic conditions?
(d) Where will the event be staged? The choice of venue must represent the
best compromise between the organisational needs of the event, audience
comfort, accessibility and cost.
(e) What is the event content or product? This must match the needs, wants,
desires and expectations of the audience, and must match the synergy of
the group with the why, who, when and where of the event.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. How will you make certain the events is creative but well
organised?
2. How will you know you have succeeded?
SWOT Analysis
A situation analysis (also known as SWOT analysis) is similar to a market
analysis, but is done for an existing business. SWOT analysis is a major strategic
planning tool during the research phase. It is a study of the marketing strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats of a business or other type of organisation
(Morrison, 2002). However, in the event management context, SWOT analysis
needs to be conducted by event managers before the planning process begins
(refer Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Event SWOT Analysis

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Strong funding Weak funding
Good potential for sponsors No potential for sponsors
Well-trained staff Poorly trained staff
Many volunteers Few volunteers
Good media relations Poor media relations
Excellent site selection Weak site selection
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Civic anniversary Hurricanes and tornadoes
Chamber of Commerce promotion Political infighting
Celebrity appearances Violence from terrorism
Alignment with environmental cause Alcoholic consumption
Tie-in with media Site located in a bad neighborhood
Winning elections Celebrity cancelling or not attending
Developing more loyal employees
By using SWOT analysis, event managers will not only scan the internal and
external event environment but also proceed to the next step, which involves
analysis of the weaknesses and threats as well as to provide solutions to improve
the event planning process (refer Table 1.2)
Table 1.2: SWOT Analysis

S = strengths
1. Strong funding Internal
2. Well-trained staff Internal
3. Event well respected by media External
W = weaknesses Existing conditions
1. Weak funding Internal
2. Few human resources Internal
3. Poor public-relations history External
O = opportunities
1. Simultaneous celebration of a congruent event External
2. Timing of event congruent with future budget
allocation Internal
T = threats Future/predictive
1. Weather External conditions
2. New board of directors leading this event Internal

1.2.2 Design
After the research process has been concluded and a decision has been made that
it is feasible to organise an event, it is the time to create a general blueprint. A
blueprint is the flowcharting of a service operation (Hoffman & Bateson, 2001).
Indeed, for process design purposes, a blueprint should document all process
steps and points of divergence in a specific service (Shostack, 1992, cited by
Lovelock, Patterson & Walker, 2001).
(a) Brainstorming and Mind Mapping

According to Goldblatt (2005), there are two processes to design an effective
blueprint: brainstorming and mind mapping. Goldblatt (2001) defined
brainstorming as a group technique for stimulating creative ideas that are
not initially judged for merit. On the other hand, mind mapping allows an
event manager to begin to pull together random ideas and establish
linkages that will later lead to a logical decision being made.
Creative people are encouraged to brainstorm on various elements related

to the event. The brainstorming session should be conducted at the
beginning of the design phase of the event management process.
Mind mapping is an effective way to synthesise the various ideas suggested

by group members and begin to construct an event philosophy. Indeed, the
event philosophy will determine the financial, cultural, social and other
important aspects of the event.
(b) Making the Perfect Match through Needs Assessment and Analysis
After completing the brainstorming and mind mapping successfully,
Goldblatt (2005) suggested that it is time to ensure the creative ideas
derived from those activities match the event goals and objectives by
conducting needs assessment and analysis.
Event managers are required to ensure that they have created an event that
will satisfy the needs of the stakeholders. Ideas need to be developed into a
series of questions which must include all the event details.
To determine whether the event is feasible and meet the stakeholderÊs

expectation, a feasibility study must be carried out. Feasibility means that
the event manager has looked at the event design objectively to determine
if what he or she propose is feasible given the resources available. The three
basic resources that will be required are financial, human and political,
where the importance of every resource differs based on the nature of the
events.

1.2.3 Planning
The planning process is based on research and design procedures. The better the
research and design are, the simpler and briefer the planning period will be. It is
the most important phase in the event management process. Goldblatt (2005),
points out the phases of planning which are:
(a) Timing
Timing refers to time needed to act or react. A contingency time must be
added to each phase of event process (research, design, planning,
coordination and evaluation) to cover extra time. It is vital to pay full
attention to the research and design phase, in order to budget time
precisely.
(b) Space
Space refers to both the physical space where an event will be held and the
time between critical decisions pertaining to the event. The relationship of
timing to space is constant throughout the entire event process. It is very
important to find out the location and physical resources in selecting venue
for an event because it will be significantly affect to timing. Basically, event
managers widely used a checklist to consider each element of space for an
event because it reflects the goals and objectives of the event. Some of the
elements are the age and type of guests who will attend the event.
Parking, public transportation and other forms of transportation including

taxis, limousines, and tour buses must also be considered when analysing a
site. These considerations should include the number of parking spaces,
including those for the disabled, the availability and security or safety of
public transportation and the time required for dispatching a taxis.
(c) Tempo
The final law of event planning is concerned with the rate or tempo at
which the event takes place during both production planning and the event
itself. To become an expert event manager, there are three basic
requirements:
(i) Must master the ability to manage time down to the minutest
segments.
(ii) Must develop the vision to perceive the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of every space.
(iii) Must be able to analyse the needs of your guests to set tempos that
will ensure a memorable event.

1.2.4 Coordination
The ability of event managers to use a professional training and experience to
make the correct decision will affect the outcome of the entire event. Therefore,
event managers should maintain a positive attitude and see the problems as
challenges in search of the right solution. Furthermore, it is important to apply
critical analysis to every challenge that comes.
There are five effective ways to make decisions:

(a) Collect all the information. Most problems have many sides to review.
(b) Consider the pros and cons of the decision in terms of who will be affected.
(c) Consider the financial implications of the decision.
(d) Consider the moral and ethical implications of your decision.
(e) Make a decision and do not look back.
1.2.5 Evaluation
This is the last phase that is connected with the first phase of the research. Events
maybe evaluated by each part of the event management process or through a
general comprehensive review of all phases.
There are several forms of event evaluation:

(a) Written Surveys
This is the most common form of evaluation that can be conducted
immediately following an event. The purpose is to collect the satisfaction
level of the participants and spectators.
(b) Monitor
Monitor trained person who will observe an element of the event and
provide both written and verbal feedback to the event manager. The event
monitor has a checklist or survey to complete and offer additional
comments as required. Likewise, this type of evaluation permits a trained,
experienced event staff member or volunteer to observe the event
objectively while it is taking place and provide instructive comments.
(c) Telephone/Mail Survey
This form of evaluation can be conducted after the event. Event managers
survey the spectators and participants after the event through either mail or
telephone survey.
(d) Pre-event and Post-event
This is a new form of evaluation. By this form, event manager can
determine the respondentÊs knowledge, opinions, and other important
information both before and after their attendance at an event. It tries to

match expectations to reality. It also helps event organisers close gaps

between over promising and under delivering certain aspects of the event.
This Event Management Process is the conceptual framework for every effective
event. Indeed, it is a dynamic process which requires the event manager to be
selective in order to ascertain where to begin and how to proceed to best
accomplish the objectives. An effective event manager will immediately
recognize that the event process cannot be complete or totally effective unless
each phase is considered, visited and understood carefully.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Think of six of the most successful and memorable events which you
have attended. List down your findings. For example:
Event Success Memory
Corporate anniversary Image improved Sales increased
2. Are there specific similarities between these events? What are the
common characteristics of successful events?
1.3 TYPES AND SIZE OF EVENTS
1.3.1 Mega Events

Mega events are those events that are so large that they affect whole economies
and reverberate in the global media.
Getz (1997) defines mega events as:

„The volume should exceed 1 million visits, their capital costs should be at
least $500 million, and their reputation should be of a Âmust seeÊ event⁄mega
events, by way of their size and significance, are those that yield
extraordinarily high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige or economic
impact for the host community or destination‰.
Likewise, Hall (1992) infers mega events as:

„Mega events such as World Fairs and Expositions, the World Cup Finals, or
the Olympic Games, are events which are expressly targeted at the
international tourism market and maybe suitably described as mega by virtue
involvement, political effects, extent of television coverage, construction of
facilities and impact on economies and social fabric of the host community‰.

Referring to both definitions, it can be concluded that GetzÊs definition

mentioned the approximate size of how big mega events should be as
compounded with HallÊs definition. However, both definitions agree that a mega
event is a gigantic event which will provide many advantages to the host country
especially in terms of economic returns.
1.3.2 Hallmark Events

According to Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005), hallmark events refers
to those events that become so identified with the spirit or ethos of a town, city or
region that they become synonymous with the name of the place, and gain
widespread recognition and awareness.
Ritchie (1984 cited in Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005) defines
hallmark events as:
„Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily
to enhance awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the
short term and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on
uniqueness, status or timely significance to create interest and attract
attention‰.
Indeed, the term „hallmark event‰ is used to describe a recurring event that is
significant in terms of tradition, attractiveness, image, or publicity; that the event
provides the host venue, community, or destination with a competitive
advantage. Furthermore, hallmark events may be able to bring huge tourist
dollars, a strong sense of local pride and international recognition.
1.3.3 Major Events

Major events are events that are capable - by their scale and media interest - of
attracting significant visitor number, media coverage and economic benefits
(Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005).
1.3.4 Local or Community Events

Local or community events produce a range of benefits, including engendering
pride in the community, strengthening a feeling of belonging and creating a
sense of place. They can also help to expose people to new ideas and experiences,
encourage participation in sports and arts activities, and encourage tolerance and
diversity (Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005).

In addition, Janiskee (1996 cited in Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005)
also define local or community events as:
„⁄family-fun events that are considered ÂownedÊ by a community because

they use volunteer services from the host community, employ public venues
such as streets, parks and schools and are produced at the direction of local
government agencies or non-government organisations (NGOs) such as
service clubs, public safety organisations or business associations‰.
Moreover, he also comments that community festivals can become hallmark

events and attract a large number of visitors to a community.
ACTIVITY 1.4
1. What are special events? Give examples of special events in

Malaysia.
2. Think of any events in the world that you know. Classify those
events based on the types of events which you have learnt.
1.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF EVENTS

Events have become an integral part of our lives. There is a strong heritage in the
urban and regional areas for people to come together to celebrate (Derret, 1999).
In addition, there are a host of reasons for people in specific geographical
locations wanting to gather to process shared experiences.
The growth of tourism has led to an increase in leisure activities by tourists.

Festival and events are seen as one of the catalyst used by tourism destinations to
attract the tourists market. Getz (1990, cited from Derret, 1999), suggest that
festivals and special events play important roles in tourism destination planning
as:
Ć Attractions
Ć Image makers
Ć Animators of static attractions
Ć Catalysts for other forms of development
Ć Part of an alternative tourism

Hence, it is crucial for event managers to ensure that events are organised
properly and are in the right order every time.
According to Watt (1998), properly done, events can be a great thrill; but poorly
done, and they can be an unpleasant experience for all concerned.
There are some expectations that the event organisers need to meet for instance
the expectation of the spectators and participants. According to Derret (1999),
individuals participating as audience at a festival or special event wish to:
Ć Satisfy their curiosity
Ć Learn more
Ć Appreciate beauty
Ć Collect things
Ć Improve themselves
Ć Express their personalities
Ć Receive approval from others
On the other hand, participants generally wish to be:

Ć First in everything
Ć Recognised as authorities
Ć Influential
Ć Creative
Ć Hospitable
It is undeniable that organising an event is a difficult and tough job because of

the expectations that need to be met and the full attention it requires. Watt (1998)
admits that all events and all their customers are important and they deserve the
best treatment possible. He also points out that each event is unique and one very
important consideration is to identify the differences and how to handle them
successfully.
Likewise, Getz (1997) concurs that even though many events are periodic, each
one has a unique ambience created by the combination of its length, setting,
management (i.e., its programme, staffing and design), and those in attendance.
He added that this principle applies to all events.
„Events are transient and every event is a unique blending of its

duration, setting, managements, and people.‰

Consequently, Watt (1998) suggests factors that influence the organising of

events such as village fete which are:
Ć Geographic location
Ć Size of population
Ć Age of population
Ć Number of voluntary organisations
Ć Affluence of the community
Ć Ability of organisers
Ć Nature of the site
Ć Facilities and equipment available
It is no doubt that the larger the event is the more detail and complicated it will
be. Hence, it will require more attention and it is important to acknowledge these
unique features when conducting events.
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF BEST EVENTS

Watt (1998) emphasises 14 important elements to ensure a good event, which are:
(a) A clear vision and a definite purpose for everyoneÊs efforts.
(b) Clear SMART (Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic, Timed) objectives to
which everyone is committed.
(c) An appropriate, flexible organisational structure able to achieve specific
task but retaining an overall unified purpose.
(d) Committed personnel, willing to „go the step beyond.‰
(e) A leader of calibre, authority and personality.
(f) Precise detailed planning carried out and documented within an
appropriate timescale.
(g) A coordinated team effort operating within budget limits, drawing on all
available resources.
(h) Efficient lines of communication.
(i) A good public image.
(j) Effective publicity and presentation, and built-in contingency plans.
(k) A total commitment to customer care.
(l) Efficient ongoing control and monitoring systems.
(m) An atmosphere of unity, focus, hard work, humour and enthusiasm.
(n) Good post-event evaluation.

• Overall, this topic starts with the introduction of global event industry in the
twenty-first century.
Ć Professional models of event management and event management subfields.

Event Management Professional Model is a model that shows the linkages
between the definition, activities, subfields, and stakeholders which support
the event management organisation.
Ć Models of global event management, in which the process of event

management which consists of research, design, planning, coordination and
evaluation, act as a guideline for producing successful events.
Ć All four types of events in detail which includes mega events, hallmark
events, major events and community or local events. It is crucial for countries
or destinations to be knowledgeable about the types and sizes of events
before they decide to bid or to organise such events.
Ć The importance of events to host the country, for instance, as a catalyst in the
development of infrastructure, as an image enhancer and so on.
Ć The characteristics of the best possible event as a general guideline.
Fete
Spectators
Unity

1. Discuss the five WÊs that need to be considered before an event manager
organises an event.
2. Give definitions for the terms below:

(a) Special events
(b) Event management
(c) Mega events
(d) Hallmark events
(e) Major events
3. Illustrate the process of event management.
4. How does the event manager make certain that the events are creative but
well organised?
5. What are the common characteristics of successful events?
1. Discuss three types of research commonly used in event management.

2. Give examples of strength of an event using SWOT analysis.
3. Explain three phases of planning.
4. Describe ways to evaluate events.
5. Discuss the importance of events to destinations.

Topic X Event
2 Administration
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Determine the key steps to a successful event;
2. Describe the purpose of the event, venue, theme, timing, logistic and
the need of the event audience;
3. Identify the effective strategic plan to develop a programme
creatively;
4. Explain the human resource and time management, as well as
staffing; and
5. Evaluate the leadership characteristic and how to manage
communication effectively.
X INTRODUCTION
A detailed administration is the foundation for all successful events. The event
administration provides the organiser and stakeholders with data with which to
design the fantasy that will produce the deliverables you wish for. Therefore, this
topic will explore the key steps of a successful event as well as the concept and
design of events. Indeed, before planning an event, there are two elements that
need to be developed which are the aims and mission or the purpose statement
as well as the implementation of the event plan. Functions and concepts of
management will also be discussed along with human resource and time
management, and staffing. Finally, event leadership and communication will be
deliberated exhaustively.

24 X TOPIC 2 EVENT ADMINISTRATION
2.1 KEY STEPS OF A SUCCESSFUL EVENT

There are many ways of conducting events. However, most of event managers
follow the same vital stages of organisation and these stages are progressive
(Watt, 1998). Indeed, only in exceptional circumstances should any of them be
omitted and the key steps are as follows:
Step 1: Ask the initial event question.
Step 2: Clarify and establish the event aims and objectives.
Step 3: Carry out a feasibility study and evaluate the results; produce a
written report and outline brief where necessary.
Step 4: Establish planning and implementation methodologies and draw up a
time schedule.
Step 5: Secure finance and any required approvals.
Step 6: Launch the event into the public area.
Step 7: Establish operating structures and recruit key personnel.
Step 8: Carry out all necessary preplanning and establish appropriate control
systems.
Step 9: Achieve pre-event preparation through a trained efficient workforce
and good communication system.
Step 10: Publicise the event.
Step 11: Complete a comprehensive last-minute double-check on all
arrangements.
Step 12: Carry out the events as per plan and contingency strategy.
Step 13: Review and evaluate the event after completion and finalise the
accounts.
Step 14: Prepare a detailed report for the appropriate personnel and future
use.
2.2 CONCEPT AND DESIGN
2.2.1 Developing the Concept

Concept is a briefly stated idea of a benefit that an event, product, or service
could provide to customers. According to Wagen & Carlos (2005), there are many
elements need to be considered in developing the event concept. However, for
the purpose of this module, seven elements will be highlighted, which are:

TOPIC 2 EVENT ADMINISTRATION W 25
(a) Purpose of the Event

The purpose of the event should be driving all the planning. Many events
took profit as a main purpose but for many it is not. Indeed, every event has
a different purpose, for example, there are some events with a community
and charity purpose.
(b) Theme of the Event

The theme of the event should link to the purpose. It should be appropriate
with guest needs and consistent in all respect. Many events used techniques
such as tickets, programmes, uniforms, décor, poster and merchandise in
order to make it easier for attendees to identify the theme. There are some
examples of potential themes:
Ć Historical Ć Artistic
Ć Geographical and cultural Ć Food
Ć Sporting Ć Object (for example flowers,
Ć Film, music and entertainment animal, etc)
It is crucial to consider the range of suitable venues available, keeping in

mind the constraints of budget and other considerations when coming up
with ideas for a theme.
(c) Venue for the Event

Venue refers to physical site of event. It is important to choose a venue
because it will ultimately determine many elements of staging. There are
some factors that need to be considered when selecting a venue:
Ć Potential to fulfill the purpose of Ć Features

the event Ć Cost of decoration, sound and
Ć Ambience lighting
Ć Location Ć Logistics of setting up
Ć Access by public transportation Ć Safety (emergency plans and
Ć Parking exits)
Ć Seating capacity Ć Food and beverage facilities
Ć Cost of labour
(d) Event Audience

The audience needs is vital to be determined before finalising the event
concept. Every audience has a different response to the event. Therefore,
the event manager has to determine their needs and attitudes in order to
attract and persuade them to the event.

(e) Financial Consideration

Finances need to be considered at this early stage of event concept and
design. It needs to be controlled to prevent overspending on items which
are not in the budget.
(f) Timing of the Event

Timing of the event should be appropriate to the season or weather because
some events are better to be scheduled for certain times of the year. Thus,
evaluation of an event concept must consider the four time-related factors:
season, day of the week, time of the day and duration. However, not all
events are affected by the weather because it cannot determine the success
of an event at all. Indeed, the success of events depends on the type of
event.
(g) Event Team, Contractors and Other Stakeholders

The event manager will be supported by an event team and contractors to
ensure the event is successful. The contractors include the entertainers,
employment agencies, security companies, catering companies, public
relations and marketing consultants and so on. While stakeholders refer to
individuals who invest in an event such as the organisations, guests,
vendors, media and others.
2.2.2 Analysing the Concept

The concept needs to be analysed at the early stage of its development in order to
prevent any problems and pitfalls that might occur.
(a) Competition
It is important to analyse the competition before being involved in any
event. This involves the timing and duration of the other events, even if
they are unrelated. Porter (1990, cited by Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell &
Harris, 2005) identified four elements that have impact on industryÊs
competitors which are: suppliers, buyers, new entrants and substitutes.
(b) Regulations
The importance of the regulations needs to be taken into account in
analysing the concept because it would be influencing the stage of event.
(c) Marketing
Marketing is a crucial part of the initial planning especially the timing of
marketing efforts.

(d) Community Impact

The impact of an event to community is a major significance of the planning
stage.
(e) Risk
Event managers must be aware that there are several factors of risks in the
event planning stage. In addition, Tarlow (2002) notes that event risks are
different for each event and there are several elements of risk:
Ć Size of crowd Ć Nature of the event
Ć Size and nature of the event site Ć Age of crowd
Ć Time of day Ć Weather conditions
Ć Consumables (food, water, Ć Location of the event venue
alcoholic beverages) (urban, rural, etc.)
(f) Revenue and Expenditure

Revenue and expenditure is a crucial part that needs to be taken into
account in term of analysing event concept and design. It has a great impact
on the whole event.
2.2.3 Designing the Event

Design is essential to an eventÊs success because it leads to improvement of the
event on every level. According to Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005),
event designing is a combination of form and function, aesthetics and
practicality. It is not just to set up an event idea, but also involves presenting the
design to a client and sponsor.
(a) Theme
Goldblatt (2005) points out the theme should ideally appeal to all senses:
tactile, smell, taste, visual, and auditory. According to Allen, OÊToole,
McDonnell & Harris (2005) prior to designing an event, theme must be
developed first because theme can make the event look different from other
events. On the other hand, the customer can also determine the event
theme.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Think of a theme event you had attended recently. Did you think the
event was unique?

(b) Layout
The layout of the event venue is clearly important to the success of the
event. Goldblatt (2005) defined layout as an artistÊs or designerÊs
description of how a printed piece will look.
(c) Décor
Décor encompasses many things, from the colour scheme to the drapes,
props, and floral arrangements. The challenge is to bring them all together
into a cohesive theme (Wagen & Carlos, 2005). Likewise, Goldblatt (2005)
defined decorating as a planning and furnishing of an exhibition or
function with carpets, drapes, plants, stage sets, props, florals, etc, to create
a pleasant and attractive environment.
(d) Suppliers
According to Goldblatt (2005), supplier is a facility, company, agency, or
individual offering space, goods or services. Indeed, due to the festive
nature, suppliers refer to venues, artists and physical resources needed to
produce shows such as lighting and staging. Good relationship with
suppliers is vital to ensure that only quality products and services will be
received.
(e) Technical Aspects

The technical aspects of the event have a great impact to the whole event.
The event manager must be very attentive to each aspect such as, screen,
microphones, speaker and power supply and so on. Indeed, a backup
system is essential. The event manager also needs to choose technical
contractors carefully in order to avoid any unnecessary problems during
the event.
(f) Entertainment
According to Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005), entertainment is
characterised by constant changes as new ways of expression are
developed, whether through new artistic forms or new types of sporting
endeavour. In addition, Goldblatt (2005) defined an entertainment as an
activity performed for the enjoyment of others. Whatever it is,
entertainment should suit the purpose of the event.
(g) Catering
Catering can be the major element in staging, depending on the theme and
nature of an event. Most purpose-built venues already have catering
arrangements in place. According to Yeoman et. al, (2004) catering is an
important element of the event experience from a customer perspective and
can provide a profitable income stream. Market research and feedback from

other events can provide useful information to facilitate event manager to

make decision about this catering issue.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Pick an event that you want to organise. Design the event using your
creativity. Do you think you can attract people to attend your event? How
are you going to accomplish that?
2.3 EVENT PLANNING
2.3.1 Developing Aims, Mission/Purpose Statement

The first step in event planning is to develop the mission or purpose statement of
the event. The mission statement should ensure that planning and
implementation do not go off the track and that the initial intent is realised. There
are some of the event aims, which are:
Ć Increasing civic pride.
Ć Improving community attitudes to health and fitness through participant in
sporting activities.
Ć Injecting funds into the local economy.
Ć Increasing tourist numbers to a specific destination.
Ć Building team loyalty.
2.3.2 Developing and Implementing the Event Plan

(a) The Five Senses
The five senses play an integral part in designing the event environment in
order to give greater impact to the guests. The five senses are as follows:
(i) Soundscaping
When planning the sound design for event, the event manager must
consider the theme of the event and devise ways in which sound can
be used to convey that theme to the guest.
(ii) Visual Cues
Events need a strong visual element so that guest can get experiences
from the event. Besides that, additional visual elements must be
considered, such as the logo. A logo is the graphic symbol of the
organisation sponsoring the event.
(iii) Touch
To establish the sense of touch there are many elements that need to
be considered. For instance the cloth of the banquet table, napkins or
printed programme.
(iv) Smell
Throughout the event environment, various smells may be present that
will either create the correct environment or confuse and irritate the guest.
(v) Taste
The sense of taste has a great impact to whole event. Therefore, the
event manager should be aware that the catering team members play
a critical role in establishing a strong sensory feeling for the event.
(b) Identifying the Needs of Your Guests

Guests are stakeholders who are capable of making your events the best
event or the worst. Event managers will have to identify the needs of the
guests to ensure that the event will meet their expectations. There are four
major factors that need attention:
(i) Provision for Guests Having Disabilities
Selecting a venue is an important process. The event manager needs
to ensure that the venue must be able to accommodate special need
especially for guests having disabilities. In U.S there is an act called
the Americans with Disabilities Act that needs to be followed by event
managers when organising events. This act must be incorporated into
the event environmental design.
(ii) Implications of Size, Weight and Volume
The event manager has to ensure that the design elements can be
broken down into small units. The construction standards should be
used in the venue but shifting weight can cause serious problems for
certain venues. On the other hand, the fewer design elements are
incorporated, the more people can be accommodated. Therefore,
when creating total event design, the event manager must first
determine the number of people that must accommodated.
(iii) Securing the Environment
The event manager must consider guestsÊ safety at the venue.
Therefore, the roles of police and local security are very important to
ensure the environment is secure and to reduce the possibility of theft
or personal injury.
(iv) Transportation and Parking Factors
The elements that need to be taken into account are the security in the
facility as well as ease of access. However, the proximity of the
vehicles to the loading area of the venue is the prime concern.

(c) Managing the Event Environment

Event environment needs to be managed efficiently by the event manager
to ensure the implementation of the event goes smoothly according to the
plan. There are four aspects that need to be considered:
(i) Entrances and Reception Areas
The theme of event must be established immediately with
environmental design. Elements like signs, bearing the groupÊs name
or logo and appropriate décor will reassure guests that they are in the
right place.
(ii) Function Areas
Usually, the reception area creates the first impression but the main
function area will determine the effectiveness of overall design. It is
because the function area is the area in which guests will spend the
most time and where the eventÊs principal message must be
communicated to guests in a memorable manner.
(iii) Innovative Sites
The purpose of creatively designing the environment is to provide a
dynamic atmosphere within which the guest may experience the
event.
(iv) Amenities and Furnishing
One challenge which decorators face is designing an environment that
will satisfy both primary and secondary audiences. Creating designs
and products that will translate to television, film, and still
photography is becoming increasingly important.
2.4 FUNCTION AND CONCEPTS OF

MANAGEMENT
Management is defined as a control and organisation of a business, etc (Hornby,
2000). There are many styles, functions and concepts being adapted by the
managers in many organisations. However in event management, it is important
to employ and consider a number of main management concepts and functions.
This is due to the uniqueness of the event being organised as well as the staffs
who are mostly volunteers volunteering for the events. Watt (1998) suggests
seven main functions of managements which are discussed extensively below:
(a) Creating
A manager needs to provide the initiative by presenting the hypothesis
which can be tested through a feasibility study. In addition, innovative
thinking will help to create a workable concept an interesting event based
on the clientÊs needs, and project funding. Indeed, free thinking is

important to implement as well as being able to link suitable ideas or tasks

in order to achieve identified goals in an innovative and encouraging ways.
Creativity is also vital and it must be linked to finance and resources.
(b) Problem Solving

It is an important skill for getting action in events. Solving problems needs
a positive and innovative thinker. In addition, imaginative and lateral
thinking may be very helpful on facing up to difficulties and finding
solutions. Event managers must approach problems in systematic ways, so
that they do not overlook important details when they are under pressure.
There are eight stages in problem solving, which are:
(i) Obtain the facts.
(ii) Specify the objectives.
(iii) Identify the problems.
(iv) Formulate alternative solutions.
(v) Select the best solution.
(vi) Put the selected solution into practice.
(vii) Continue making observations to ensure the chosen solution works.
(viii) Select a new solution or adjust any corrective action; or go back to
step (i).
(c) Motivating
Due to the nature of the event industry, it is crucial to keep the staff
motivated and interested because events demand an extraordinary
dedication from everyone involved. A clear understanding of the aims and
objectives is vital to ensure everyone is on the right track and sharing the
same mission. Honest, realistic and open event environments are essential
to convince staff and volunteers of their important roles in conducting the
events successfully. Tangible rewards (money) or intangible rewards
(recognition) can be used to motivate them. In addition, providing them
with uniforms, for example, will boost their sense of belonging and thus
increase their commitment to the event.
(d) Controlling
It is the management function to ensure that „what is supposed to happen
is happening, or going to happen‰. It focuses on monitoring the
performance system and resources. Moreover, control systems must be
established to check that objectives are accomplished within the prescribed
timescale. There are four stages for effective control, which are:

(i) Plan what you intend to do.

(ii) Measure what has been done.
(iii) Compare achievements with the blueprint.
(iv) Take action to correct anything that is not as it should be.
(e) Planning
Effective planning is vital to achieve success. There are three types of plan
that should be produced for an event:
(i) Strategic plans direct an organisation towards its overall objectives,
taking into account major influences: political, environment,
economic, etc.
(ii) Specific plans are designed to achieve specific objectives, e.g. budget
estimates, resource production and promotion plans.
(iii) Administrative, organisational and structural plans explain how the
objectives will be achieved.
Planning is essential because it reduces uncertainty, focuses attention on

goals, produces unity of purpose, makes for efficient operation and ensures
appropriate control systems are established. There are 14 stages in event
planning:
(i) Determine the event vision and aims.
(ii) Formulate a policy, adopt the vision and examine its consequences
(iii) Carry out a feasibility study and make key decisions.
(iv) Set the SMART objectives.
(v) Identify the resources and check their availability.
(vi) Identify the tasks to be undertaken.
(vii) Define the organisational structure and identify the roles.
(viii) Select the personnel.
(ix) Choose an appropriate communication structure.
(x) Draw up a budget.
(xi) Make detailed plans and specify the timescale; work backwards from
the event itself.
(xii) Plan any meetings and choose the control systems.
(xiii) Plan the event implementation; its presentation, preparation, closure
and clearing.
(xiv) Finalise the accounts; evaluate whether the aims and objectives were
achieved, and record any modifications to consider when organising
future events.
It is important to take note that it is necessary to set down a detailed

timescale as suggested at stage (xi).
(f) Organisation
Organisations provide the framework within which individuals can
cooperate to achieve what they could not achieve on their own. For event
organisation, the prime objective is to offer a quality service that carries off
the event successfully, thereby satisfying the needs of all event customers.
Therefore, developing working relationships will be of importance,
alongside defining working roles, tasks to be achieved and the structure to
be used. The chosen organisational system will need to be flexible, so it can
cope with the changing circumstances that often arise during events,
especially the larger ones. There are seven steps in choosing an
organisational structure for an event:
(i) Define the aims and objectives of the project.
(ii) Analyse the background situation in which the event has to be
achieved (external and internal environmental audit).
(iii) List all the tasks to be undertaken.
(iv) Group together all related tasks.
(v) Establish links between these groups of tasks.
(vi) Establish an understanding of respective roles for all those involved.
(vii) Identify possible communication lines between various groups.
In addition, the size of the structure will depend on the level, complexity
and exact nature of the event, but do not make it unnecessarily
complicated. It is also essential to ensure everyone involved knows about
their tasks, position and so on. Refer to Figure 2.1 and 2.2 for a comparison
of organisational structure.

Figure 2.1: A simple organisational structure

Source: Adapted from Watt, D. C. (1998). Event management in leisure and tourism. New
York: Addison Wesley Longman
Figure 2.2: A more complex organisational structure

To ensure all the tasks and rules are followed, it requires coordination.
Coordination is important to successful organisation and management. All
organisations need coordinating mechanisms like clearly defined status and
work roles, as well as informal communication and detailed committee
remits.
(g) Communication
Effective communication leads to good coordination, hence an efficient
organisation. Communication is defined as:

„The giving, receiving or exchange of information, so that the

material communicated is completely understood by everyone
concerned‰ (Watt, 1998).
And additional phrase for event management:
„And that appropriate action follows.‰
Internal and external communications are vital to successful event

management. Communication should flow at every level, among
individuals and among organisations. Watt (1998) suggested several
methods of communication which are:
(i) Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is common but it can be unsatisfactory for
event management because it is necessarily witnessed by others or
returned by the receiver. It is essential to ease interpersonal
relationship and get things done correctly.
(ii) Non-verbal Communication
Always apparent in any face-to-face situation, non-verbal
communication consists of body gestures and orientation, facial
expression, eye contact and personal appearance. It is a complex
interaction, partly unconscious.
(iii) Written Communication
Written communication is probably the most common in event
management and most other contexts, but it is often used excessively
and ineffectively. Any paperwork should be kept to the minimum
because it is extremely time-consuming to read and write; it can also
be demotivating and easily disregarded.
(iv) Visual Communication
Visual communications such as videos are used for product
promotion and staff training. An effective logo communicates a
message and contributes to the success of an event. Visual
communication also helps to create and retain interest among staff.
(v) Electronic Communication
The fastest developments are in electronic communication; computers,
e-mail, Internet, fax and mobile phones. They bring enormous benefits
to event management because events so often take place over large
areas, perhaps one big location or several far apart locations.

Whatever the chosen methods or processes, efficient lines of communication

must be established within an organisation and they must be flexible enough to
respond to changes because changes are almost unavoidable. When information
is transferred, it should lead to correct understanding and appropriate action.
Information should be clear, correct, concise, complete, courteous and correctly
directed.
However, organisations must be careful on communication barriers, which can

appear in various forms: the use of an inappropriate medium; the use of
confusing language; the use of ambiguous words and phrases; information
overload; interference or different levels; incorrect circulation of information;
mistrust between participants; lengthy communication chains and erroneous
individual perceptions. All these barriers can cause delays and inactivity, which
are fatal for events. Watt (1998) also suggests some management concepts which
he added as very important and relevant to event management. The management
concepts which are focusing more on personal management skills are as below:
(i) Decision Making
Decision making in events takes place at several levels: individual, group
and organisational. It involves the assessment and implementation of
possible strategies, considering flexibility, the individualÊs attitude to risk
and the organisations response to it.
(ii) Team Building
The event manager has to make a real effort to build his or her team. Unity
of purpose and an atmosphere of cooperation are important to achieve
success in the often pressured world of event management. Recognition
from organisation will aid teamwork to boost their motivation level.
Informal meetings should be encouraged to build relationship and joint
understandings among staff. Clear structures and chains of command are
important to avoid confusion and conflict. Indeed, formal training, informal
socialising, group decision making and full staff involvement at all stages
will help to build an effective team.
(iii) Delegation
Delegation is a key management activity and crucial to the success of any
event. It gives people something to do which they are capable of achieving.
Delegation is not dumping, but it designed to get success though
maximising efficiency, using everyoneÊs time, expertise and effort to the
best purpose.
(iv) Leadership
Leadership is an interpersonal influence exercised in situations and
directed through the communication process towards the attainment of a
specified goal or goals. In addition, there are some qualities required for
event management, which are:

Ć Approachable Ć Understanding
Ć Hardworking Ć Imaginative
Ć Knowledgeable Ć Good at listening
Ć Innovative Ć Questioning
Ć Diplomatic Ć Perceptive
An effective leader will show the staff that he or she cares, tells them
exactly what is required, shares the overall event experience, and rewards
or rebukes workers as required. Indeed, the style and quality of the leader
will be a deciding factor in the success of event.
(v) Staff Appraisal and Training
Staff appraisal is essential because any comments to staff on their
performances, strengths and weaknesses will enhance their efforts. Staff
would want to know how efficient they are in completing or carrying out
tasks given to them. In addition, staff training is also important because it is
always beneficial to have skilled, knowledgeable staff, whether voluntary
or paid. There are two types of training for event staff (Watt, 1998):
• Desirable training
It improves personal skills like decision making or creativity.
• Essential training
It ensures personnel are aware of legal requirements, e.g. under
health and safety legislation and can perform routine word
processing and computing tasks.
Despite time constraints, it is important to give training as much as possible

to staff since it will not only help to improve the quality of the event, but
also to ensure events are being carried out more effectively and efficiently.
(vi) Authority, Responsibility and Power
It is important to make it clear where the authority, responsibility and
power lie. Staff are more motivated if they are really able to undertake and
complete tasks without always reporting back or seeking permission.
However, they must know where they stand, and are not tempted to
underplay or indeed overstep their role, especially in areas like financial
expenditure.

(vii) Crisis Management

The event manager must be able to handle and face the crises calmly and
effectively. The organiser should aim to avoid as many crises as possible as
well as make the contingency plans. Watt (1998) suggested the steps to
resolve crises, which are:
• Coolly analyse the situation
• Re-examine the objective
• Consider the consequences of various solutions
• Select the best option
• Implement the appropriate action
• Continue monitoring to avoid repetition
ACTIVITY 2.3
Think of a practical event situation and identify the five most important
management functions. Justify your choice of each.
2.5 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

AND TIME
Human resource management (HRM) is the activity that deals with all aspects of
an organisations staff, their recruitment, deployment, training, development,
support and relationship with their employer. It includes all the aspects of
employing, empowering, supporting and rewarding employee.
(a) Volunteer Coordination

A volunteer is a vital part of any events because without volunteers, it is
difficult for an event to be carried out easily. Indeed, the event manager
must know how to attract volunteers to the event. According to Goldblatt
(2005), these recommendations will help the event manager:
(i) Recruitment
The recruitment of paid and volunteer employees is essentially about
attracting the right potential candidates to the right job openings.
Successful recruitment is based on how well previous stages in the
human resource planning process have been conducted and involves
determining where qualified applicants can be found and how they
can be attracted to the event organisation.

(ii) Training
All the volunteers must be trained and the training programme
should be comprehensive. To reduce amount of time, guide book can
be used as a guide to the volunteers.
(iii) Coordination
The event manager must be coordinating the volunteerÊs team to
accomplish the goals of event. The coordination of volunteers
involves coaching and mentoring by the team leader or supervisors to
oversee their performance.
(iv) Rewarding Excellent, High Quality Performance
Reward is one of the motivation elements for organisation staff.
Rewards based on deep appreciation of the individual as a unique
person and the job content.
(b) Developing Organisational Chart

Development of an organisational chart allows people in the organisation to
understand their reporting relationship (to whom they report to and who
report to them). Besides that, it also explains the level of responsibility and
authority in the organisation. See Figure 2.3 and 2.4 for examples.
Figure 2.3: Top-down organisation


Figure 2.4: Bottom-up organisation

ACTIVITY 2.4
What do you think are the types of training programmes which can be
used for volunteers. Why?
(c) Staffing
Staffing is a main strategic decision area for event managers regarding
human resources. The event manager needs to make decisions on how
many staff is needed to deliver the event; what mix of skills/qualification is
required; and when in the planning process these staff will be needed. Getz
(1997), points out the three-stages of staffing process which are:
(i) Identify all task associated with event creation, delivery and
shutdown.
(ii) Determine how many people are needed to complete the range of
tasks associated with the conduct of the event.
(iii) Make a list of the numbers of staff/volunteers, supervisors and the
skills/experience/qualifications needed to form the ideal work force
for the event.
(d) Job Analysis

Job analysis is an important aspect in terms of human resources planning
process. It involves defining a job in terms of specific tasks and

responsibilities and identifying the abilities, skills and qualifications needed

to perform it successfully.
(e) Job Descriptions

Job descriptions are another outcome of the job analysis process. It outlines
the tasks that need to be performed. According to Goldblatt (2005), job
description is a list of duties that make up a particular job position. This
document shows the position title, the reporting relationship and the
duties. In addition, Stone (1998, cited by Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell &
Harris, 2005) defined job description as a statement identifying why a job
has come into existence, what the holder of the job will do and under what
conditions the job is to be conducted.
(f) Job Specification

A job specification is derived from the job description and seeks to identify
the experience, qualifications, skills, abilities, knowledge and personal
characteristics needed to perform a given job. It also identifies the types of
people that should be recruited and how they should be appraised. Indeed,
Goldblatt (2001) points out that job specification is a list a qualities such as
work experience and skill.
(g) Developing Policies, Procedures and Practices

Policies and procedures are needed to provide the framework in which the
remaining tasks in the human resource planning process take place -
recruitment and selection; training and professional development;
supervision and evaluation; termination, outplacement, reemployment; and
evaluation. Policies are conceived and approved by the sponsoring
organisationÊs trustees (Goldblatt, 2005). It develop and approve reflect the
vision and mission of the organisations, as well as comply with local, state,
provincial and federal laws. Likewise, Goldblatt also added that procedures
are the implementation tactics for policy. Policy may be broad, overarching
rules of conduct, whereas procedures are the regulations that
administrators or event managers use to implement policy. Indeed, both of
policies and procedures are essential to produce sustain successful events.
(h) Recruitment and Selection

How the event managers approach the recruitment process depends on the
financial resources they have available to them. Recruitment has a two
ways process, the event is looking to meet its human resource needs at the
same time as potential applicants are trying to access whether they meet the
job requirements, wish to apply for the position and perceive value in
joining the organisation.

(i) Interviews
Interviewing process should be undertaken using a structured approach so
that all relevant information can be covered and direct comparisons made
between candidates. Interviews may be conducted on a one-on-one basis, or
via a panel of two or more interviewers.
(j) Induction
Getz (1997) suggests a range of actions be taken as part of an effective
induction programme:
(i) Provide basic information about the event (mission, objectives,
stakeholders, budget, location, programme details).
(ii) Conduct tours of venues, suppliers and offices and any other relevant
locations.
(iii) Give an introduction about organisational culture, history and
working arrangements.
(iv) Overview training programmes.
(k) Training
Training is focused on providing specific job skills or knowledge that will
allow people to perform a job or to improve their performance in it. Wagen
& Carlos (2005) point out the three basic areas about training, which are:
(i) General Outline
Staff members need to be presented with a general outline of the
event, as well as its objectives and organisational structure.
(ii) Venue Information
A tour of the venue enables staff to become familiar with the location
of all facilities, functional areas and departments and the spectatorÊs
series provided.
(iii) Specific Job Information
Event staff members need to know what their duties are and how to
perform them.
2.6 EVENT LEADERSHIP
ACTIVITY 2.5
You are to act as the key event organiser for next yearÊs ‰Hari Raya Open
Day‰ celebration. Which particular leadership skills do you think you
will have to portray and why?

The leader of an event, in particular a small event, is often the founder of the
event. However as Event Director/Manager/Leader he or she must have the
ability to inspire and motivate others, particularly volunteers and must have
excellent communication skills. The leadership style can affect the whole event.
2.6.1 Leadership Styles

According to Goldblatt (2005), there are three groups of leadership style which are:
(a) Democratic Style
This leadership style is used during the early stage of the event planning. It is
an excellent approach for facilitating discussions, conducting focus groups
and building consensus of stakeholders. The skills needed in this style are
listening and facilitation. However, it takes time to reach a consensus.
(b) Autocratic Style
The autocratic style is used for instance, when emergency an evacuation is
required because in this situation, there is no time to try and reach a
consensus. It also should be used sparingly.
(c) Laissez-fair Style
The laissez-fair style is least used in event management because it requires
a team with skills equal in level and therefore the event manager does not
have to facilitate to ensure that goals are being achieved.
2.6.2 Leadership Characteristics

Table 2.1 highlights the leadership characteristics.
Table 2.1: Leadership Characteristics

Traditional Leaders Event Leaders
• Communication skills • Integrity
• Confidence • Confidence and persistence
• Courage • Collaboration
• Decision making • Problem solving
• Enthusiasm • Communication skills
• Integrity • Vision
• Persistence
• Planning
• Problem solving
• Vision

(a) Integrity
The event leader must set the standard for integrity. Integrity determines
the external perception by others. The event manager who exhibits high
integrity must refuse any gifts from vendor and will effectively
communicate to all colleagues that the gift has been refused as well as
provide the reason for refusal.
(b) Confidence and Persistence

Confidence and persistence act as teaching tools to influence the event
stakeholders; therefore it is essential for event managers to own such
characteristics.
(c) Collaboration
Collaborative organisations are important to achieve high quality and
better financial result. Event leaders should perceive all the collaborators
who share a mutual goal to produce a successful event. Thus, all decision
making should be preceded by close collaboration among the stakeholders.
(d) Problem Solving

The event manager is a person who is experienced and trained, possesses
the skills not only to analyse problems but also to provide a solution.
Consequently, Goldblatt (2005) listed a framework to understand, analyse,
and solve event problems, which are:
(i) Understand the size, scope, and time sensitivity of the problem.
(ii) Identify the key informants and stakeholders affected by the problem.
(iii) Determine if there is a model or comparable problem whose solution
could be used for this problem.
(iv) Test the potential solution by seeking the collaborative input of those
affected by the problem.
(v) Monitor the impact of the decision which has been made.
(e) Communication Skills

Communication is a crucial part of the entire event process. It is a
continuous process that involves both sending and receiving information.
This information may be verbal, written or abstract symbols such as body
language.
(f) Vision
The event manager must be able to clearly demonstrate the vision of the
outcome of the event.
The leaders of an event should be a role model, inspire the group processes and
be supportive of staff and the many volunteers. They may make the important
decisions; nevertheless managers, supervisors and volunteers must also be
empowered to make decisions. This is essential in order to ensure that the event
delivers a quality service to meet customersÊ expectation.
ACTIVITY 2.6
Who is your role model? Do you think he or she is a good leader? What
are the leadership characteristics that he or she lacks? Why?
• Event administration is the foundation of every successful event. The event

organisers and event stakeholders must work hand in hand to provide
quality events to attendees.
Ć The key steps of successful events encompass 14 important steps which need
to be followed effectively.
Ć Concept and design which are also an integral part which need to be
developed and analysed to ensure the events are well planned by taking into
account all the important elements that had been discussed. For instance,
there are seven elements that had been highlighted to develop the event
concept, six factors which need to be considered to analyse the concept, and
seven components that should be pondered upon.
Ć Aims and mission or the purpose statement are crucial in the planning of an
event. They have to be developed and tested, act as a guideline and gives
direction to the event organisations.
Ć The five senses need to be applied by the event organisers in order to make
the event more dramatic and impressive in the process of developing and
implementing the event plan.
Ć The needs of the guests, especially guests with disabilities, should be

considered.
Ć The four aspects of managing the event environment to ensure the event
being implemented efficiently.
Ć The management functions and concepts which include creating a workable

concept, solving problems and findings solutions, motivating staff,
controlling and monitoring, planning, choosing organisational structure, and

communication. Adding to that, personal management skills which are

relevant to event management are also emphasised.
Ć The human resource management and time, which include volunteer

coordination, developing the organisational chart, the importance of staffing,
job analysis, job descriptions, and job specification.
Ć The development of policies, procedures and practices in order to provide a

framework for human resource planning process to the event managers.
Ć Leadership style and characteristics which are important for the eventsÊ
success.
Amenity Design
Crisis management Publicity
1. State how information is gathered for the purpose of planning an event.

2. Why is it important for an event to have aims and mission to be successful?
3. Discuss three factors on why time plays a major role for the event manager.
4. State the importance of volunteers in managing events.
5. Describe the process to recruit quality volunteers to ensure the events are
successful.
1. Discuss briefly factors that need to be put into account in order to identify
the needs of guests attending events.
2. What are some of the typical themes that are used for events?
3. Why is time the most important resources that the event manager must use
to produce a high quality event?
4. List the management functions that need to be considered in organising
events.
5. Discuss three groups of leadership styles.

Topic X Financial
3 Administration
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe basic management financial and accounting terminology;
2. Explain an event budget, income and expenditure;
3. Define the event balance sheet and financial control system; and
4. Identify source of income and fundraising.
X INTRODUCTION
Financial planning and good financial control are important aspects of the event
management process. Organising events not only require the event manager to
be an expert in planning, coordinating, leadership skill and so on but the
knowledge of financial management is also essential to the practice of modern
event management. The purpose of this topic is not to deal with the entire
financial management subject as it relates to this area but it will briefly discuss
the administration of finance. Thus, this topic will be divided into eight
subtopics. Firstly the financial structures will be discussed, followed by
budgeting. Then cash flow analyses and profit and loss statement will be
explained. Balance sheet and the financial control system will be deliberated next
to assist the event manager to better understand the need to obtain a solid system
in order to gain financial control. Finally, this topic will suggest sources of
funding to support the event manager to organise events and lastly, the
importance of fundraising in managing events.

TOPIC 3 FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION W 49
3.1 FINANCIAL STRUCTURES

According to Watt (1998), financial operating structures need to be established
quickly. It may be very simple, perhaps a treasurer controlling all finances; or it
may be very complex, perhaps involving several committees and even paid staff
to manage the financial side. Financial structures and systems are required in any
level of events. See Table 3.1 for an example.
Therefore, he also points out two options of financial structures committee:

(i) Finance is a free-standing committee; everyone requests money and awaits
their decision [refer Figure 3.1 (b)].
(ii) Each committee or sub-committee has its own treasurer to look after its
allocated budget [refer Figure 3.1 (a)].
Committee treasurer is essential because it acts as a centralise controller. A free-

standing finance committee gives greater centralised power but having committee
treasurers gives power to those doing the work. Indeed, the structure for financial
processing and control must be clear. The various control systems are fundamental
in order to ensure the spending is within agreed limits at all times. See Figure 3.2.
The budget will be established through various stages. This is lengthy but
effective, and involves everyone in identifying costs. It minimises the chances of
mistakes and oversight. The process is very important and must be carried out
alongside the project aims and objectives, keeping them in focus. See Figure 3.3.
Table 3.1: Simple Chart for Event Expenditure

Timetable 3 6
2 1 6 2 1
Event Months Months
Years Year Months Months Months
Heading After After
Feasibility study -
Professional
- -
advice
Accommodation 20%
Venue 10% 80%
Catering 10% 10% 20% 90%
Advertising 20% 30% 60%
Insurance -
Hire charges -
Staff costs - - - - - - - -

50 X TOPIC 3 FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Figure 3.1: Approaches to financial control

Figure 3.2: How to establish a budget democratically


Figure 3.3: Budgeting and financial control

3.2 BUDGETING
The budget represents an action plan and the event manager must develop it
carefully. In the event industry, budget is generally prepared before an event.
According to Goldblatt (2005), budget is a financial statement of estimated

income and expenditure for a specific time period. It is also known as cash
flow chart or phased budget.

Budget represents the income and expenses of organisation or the individual
event and is based on the following factors:
(a) Marketing projections and estimates.
(b) The general history of previous identical or similar events.
(c) The general economy and your forecast for the future.

(d) The income expenses you reasonably believe you can expect with the
resources available (return on investment).
(e) Type of financing that you chose to use to finance your event (borrowed
funds, prepayments, existing funds).
On the other hand, Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) points out
budget as a quantified statement of plans. The budget process includes costing
and estimating income and the allocation of financial resources. It is used to
compare actual costs and revenues with projected costs and revenues.
According to Anthony & Young (1984, cited in Getz, 1997), budget is a plan
expressed in monetary terms. Generally, budgeting is used to forecast the
organisationÊs financial future, to help set priorities and plan the event as well
as to keep spending within limits.
There are three types of budgeting:

(i) Operating Budgets
The operating budget is a plan for one financial year of operations and
many event managers just prepare only operating budgets.
(ii) Capital Budgets

The capital budget is prepared for capital acquisition.
(iii) Cash Budgets

The cash budget is used to summarise planned cash receipts and
disbursements. In addition, Getz (1997) stated that there are two types of
budget process in event management, which are:
Ć The line-item budget
Line-item budget focuses on each and revenue item of the total event.
Ć Programme budget
Programme budget is constructed for a specific programme element.
3.2.1 Expenses
The expenses is an important part in many event budgeting. Budgeting is a
method of controlling expenses and cost because it makes managers aware about
the event costs and revenues. According to Goldblatt (2005), these are some of
the general expense categories for most events, which are:


Ć Advertising Ć Food and beverage

Ć Accounting Ć Guest transportation
Ć Automobile rental Ć Photocopying
Ć Brochure and other collateral Ć Photography
design Ć Public relations
Ć Consultant Ć Site rental
Ć Audio-visual Ć Staffs travel
Ć Décor Ć Volunteer appreciation
Ć Entertainment Ć Research
Ć Insurance Ć Report preparation and publishing,
etc.
Figure 3.4 shows how budget process being done.

Figure 3.4: The budget process
Source: Adapted from Allen, J., OÊToole, W., McDonnell, I., & Harris, R. (2005). Festival
and special event management (3rd ed.). Australia: John Wiley & Sons

ACTIVITY 3.1
Your friend asks you to be her fundraising event coordinator. If you are
asked to prepare a budget for her fundraising event, which part needs
the most financial support? Why?

3.3 CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
The special nature of events and festivals requires close attention to the flow of
cash. According to Goldblatt (2005), cash flow is the liquidity that allows you to
pay your bills, including salaries, in a timely manner. To ensure a positive event
cash flow, two measures are necessary.

Ć Firstly, prearrange the vendorÊs payment terms and conditions that allow
collecting the adequate revenues to honour these obligations.
Ć Secondly, diligently collect those funds that are due and payable in a timely
manner in order to meet the obligations to the vendors.
On the other hand, cash flow is used as a tool in setting and revising budgets;
therefore, the event manager must be able to monitor and forecast cash flow
carefully. Indeed, cash flow analysis involves the cash flow statement which is
used to forecast the organisationÊs ability to generate future cash flows or to meet
obligations and the need for credit.
3.4 PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT

The profit and loss statement (also known as income statement) is a list of the
organisationÊs revenue, expenditure, and net profit (or net loss) for a specific
period. It is usually prepared after the event has finished (Wagen & Carlos, 2005).
The profit and loss statement should match with the budget because the budget
is a plan that reflects the profit and loss statement. Furthermore, both of them are
done regularly and routinely. In an event management company, a profit and
loss statement would be done for each event.
3.5 BALANCE SHEET

The balance sheet shows what the result would be if all bills were paid and
everything were sold, which refers to the assets minus the liabilities (Wagen &
Carlos, 2005).
Likewise, Goldblatt (2001) defined balance sheet as a statement that reflects the
financial position of an event or operation by revealing the assets, liabilities and
ownerÊs equity as of a given date.
3.6 FINANCIAL CONTROL SYSTEM

According to (Wagen & Carlos 2005), the financial control system should have
checks and balances to make sure that:
(a) Purchases or other expenses are approved
(b) Goods and services meet specifications
(c) Payment is approved
(d) Accounts are paid

(e) Incoming revenue is checked and banked

(f) Revenue totals are recorded correctly
(g) Debts are met
(h) All transactions are recorded and balanced
(i) Taxation requirements are met
(j) Financial matters are correctly reported to stakeholders
In addition, (Wagen & Carlos, 2005) also points out ways to assure financial
controls:
(a) Using a requisition system for purchases/expenditure that limits those
people authorised to spend over a certain dollar limit.
(b) Ensuring that all expenditure is accounted for and documented.
(c) Checking goods against requisition and order forms.
(d) Checking stock level.
(e) Using financial systems that maintain up-to-date information on income
and expenditure.
(f) Using financial systems to forecast cash flow.
(g) Ensuring that everyone understands the budget and current financial
position.
3.7 SOURCES OF FUNDING

Organisers have to identify the possible sources of income and how to secure
funding. Due to the nature of the event industry, it is vital to get more sources of
funding as long as the organisers still focus on the aims and objectives. To ensure
the event could be staged, dispassionate analysis must be undertaken. There are
many bodies for funding and resources, and some are as follows:
Ć Local authority leisure department Ć Foundation for Sport and the Arts
Ć Education authority Ć Local or national tourist authorities
Ć Local or national sports council Ć Sponsorship agencies
Ć Local or national arts council Ć Hoteliers
Ć Television or radio rights Ć Donations
Ć Heritage agencies Ć Voluntary bodies

Watt (1998) also suggests some activities of event itself that enable the production
of income:
Ć Franchising Ć Advertising
Ć Ticketing Ć Corporate hospitality
Ć Fundraising Ć Trade exhibitors
Ć Souvenirs Ć Entry fees
Ć Catering Ć Donations
In addition, any event or project must have a clearly defined purpose in order to
attract funds. The event purpose must be widely accepted as worthwhile. An
excellent public profile will assist in obtaining financial support from public as
well as private sources.
3.8 FUND-RAISING
According to Watt (1998), fund-raising can take many forms but chosen carefully,
it can produce quite a significant amount. Furthermore, many projects or events,
especially the smaller ones will require some type of fund-raising. Suggestions
for fund-raising are as follows:
Ć Sponsored runs, swims, cycles
Ć Dances, discos
Ć Marathon swims
Ć Raffles, lotteries
Ć Car wash
Ć Gambling evenings
In addition, Getz (1997) suggested several smaller events to generate revenue:

Ć Telethons Ć Corporate challenges
Ć Auctions Ć Coupon books
Ć Door-to-door sales Ć Donations
Ć Awards ceremonies

Due to the principles of cost and revenue management, good fund-raisers should
be able to minimise the risks and maximise the opportunities for profit.
Therefore, organisers have to choose the fund-raisers carefully in other to avoid
any problems to generate revenue. Getz also suggested the principles to choose
good fund-raisers:
(a) Stick to your distinctive competencies.

(b) Target them to your own stakeholders and known market segments.
(c) Learn from the mistakes of others and avoid overused methods.
(d) Try to get everything donated to fund-raisers.
(e) Spread out the risks; avoid get-rich-quick schemes with high risk entailed.
(f) Plan the fund-raiser with the same professionalism put into the main event.
(g) Build on strengths and experience, as opposed to one-time efforts.
(h) Schedule them so that cancellation can occur without penalty.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Identify possible companies, individuals or agencies to target as
sponsors. What do you think are the benefits that you can offer to these
sponsors?

• The financial implications of organising even a relatively simple activity or
celebration are significant. Knowledge of finance is essential especially in
organising a team or committee. Careful monitoring and recording of
purchases, expenditure and income has become a vital part of not only the
financial officerÊs responsibilities but also the event manager.
Ć The financial structures which are important in managing and controlling the
financial side of organising events.
Ć The budgeting which represents an action plan for the event manager.
Ć In general the cash flow analyses, profit and loss statement, balance sheet,
financial control systems, and sources of funding and fundraising.
• Even though this subtopic does not go in-depth on the financial management,
it is considered sufficient for the event managers to understand the bigger
picture of administering the finance part of events.


Committee Vendor
Forecast Venue
Subcommittee

1. State the potential expenses which are important in event budgeting.
2. Why do event managers have to ensure the balancing of financial control
system?
3. Identify the potential source of income for an event.
4. State the principles on how to choose good fund-raisers.
5. Discuss the importance of cash flow to the event organiser.
6. Identify three types of budgeting which is important in managing events.

1. Discuss the process of budgeting which is used to compare actual costs and
revenues with projected costs and revenues.
2. Explain two options of financial structures committee.
3. List ten categories of general expenses for most events.
4. Discuss the types of fund-raising events.

Topic X Event
4 Coordination
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the elements and roles of staging;
2. Identify all elements of an event during event operations and the
event contingency plans;
3. Explain the on-site management requirements; and
4. Develop special events within events to accommodate special needs.
X INTRODUCTION
Coordination is one of the important phases in event management. Event
coordination involves bringing together all the key aspects in managing the
events, for instance the vendors, the chosen venue, people with special needs and
so on. Coordinating an event is not an easy task as it requires the ability to make
good decisions. In addition, to make good decisions, it is essential for event
managers to use the professional training and experience to ensure that the
decisions are correct and accurate. Therefore, Topic 4 will focus on managing the
vendors as well as ways to develop appropriate resources to achieve the
maximum benefits for the event. Indeed, staging of event is also a crucial part
which needs to be discussed as it includes them in and event design,
programming, the stage and so on. This topic will also discuss on on-site
management which will focus on improving the event performance by using the
timeline production schedule. Lastly, accommodating special needs will also be
discussed.

60 X TOPIC 4 EVENT COORDINATION
4.1 MANAGING VENDOR CONTRACTS -

CHALLENGES OF TEAMWORK
To develop a successful team, the event manager should know the challenges of
teamwork. According to Goldblatt (2001), there are factors that the event
manager has to consider when developing a team, which are:
(a) Communications
Communications become a vital part in event management between the
stakeholders. The event manager is responsible for developing and
sustaining the event communications to ensure all stakeholders are
informed, in touch and involved in each of the phase of managing the
event.
(b) Self-interest
The event manager is responsible for persuading each person to build their
group interest. It is important to develop trust, congeniality and a common
purpose among the team members so that the event manager can identify
those who naturally work best in teams and those who will need more
coaching or persuasion to feel comfortable working in a group project.
(c) Dependability
One of the biggest management problems in working with volunteers are
time and attendance because they are not compensated for their efforts, and
do not feel the obligation to arrive on time or even to show up at all.
Indeed, this is a crucial part and the event manager should take it seriously
to ensure a successful event. Among the ways are to recruit dependable
people; keep accurate records of time and attendance; and use the records
to determine who to engage for future events.
(d) Trust
Trust is the result of the sustained effort by the event manager to develop
an atmosphere and environment wherein the event stakeholders invest
their trust in his or her behaviour and judgments. It is the net result of a
pattern of positive behaviours exhibited by the event manager. To develop,
establish and sustain trust, the event manager must earn and ask it from the
stakeholders.
(e) Collaboration
The event coordinators must be able to develop close collaboration between
all the stakeholders. It is difficult due to the disparity of the personalities,
skills and experiences of each stakeholder. On the other hand, the event
manager must be clear on the purpose of the event and convince the
stakeholders that they must work together to achieve or exceed the
TOPIC 4 EVENT COORDINATION W 61
expectations of the guests. Indeed, the purpose of the event team is to

cooperate and collaborate to achieve the goals and objectives of the event
and the event manager is the leader in this effort.
4.1.1 Developing Appropriate Resources

Event resources include people, time, finance, technology and physical assets.
Resources should be limited to achieve a maximum benefit for the event. Most
importantly, the event manager must be able to identify appropriate event
resources during the proposal stage.
Thus, Goldblatt (2005) points out some method for identifying appropriate
resources, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Methods for identifying appropriate resources

4.1.2 Working with Suppliers and Vendors

The event manager must be able to work with the vendors to satisfy the guestsÊ
needs. Goldblatt (2005) points out some examples of vendors as shown in Figure
4.2.

Figure 4.2: Examples of vendors

ACTIVITY 4.1

List all the vendors which you think were involved in the most recent
event you had attended. In your opinion, why is it important for event
managers to manage vendor contracts?
4.1.3 Catering Management

The event organiser needs to be very explicit about food quantities, speed of
service and type of food required because all these have a great impact on the
whole event. Therefore, Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) point out
some of the factors which need to be considered when arranging catering for an
event as shown in Figure 4.3.


Figure 4.3: Factors to consider when arranging catering for an event
4.2 STAGING
According to Goldbatt (2005), staging is a design and placement of elements for
an event. He also stated staging as an implementation of an event. In addition,
Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) claim that staging refers to the
organisation of a venue within a much larger festival. A large festival may have
performance areas positioned around a site.

4.2.1 Choosing the Event Site

The needs of stakeholders become an essential part in selecting an event venue.
Choosing a venue should be consistent with the event purpose and theme.
However, Wagen & Carlos (2005) listed the major considerations for selecting an
event venue as follows:
Ć Size of the event (including the size of the audience)
Ć Layout of the site and its suitability for the event
Ć Stage, field of play or performance area
Ć Transport and parking
Ć Proximity to accommodation and attractions
Ć Supply issues for goods and services providers such as caterers
Ć Technical support
Ć Venue management
Besides that, they also added the needs to consider in site inspection, such as:
Ć Compatibility with the event theme
Ć Audience comfort
Ć Visibility for the audience (line of sight)
Ć Storage areas
Ć Entrances and exits
Ć Stage area
Ć Equipment
Ć Covered area in case of poor weather
Ć Safety and security
Ć Access for emergency vehicles
Ć Evacuation routes
Indeed, in viewing a potential event site, there are three major stakeholders who
need to be considered:
(a) The performers
(b) The audiences
(c) The organisers

4.2.2 Developing the Theme

The theme of the event should be linked to the purpose. It must be completely
compatible with guest needs and consistent in all respects. However, Wagen &
Carlos (2005) state that the theme of an event must be supported in every aspect
and it includes the décor, lighting, sound and special effects. Theme also can be
reinforced through the following elements:
Ć Colour
Ć Landscape and/or location
Ć Film/theatre/art/dance
Ć Humour
Ć Fantasy
On the other hand, they also added the important aspects of the theme which
need to be considered by the event organiser, namely:
(a) Entertainment
Goldblatt (2001) defined an entertainment as an activity performed for the
enjoyment of others. Entertainment can enhance the theme of an event; and
corporate events in particular, often employ interesting performers.
(b) Décor
Décor refers to the planning and furnishing of an exhibition or function
with carpet, plants, floras, etc. to create a pleasant, attractive environment
(Goldblatt, 2001). Décor encompasses many things, from the colour scheme
to the drapes, props and floral arrangements. The challenge is to bring them
all together into one cohesive theme.
(c) Layout
Layout will influence the success of the event. Goldblatt (2001) defined
layout as an artistÊs or designerÊs description of how a printed piece will look.
(d) Lighting and Special Effects

Lighting can be used to spectacular effect to create the general ambience
and to highlight particular features. Moreover, it can be used to highlight
sponsor advertising and to create a particular mood. Most importantly, it
must be consistent with the event theme.
(e) Sound
Sound has a great impact on the mood of audiences. Therefore, the event
manager has to ensure that all members of the audience are able to hear it
clearly.
(f) Vision
Vision incorporates all projected images, such as replays of sporting
highlights on large screens or scoreboards.
(g) Stage
The stage is used for many reasons, including performances, prize-giving
ceremonies and presentations. The most important is the needs of the
audience, particularly the line of sight, which must be considered when
deciding on the size and shape of the stage and the placing of lecterns or
screens.
(h) Set
The set includes all objects on the stage such as the props, flats, lecterns,
stairs, curtain and so on. Sometimes these can be rented; at other times they
must be built.
(i) Field of Play

The quality of the grass field is important for many sports. Therefore,
sporting fields are often covered to protect them when there is inclement
weather or when they are used for events.

ACTIVITY 4.2
Start a compilation of ideas that will inspire future event designs. Make
use of various sources, for instance magazines, cards, posters and so on
which will provide you with new ideas for themes and colour schemes.
Come out with your own range of colours for the future.

4.2.3 Managing the Environment

Waste management is an important aspect to consider for all event organisers.
According to Wagen & Carlos (2005), the elements which should be considered
are:
(a) Pollution
The pollution aspect should be part of the planning process. It includes the
environmental impact of noise, air and water pollution. The planning
process must include the methods to reduce the pollution.
(b) Restroom Facilities

Restroom facilities include those at the venue and any temporary facilities
required. However, too many events provide substandard restroom
facilities which cannot meet the demand. Therefore, the event manager

should be aware of the event requirements and engage a restroom facilities

rental company.
(c) Cleaning
Usually, cleaning is done before and after the event. Maintaining
cleanliness during peak times is challenging, particularly if there is only a
short changeover time between event sessions. However, cleaning staff
should be treated as part of the event staff and receive appropriate training
so that they can answer questions from the people attending the event.
4.3 ON-SITE MANAGEMENT

On-site refers to the location of an event or exhibit (Goldblatt, 2001).
4.3.1 Improving Event Performance

Timeline-production schedule will improve the event performance in many
ways. Goldblatt (2005) defined the timeline as a sequential list of tasks that takes
place before and during an event. On the other hand, the production schedule is
a detailed list of tasks with specific start and stop times from setup through load-
out of an event. He also added the benefits of timeline-production schedule, as
follows:
(a) A timeline-production schedule requires the event manager to schedule
every element involved in an event systematically and logically.
(b) It provides a unique comprehensive communications tool for the use of
other team members.
(c) It enables external stakeholders such as police, fire brigade, security and
medical to stay informed regarding event operations.
(d) It is easily distributed to internal and external stakeholders via a computer
modem for quick updates.
(e) It provides an accurate historical accounting of the entire event.
On the other hand, by using the timeline-production schedule, the event

manager will be able to allocate the event resources in the most cost-effective
manner.

4.3.2 The Production Schedule

(a) Creating the Schedule
According to Goldblatt (2005), there are three important resources to
incorporate when creating document draft:
(i) Check with the key informants to make certain that all critical
information have been incorporated.
(ii) Explain the production schedule at an upcoming group meeting to
receive feedback from the entire group.
(iii) Recheck the timing, function and assignment to check for gaps and
make certain that production schedule is logical.
(b) Implementing the Schedule

After the production schedule is completed, the event manager must
circulate a series of drafts to key constituents to ensure that approvals are
received before issuing the final document. The key constituents should
have a specific role to play, relevant to their level of expertise. However,
they should review the entire plan to check for overall gaps as well as their
own particular area of expertise.
(c) Monitoring the Schedule

Appoint several capable people to serve as monitors and oversee various
stages of implementation of the production schedule. They should have a
copy of the schedule and in the notes section, list any variances from the
schedule published.
(d) Handling Changes

One of the most useful aspects of the production schedule is its ability to
assist the event manager in managing change because it provides a solid
framework for decision making. A quick glance at the production schedule
allows the event manager to make the necessary adjustments and see how
these adjustments are affecting other elements of the event.
(e) The Resume versus the Production Schedule

Usually, the meeting event manager traditionally uses the term resume
rather than production schedule. The resume comprises not only the time,
venue, task and person responsible but also detailed information regarding
room setups, audiovisual and other components of the meeting. However,
the meeting event manager must also be aware of the gaps in the resume.

(f) Evaluate the Schedule

The best way to evaluate the use of the production schedule is to ask the
key stakeholders if the process was effective. A quantitative way to monitor
the use of the schedule is to review the notes section and look for wide gaps
between the scheduled start and stop times and the actual times.

ACTIVITY 4.3
Think of an event that you would like to organise. Prepare an extensive
production schedule for the event. The production schedule must have
columns for task, start and stop time, details, person/s responsible for
each tasks and remarks.

4.4 ACCOMMODATING SPECIAL NEEDS

The event leader professional must assess, through research, how the internal or
external events will support the overall goals and objectives of the total event.
The event manager should conduct an audit of typical event guests, as well as
those who are typical and non-attendees to determine their interests, needs,
wants and desires.
4.4.1 Developing Special Events within Events

These data of guestsÊ special needs can help the event manager to determine
which events to offer and during which time they will be most popular. Then, the
event manager has to contact the third party such as an entertainment,
production or other professionals to obtain proposals to present the type of event
or attraction that is required. Ultimately, when selecting the events which will
comprise the larger event, it is important to confirm the reliability of the vendors.
(a) Organising and Conducting Spouse and Partner Programme

The term „spouse‰ is actually somewhat antiquated and has been replaced
with the term „accompanying person‰ to reflect the broader spectrum of
persons who are attending an event with the invited guest. The actual
classification of the guest list is as follows:
(i) Delegate or principal invitee or guest.
(ii) Guest of principal invitee or accompanying person.
(iii) Observer.
The accompanying person may have a wide range of interests which must
be satisfied during the overall event experience. They will be invited to all
social events with the principal invitee, delegate, or guest. However, the

event manager must strike a balance between diverting the accompanying

person and totally disengaging him or her from the basic goals and
objectives of the overall event. To ensure that the accompanying person is
fully engaged and recognised, the person should be identified through
credentials as a guest, accompanying person or observer.
The accompanying person very often influences the principal guest or

delegate to return to an event. Therefore, it is critically important that the
person has an excellent experience that is equal although different from that
of the person accompanying him or her.
(b) Providing for Special Needs of Tour Guests

This is a time to analyse the data from the site inspection and determine the
implications which emerge for event environmental design. Most
importantly, when designing the event, the venue should be in full
compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act. The event industry
must be more sensitive to the rights of the disabled. It is not only the moral
and ethical importance that must be considered, it is a matter of federal law.
The statute states:
Title III-Sec. 302 a) General rule. No individual shall be discriminated against

on the basis of disability in the full and equal enjoyment of the goods,
services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations of any place of
public accommodation.

As a result of this historic legislation, wheelchair ramps, Braille menus and
signs, sign language interpreters and other elements have become common
place at events. Event managers are responsible for complying with this law.
The following is a comprehensive checklist for incorporating the Americans
with Disabilities Act into an event environmental design (Goldblatt, 2005):
(i) Survey your guests in advance of the event to determine what
accommodations will be required.
(ii) Include the following language on all brochure or other offerings: „If
you require special accommodations, please describe below‰.
(iii) Survey the venue to determine what gaps must be closed prior to
your event.
(iv) Establish wheelchair seating positions.
(v) Maintain a clear line of sight for guests who will be using sign
language interpreters.
(vi) Work with disabled speakers to provide access to the podium.
(vii) Provide audio-transcription services of the stage action for the disabled.

(viii) Select venues with, or provide, handrails for guests with physical
infirmities.
(ix) Provide tables with appropriate height for wheelchair users.
(x) Train your staff to better meet the needs of people with disabilities.
Therefore, the event organiser should be inviting people with special needs to
conduct their own site inspection of the proposed venue and become part of the
planning team. People in wheelchairs, older guests with limited mobility, and the
sight and hearing impaired can provide you with important information to
improve the total event environment. The professional event manager may not
be able to forecast or satisfy every need his or her guests bring to an event.
However, guests must sense that the event manager or host is genuinely
concerned with their welfare and will work diligently to anticipate, identify and
satisfy their needs to provide them with a total high-quality event experience.

• Event coordination is a crucial aspect to ensure successful events. Event
managers must have professional training and experience, especially in
managing vendorsÊ contracts, staging of events, on-site management and
accommodating special needs.
Ć The subtopic of managing the vendorsÊ contracts had extensively discussed

the challenges of developing a successful team, developing appropriate
resources and working with suppliers and vendors as well as a brief mention
on catering management.
Ć The subtopic of staging had addressed numerous points, for instance choosing
the event site, developing the event theme and managing the environment so
as to minimise the impacts the events have towards the environment.
Ć On-site management had focused on ways to improve the event performance

and the use of the production schedule.
Ć The importance of accommodating to special needs had been discussed to

enhance the events experience for its guests and audiences.

Décor Stakeholder
Performer Supplier
Quality control Vendor
Self‐interest
1. Discuss five important factors to develop the event team.

2. State ten methods to identify appropriate resources.
3. List eight elements that must be considered to choose the event venue.
4. Explain five important aspects which are used to develop an event theme.
5. Identify five benefits of timeline-production schedule.

1. Explain three factors which are important in catering management.
2. Discuss three elements which are used to manage an event environment.
3. Discuss six processes that are important in order to develop the production
schedule.

Topic X Event
5 Marketing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the requirements of market research;
2. Explain how the marketing concept can be applied to festivals and
special events;
3. Identify the major types of websites and their characteristics; and
4. Discuss the use of sponsorship in the context of festivals and events.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss issues associated with making connection between the
event and potential consumers. Marketing issues which will be focused on
include market research, promotions, online marketing and event sponsorship.
Under the subtopic promotions, image/branding, advertising, media relations
and publicity as well as public relations will be discussed extensively; promotion
is vital for events as it acts as a communication tool to convey information to the
public or target market. Indeed, in the rapidly changing technology, internet is
being acknowledged as an efficient tool to boost marketing activities. Therefore,
online marketing will focus on the internet marketing for events as well as web
design and management. In addition, sponsorship is also being recognised as an
important aspect of marketing where sponsors are more demanding and are
interested to collaborate as partners to the events. In the subtopic, the
sponsorship definitions as well as sponsorship goals are elaborated. Indeed, it
also includes reasons for sponsoring events from the perspectives of the sponsors
as well as the event organisers. Adding to that, the categories of sponsorship are
also briefly discussed.

TOPIC 5 EVENT MARKETING W 75
5.1 MARKET RESEARCH

Market research is concerned with the measurement and analysis of markets.
According to Goldblatt (2001), market research is the gathering of marketing
information about a target audienceÊs motivations, desires, and needs in order to
design an advertising campaign that is appropriate for the audience. On the other
hand, Watt (1998) also defined market research as an objective gathering,
recording, and analysis of all facts relating to the provision of services for the
appropriate consumer. Indeed, extensive research before an event is important to
answer some of the following questions:
(a) Does it serve a useful purpose?
(b) Will people be interested in it?
(c) Will people attend and/or participate?
(d) Will it be financially viable?
(e) Will it be favourably received by the business community?
(f) Will it be favourably received by the media?
(g) Will it be appropriate to the targeted group?
Market research can reduce uncertainty and therefore the risk of failure. It also
helps to plan an effective marketing strategy and analyse how successful it may
be. Watt (1998) also added that effective research should follow guidelines as
follows:
(a) The objectives must be very clear.
(b) There must be a cost-effective plan of how best to ascertain the relevant
information.
(c) State how the plan will be implemented.
(d) Explain what plans are necessary for reviewing the process and the
information.
5.2 PROMOTIONS
Promotion is the communicating part of marketing. It explains how the product
can be brought to the attention of the public and prospective participants. In the
marketing context, promotion refers to all of the communication activities that an
event director can use to tell the target market about the benefits of the event
(Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005). By addressing consumers with a
purpose-designed promotional scheme, the aim is to achieve AIDA (Watt, 1998):

76 X TOPIC 5 EVENT MARKETING
Ć Attention
Ć Interest
Ć Desire
Ć Action
Indeed, promotion is the engine that drives the awareness of the event by others.
According to Goldblatt (2005), there are many ways to measure promotion
efforts, such as:
(a) Measure awareness by the target market.
(b) Measure actual attendance and the resulting investment.
(c) Measure the post-event attitudes of the event promotional activity.
Likewise, he also added the systematic checklist to identify and budget the event
promotion, which are:
(a) Identify all event elements that require promotion from the proposal
through the final evaluation.
(b) Develop strategies for allocating scarce event promotion resources with
efficient methods.
(c) Identify promotion partners to share costs.
(d) Target your promotion carefully to those market segments that will support
the event.
(e) Measure and analyse your promotion efforts throughout the campaign to
make corrections as required.
As part of the marketing strategy, event promotion involves communicating the

image and content of the event programme to the potential audience. The aim of
a promotional strategy is to ensure that the consumer makes a decision to
purchase and follows up with the action of actually making the purchase.
Decisions on promotional strategy must focus on the target market.
5.2.1 Image/Branding
The brand refers to „a name, phrase, design, symbol, or a combination of those
elements that associates a product or service to an advertisement and
differentiates it from other similar products‰ (Goldblatt, 2005).
Indeed, it will appear on all event material ranging from registration forms to
tickets to merchandise. Image and logo are closely linked and need to be agreed

on well in advance. On the other hand, the design must meet the needs of all
stakeholders and a slogan is sometimes developed as part of the image for an
event. Most importantly, the result should be consistent in theme and colour
scheme for all promotional materials. The colour scheme is also carried through
to the décor including signs, fencings, flags, table settings, banners and posters.
Likewise, branding gives an identity to the event. As we know, leisure

experience is intangible, therefore, branding is very important to reassure
potential consumers that the service will deliver the benefits promised.
5.2.2 Advertising
Advertising is a message that media such as a newspaper, magazine and
television is paid to distribute. The message is controlled by the sponsor. Allen.
OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) also defined the advertising as a form of
non-personal promotion paid for by the event organisation. Radio, television,
newspaper, magazines, the Internet, outdoor advertising (bill boards, bus
shelters and toilets) and mobile platforms such as buses and taxis are all channels
for advertising. However, the creative process of producing the messages can
also be expensive, especially if done by an advertising agency.
Indeed, they also added that creating campaigns for events and festivals are vital
to:
Ć Provide tangible clues to counteract the intangible nature of the event.
Ć Seek continuity over time by using recognisable symbols, spokespersons,
trademarks or music.
Ć Promise what is possible to foster realistic expectations.
Ć Make the service more tangible and recognisable by showing members of the
target market enjoying the event.
In addition, Watt (1998) stated that most advertising are expensive. So, it has to
be done with specific objectives in mind and at a level which suits the event. He
also added the simple questions which should be considered in advertising, such
as:
Ć Why? Ć When?
Ć Who for? Ć How much?
Ć What exactly? Ć Who judges the response?
Ć Which media? Ć How is it evaluated?
Ć Where?

On the other hand, to get a successful advertising campaign, there are several key
features, which are:
(a) Promote awareness of the event.
(b) Pass on knowledge of relevant event details.
(c) Encourage the desire to participate in or attend the event.
(d) Promote the conviction that the event is worthwhile.
(e) Aim to establish attendance patterns in the long run for future events.
(f) Encourage the decision that turns the interest into attendance of
participation.
(g) Promote the event image and logo.
(h) Be positive and interesting to attract attention.
5.2.3 Media Relations and Publicity

Publicity is the activity of generating interest and attendance at an up coming
event by providing information with news value to the media. This process is
controlled by the medium reporting the information, not the sponsor (Goldblatt,
2005). Publicity includes all those activities not directly paid for that
communicates with the events target market.
A well-planned publicity campaign should run together with any advertising

campaign. Some publicity will have to be paid but it should be reduced wherever
possible. The Internet and press release are some of the ways to get a significant
amount of publicity relatively cheaply and easily. Indeed, the aim of a press
release is to encourage media interest in the event and the event organiser can
publish their press release on Web pages. Thus, the event can achieve positive
and cost-effective publicity.
In addition, it is essential to involve all the media. It is possible to persuade the

media to set up their own stand within the event, providing live publicity.
5.2.4 Public Relations

Public relations refer to the presentation of an event through the media or other
outlets, stressing the benefits and attractiveness of such an event. The role of
public relations is to manage the organisation and the eventÊs image in the mind
of the audience and the public.

However, one of the most important public relations roles is to inform the media
regarding the description of the event. Effective public relations should be able to
influence people and it can be done by using the mass media and by obtaining
the support of leading experts in the relevant field.
The event manager becomes a person who needs to get involved in public
relations. Therefore, Wagen & Carlos (2005) stated some of the situations, which
are:
Ć Making travel arrangements by telephone or e-mail.
Ć Meeting and greeting at the airport.
Ć Providing transportation.
Ć Running meetings.
Ć Entertaining at meals.
Ć Entertaining at events.
Ć Providing tours and commentary.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Select four advertisements of events from local newspapers or
magazines. You need to analyse the differences and then decide which
has the most audience appeal in terms of the following:
• Attraction
• Development of interest
• Ability to lead to action/attendance
5.3 ONLINE MARKETING - INTERNET

MARKETING FOR EVENTS
The Internet is an efficient tool in overall event management organisations. This
is because the Internet network is widely used as a marketing tool to present and
distribute events to the public. So, online marketing seems to be a better
marketing tool than others. Therefore, Goldblatt (2005) states the major
marketing concepts enhanced by online tools are as follows:
(a) Brand Building

The major brand building involves the combination of online marketing
with television, media and print. The advantage of the Internet is the
favourable cost or benefit ratio. By using the Internet as a promotional tool,

event management organisations can achieve a much higher return on the

event.
(b) Direct Marketing

Organisers can gain a direct contact immediately with the target market
group by placing well-designed information and ads about the event
management services on the Internet.
(c) Online Sales

An online sales concept is more appropriate to companies which sell
consumer goods, not services. However, event management can still gain
benefit greatly from the Internet. Event management organisations conduct
registration, ticket sales, and distribution of materials over the Internet. All
of these are segments of event sales.
(d) Customer Support

Event customer support is one of the areas where the Internet can prove
truly indispensable.
(e) Market Research

Event management organisations recognised the Internet potential for
market research. By using Internet technology, a company will be able to
bring together participants from different parts of the world for small, real-
time chat sessions. Clients can then observe these chat sessions from
anywhere in the world. Web sites can be used to conduct market research
by surveying visitors. This information can be effective if the process is well
planned.
(f) Product or Service Development and Testing

The Internet is an ideal place for event companies to test new products or
services before they are launched. One of the biggest advantages that the
Internet has over other marketing tools is real-time contact.
5.3.1 Web Design and Management

According to Goldblatt (2005), there are three types of websites which can be
used as an online marketing tool, which are:
(a) Brochureware
Brochureware is a type of Internet event marketing material which has been
recognised as a primitive and boring type of material marketing. It is static
and provides basic information about an organisation, thus missing the
entire idea of marketing on the Web.

(b) Show-biz
This type of Internet event marketing tries to entertain visitors through
interactive features: flashing pictures, news reports, or press reviews.
(c) Unilitarian
A unilitarian offers viewers a unique and balanced interactive service
which is both highly informative and helpful in building brand recognition
and loyalty.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Discuss some technological challenges which may have impact on the

marketing success of event managers.
5.4 SPONSORSHIP
Sponsorship is one of the most common funding sources for staging an event. It
is a vital part in event management because sponsorship can reduce some of the
event cost. Due to the nature of marketing, sponsorship becomes a part of
promotional mix that is used as an alternative marketing channel to inform,
persuade, promote and sell products and services in order to achieve specific
objectives. However, there are many definitions of sponsorship. Some of them
are as follows:
An investment in sport, community or government activities, the arts, a cause,

individual, or broadcast which yields a commercial return for the sponsor.
The investment can be made in financial, material, or human terms (Allen,
OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005).
A cash and/or in-kind fee paid to a property (such as an event) in return for
the exploitable commercial potential associated with that property
(International Events Group, 1995, cited in Getz, 1997).

A financial aid to cultural activities, with the expectation of a return on the

investment. Sponsorship is two-way business activity, mutually beneficial to
the sponsor on one hand, and to the event on the other. It combines
commercial and charitable activity, providing for profit goals and non-profit
intentions at the same time (Skinner & Rukavina, 2003).
A high-profile form of collaborative marketing between organizations which

usually involves an investment in an event, facility, individual, team or
competition, in return for access to an exploitable commercial potential
(Sweaney 1997, cited in Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005).
Therefore, Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) concluded all the
definitions to three specific points:
(a) It s a commercial transaction/investment and not a donation, a view some
seekers of sponsorship sometimes take.
(b) Sponsorship may take the form of either a direct payment or the provision
of in-kind services/products.
(c) The return sought from sponsorship is one that will ultimately positively
affect either the profitability of a business or, as is the case with public
sector sponsors, provide some other benefit.
Indeed, sponsorship is not a donation because donations are altruistic and do not
constitute commercial activity. Sponsorship is also more than advertising
because advertising is a „one-way business street‰ to advertise products, services
and activities in order to maximise sales and profits. On the other hand, Skinner
& Rukavina (2003) stated the management of sponsorship depends on several
issues, which are:
(a) A clear definition of goals on both sides.
(b) The seeking and coordination of mutual benefits.
(c) The formal identification of mutual relationship.
(d) The long-term and global nature of business cooperation.
Figure 5.1 shows example of event sponsorship framework.

Figure 5.1: Event sponsorship framework

Source: Adapted from Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism. New York:
Cognizant Communication Corporation
5.4.1 Sponsorship Goals

Referring to the sponsorship principles, the sponsor must know what they want
to achieve through the sponsorship before seeking to develop it, so that they can
avoid wasting time and resources. According to Skinner & Rukavina (2003), there
are certain issues which sponsors must consider before they agree to become
sponsors. The issues are as follows:
(a) Impact on the Programme of a Cultural Project

This is a feature of long-term sponsorship contracts. Sometimes, it
influences long-term cultural policy and adjusts it to the event organisers
and sponsors global business needs.

(b) Sponsor Identification in the Name of the Event

Event organisers should carry the sponsorÊs name on the stage, tickets, as
well as printed programmes and the venue of the event should clearly
indicate who the sponsor is.
(c) Tickets and Other Advantages for the Sponsor

Usually, sponsors will receive tickets for their sponsorship which have an
economic value.
(d) Advertising
Advertising is a part of a sponsorship package and is defined in a contract.
Advertising may be direct (at the event itself) or indirect (as a part of media
packages).
(e) Special Hospitality Opportunities

A sponsor is granted certain exclusive rights within the framework of
events which specifically indicate the sponsorÊs importance. They are often
part of special events organised for the sponsor by the event manager such
as receptions.
(f) Promotional Material

Usually, sponsors invest in ancillary activities and products which support
the event. These products are typically promotional and are sold at the
event.
(g) Long-term Cooperation

Sponsors can attain their objectives if they support the same type of event
over a period of time. Usually, long-term arrangements bring benefits to
both sides. In order to attract sponsorships, event managers must offer
tangible benefits to sponsors and effective programmes to deliver them. It is
important for event managers to identify exactly what sponsors want from
an event because their needs may be different from those of the host
organisations or the event manager. In addition, Wagen & Carlos (2005)
points out several questions that need to be asked before approaching a
potential sponsor, which are:
(i) What are the Benefits?
Ć Can the sponsorÊs involvement lead to some benefit for the
organisation in terms of increased profit or sales?
Ć What other benefits are there?
Ć At what cost?
Ć Will it be time consuming for their staff?

(ii) Will the Sponsorship be Exclusive?

Ć Will this sponsor be the only one and thus clearly associated with
the event?
Ć Will there be a large number of sponsors?
(iii) Is there Compatibility?
Ć Is there compatibility between the sponsorÊs product and the
event purpose?
Ć Have the potential sponsorÊs competitors agreed to provide
sponsorship, and will this arrangement lead to a conflict of
interest?
(iv) Will there be Ambush Marketing?
Ć Will competitorsÊ products be in sale at the event or in a nearby
area?
Likewise, it is important for a company to answer the following questions when

it sponsors events (Skinner & Rukavina, 2003), such as:
Ć What are the companyÊs objectives?
Ć Who is the target audience?
Ć What products and services of the company best suit the audience?
Ć What geographical territory interests the company?
Ć How can sponsorship affect its market position?
Ć How can goals be attained and mutual interests satisfied?
Ć How can business policies be affected (short- or long-term, local or global)?
On the other hand, they also added the sponsorship guidelines for event
managers, which are:
Ć Sponsorship is a special form of a companyÊs social accountability.
Ć Sponsorship has to be within the limits of good taste, which is why moderate,
but diverse, forms of advertising are recommended.
Ć Sponsorship of culture affects the image of the company.
Ć Corporate sponsorship should be long-term.
Ć Corporate sponsorship can make a strong impact internally at a company.

5.4.2 Reason for Sponsoring Events

Benefit to Sponsors
(a) Heighten Visibility

Heighten visibility is always the first reason why companies sponsor an
event because they can gain tremendous brand name awareness by the
consumer. It can be done through several types of media.
(b) Shaping Consumer Attitudes

Sponsoring is able to create or change a brand image.
(c) Narrowcasting
Sponsorship gives companies an opportunity to reach a particular niche
market, such as an ethnic group, student, young consumer, etc. By
sponsoring an event, sponsors can demonstrate a tie or commitment to
them.
(d) Client Entertainment

By sponsoring an event, sponsors have an opportunity to entertain clients
at the event, whether they are the sponsorÊs business associates, staff, VIPs,
etc.
(e) Recruiting/Retaining Employees

Sponsors can also recruit new employees by having a job fair on-site during
the event. Usually, the companies will involve the staff in worthwhile
events as a team building and morale boosting effort.
(f) Merchandising Opportunities

Sponsors can use events as merchandising opportunities to enhance
awareness and provide something an event has to offer in exchange for
purchases of their products.
(g) Showcasing Product Attributes

Companies can demonstrate their products at a festival or event, which
they cannot do with other forms of media. Event managers who showcase
product attributes are doing a great service for sponsors, as they actually
show their products to potential customers during an event. The purpose is
to highlight product benefits or otherwise reinforce the publicÊs perception
of a product.

(h) Driving Sales

There are many companies using sponsorship to drive sales. During an
event, they build a relationship with customers and target segments.
Therefore, they can achieve great sales after the event is over.
Similarly, Getz (1997) also listed the benefits as follows:

(a) Image enhancement of corporation or product through association with a
popular event.
(b) Profitable linkages with other sponsors, suppliers, government officials,
institutions, etc.
(c) Enhance the companyÊs reputation for being community oriented or
socially responsible.
(d) Differentiating products from competitorsÊ.
(e) To provide opportunities for firm-to-firm marketing through festival
operations.
Benefit to Event Organisers

(a) Generates necessary revenue for administration and operations.
(b) Increases marketing scope and reach through use of collateral promotions
by the sponsor.
(c) Can result in professional and human resources gains, through use of the
sponsorÊs staff and expertise.
(d) Enlarges the eventÊs constituencies.
(e) Can enhance the image of the event through association with a positive
corporate image.
5.4.3 Sponsorship Categories

There are many categories of sponsorship that can be sold. According to Skinner
& Rukavina (2003), there are six types of sponsors, which are:
(a) Title Sponsor

Sponsor is part of the name of the event.
(b) Presenting Sponsor

Mentioned after the name of the event. Not as valuable for the sponsor as
title sponsorship; usually, the media which is writing about the event will
drop the name of the sponsor.

(c) In-kind Sponsor

It just provides services, not cash (airline tickets, food, etc).
(d) Official Sponsor

A product that is an eventÊs exclusive sponsor.
(e) Media Sponsor

This type of sponsor includes print, radio, television, website sponsors, etc.
(f) Co-sponsor
Company that is part of an event with other sponsor.
In addition, Goldblatt (2005) stated the types of sponsors for a variety of events
as follows:
(a) Fair: Bottler, grocer, automotive, and bank.
(b) Festival: Department store and record store.
(c) Sport: Athletic wear manufacturer, bottler, brewery, and hospital or health-
care facility.
(d) School programme: ChildrenÊs toy stores, childrenÊs clothing stores, and
amusement park.
(e) Meeting/conferences: Printer, bank, insurance broker, and associate
member firms.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Choice of media, media relations and advertising are all important.
Apply them to a local pop concert and give reasons for the choices you
have made.
Ć The event promotion where branding or image is considered as crucial in

giving consistent identity to events.
Ć Advertising, media relations and publicity as well as public relations which

are vital in assisting events to be more competitive in attracting audience to
attend the events.
Ć Online marketing where Internet is considered as tools for brand building,

direct marketing, online sales and so on.

Ć Web design and management as marketing online becoming more popular.
Ć Sponsorship as common funding sources for events which has become a

major contribution to the event success.
Conference Product
Market Sponsor
Marketing mix Stakeholder
Market segment Target market
Press release
1. List four guidelines which are used to develop an effective market research.
2. Explain the elements of promotion below:
(a) Image/branding
(b) Advertising
(c) Publicity
(d) Public relations
3. Discuss extensively the major marketing concepts which are enhanced by
online tools.
4. Give two definitions on sponsorship.
5. Explain five important issues which sponsors must consider before
sponsoring an event.
6. List four important questions which are important before an event manager
approaches potential sponsors.

1. List five ways to make a successful advertising campaign.

2. Explain three types of websites which are used as online marketing tools.
3. List five guidelines which event managers use to obtain sponsorship.
4. Discuss five benefits of sponsoring events to the sponsors.
5. List five benefits of sponsoring events to organisers.
6. Identify six types of sponsors.

Topic X Legal, Ethical
6 and Risk
Management
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how to develop and manage risk management procedures
effectively;
2. Determine event situation and the requirement of security staff;
3. Identify the different types of crowds and the various theories of
crowd control and management; and
4. Describe the morality, law and ethical issues in special event industry.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic will look at issues associated with legal and risk management as well
as ethical aspects in event management. It is important that an appropriate legal
entity exists to run the festival or special event. Thus, firstly the risk management
subtopic will focus on legal and financial safeguards, the principles of risk
management, steps in conducting professional event risk management and key
components of event management agreement or contract as well as other
agreements. Secondly, safety and security will be discussed, in which the focus
will be on police and security services as well as in the context of occupational
safety and health. Then the crowd management and evacuation aspect will be
discussed, especially on types of crowds, the crowd management plan, major
risks associated with events, the emergency planning, implementing the
emergency procedures, for instance the fire procedures and evacuation
procedures. Lastly the morality, law and ethics in event management will be
discussed, for example the common ethical problems, ways to avoid or address
the ethical problems and establishing policies and procedures for ethical issues.

92 X TOPIC 6 LEGAL, ETHICAL AND RISK MANAGEMENT
6.1 RISK MANAGEMENT: LEGAL AND

FINANCIAL SAFEGUARDS
Risk management can be defined as the process of anticipating, preventing, or
minimising potential costs, losses, or problems for the event, organisation,
partners, and guests. Risks occur in terms of finance, organisational viability,
safety and health. Risks occur naturally and cannot be ignored, and events are
prone to particular types of risk (Getz, 1997).
In addition, Berlonghi (1990, cited in Getz, 1997) admits that risk management for
special events is becoming more and more crucial to the success and survival of
any event.
Many risks apply to all business activities. These include the risks associated
with normal human behaviour such as incompetence, interpersonal problems,
dishonesty, health problems and many more. In addition, events generate a
number of rather unique risks. According to Getz (1997), there are several factors
which must be considered, such as:

(a) Crowds
Crowd behaviour must be taken into account when planning the event and
its setting. Large crowds combined with certain management or site
deficiencies can spell disaster.
(b) Visibility
The bigger the event, and the more media coverage it receives, the more
likely it is that it will be targeted by criminals, prostitutes, demonstrators or
terrorists.
(c) Security
Security must be taken seriously, as inadequate security systems and
personnel can actually cause problems, such as by making improper
response to dangerous situations.
(d) Inexperienced Management and Volunteers

There are many pitfalls for the untrained and inexperienced. Training is
often inadequate, especially among volunteers recruited at the last minute.
(e) Quality Control

This is often difficult owing to the occasional or one-time nature of many
events. Poor quality poses financial risks and could exacerbate other
problems, especially with regard to dissatisfied customers.

TOPIC 6 LEGAL, ETHICAL AND RISK MANAGEMENT W 93
Figure 6.1 shows the process and elements of risk management for events.
1. Identification of risk fields (see below).
2. Identification of specific risks and the consequences, within each field.
3. Assignment of the probability of risks occurring (e.g., low, medium, high).
4. Estimation of the potential magnitude of impacts.
5. Ranking of risks, from high to low priority.
6. Identification of strategic options to deal with risks; selection of appropriate
strategies:
• Avoidance strategies;
• Risk reduction;
• Reduction of severity of loss;
• Diffusion of risk;
• Reallocation of risk;
• Insurance.
7. Implementation of strategies and evaluation of results.
8. Feedback and refinement.
Risk Fields and Examples

Financial
• Loss of revenue sources;
• Theft and loss of assets, including data, names and logos;
• Costs exceeding projections;
• Lawsuits and other unanticipated costs.
Management
• Goal displacement: takeovers;
• Management failure: incompetence;
• Personnel problems: resignations;
• Political interference;
• Difficult relationships with sponsors, suppliers, participants.
Health and Safety
• Accidents (at and outside the event);
• Health problems (e.g. fire, food poisoning);
• Crime: terrorism;
• Social disturbances (e.g., riots, racial conflict);
• Unanticipated emergencies.
Environmental
• Negative impacts on the environment, community, economy;
• Natural hazards (earthquakes, floods, etc).
Figure 6.1: The process and elements of risk management for events
Source: Adapted from Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism. New York:
Cognizant Communication Corporation

ACTIVITY 6.1
Generate a simple contract between an event management organisation
and a venue to stage a concert for young people. Is it a simple process?
Now discuss your contract with friends. Are there any areas you missed
out?
6.2 PRINCIPLES OF RISK MANAGEMENT

These basic principles form the foundation for why risk management is so
important in every aspect of the tourism industry, from attractions to events and
from hotels to meetings.
(a) Events and meetings are a form of tourism and thus suffer from the same
sociological phenomena as tourism.
(b) Events and meetings often follow the same patterns.
(c) Whenever an act of violence occurs within the world of events or meetings,
the media are almost certain to report it, forcing the local event industry to
be embroiled in acts of crisis management.
(d) Perceptions about an event crisis tend to be almost as devastating as the
crisis itself.
(e) The farther away one is from a crisis location, the worse the crisis will
appear to be and the longer the crisis will remain in the collective travel
subconscious.
On the other hand, Sternberg (1992, cited in Tarlow, 2002) admits that the event
manager must prevent the risks by:
(a) Staging the Product

Tourism productÊs safety must be organised in such a way that it achieves
its aims for both the consumer (visitor) and the supplier.
(b) Arranging the Product

Risk management must stand out within its geographical or psychological
environment.
(c) Contextualising the Product

Risk management needs to be placed within, or purposely removed from,
the context of itself, be that context physical, historical, or psychological.

(d) Thematising the Product

A question of how event risk management fits in with overall theme. Does
it meet the expectation set by the organiser?

(e) Authentising the Product
A question on whether risk managers provide a genuine experience while
still protecting the public.
6.3 CRITICAL STEPS IN CONDUCTING

PROFESSIONAL EVENT RISK
MANAGEMENT
The critical steps in conducting professional event risk management are vital to
assess, plan, manage and control the risks for each event. Therefore, Tarlow
(2002) suggested some questions that need to be asked when developing risk
theories and scenarios, which are:
(a) How Many People Will be in Attendance?

Size of event is vital in event risk management because it helps to establish
perimeters and forecasts staffing levels.
(b) What Types of Events Take Place in the Venue?

The event risk manager should know the history of the venue.
(c) What Type of Person Will Attend the Event?

It is important to identify the demographics so that it will be easy for the
event risk manager to develop a risk plan.
(d) How Frequently do Events Take Place in a Particular Facility?

The event risk manager has to know about the events which have been
organised at the site, employees and event facilities at the site.
6.4 KEY COMPONENTS OF AN EVENT

MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT OR
CONTRACT
There are several components suggested by Goldblatt (2005), which are:
(a) Parties
The names of the parties must be clearly identified. The agreement must be
described as being between these parties and the names that are used in the
agreement must be defined. Usually management agreements are between
the event manager and client or event manager and vendors as well as
event.

(b) Offer
The offer is the service or product tendered by one party to another. The
offer should list all services that an event professional offers to provide.
(c) Consideration
The consideration refers to what one party will provide the other upon
acceptance of an offer.
(d) Acceptance
The acceptance refers to a situation when both parties accept an offer. They
have to sign the agreement confirming that they understand and agree to
comply with the terms and conditions of the agreement.
(e) Other Components
Ć Terms Ć Assignment
Ć Cancellation Ć Insurance
Ć Arbitration Ć Hold harmless and indemnification
Ć Billing Ć Reputation
Ć Time is of the essence Ć The complete agreement
Ć Force Majeure (Act of God)

(f) Rider
A rider is an attachment to a main agreement and usually lists the
important ingredients that support the main contract. These may include
sound equipment and labour, lighting equipment and labour, food and
beverage, transportation, housing for artists or other important financial
considerations.
(g) Changes to the Agreement

Most agreements will require negotiation prior to execution, and the result
of these executions will be changes. However, if there are substantial
changes, it is best to draw up a new agreement.
(h) Terms and Sequence of Execution

The purchaser must sign the agreement prior to affixing your signature.
Once both signatures are affixed, the agreement becomes official.

6.5 OTHER AGREEMENTS

The event manager is required to prepare and execute other types of agreements.
Therefore, Goldblatt (2005) stated the typical event management agreements are:
(a) Consulting Agreement

This is an agreement in which one party agrees to provide consulting
services for another party.
(b) Employment Agreement

This is an agreement in which an employee agrees to specific terms for
employment.
(c) Exhibitor Contract

This is an agreement between an individual exhibitor and the sponsor of an
exposition to lease space for a booth at the exposition.
(d) Hotel Contract

This is an agreement between a hotel and the organisation holding the
event to provide rooms and function space as well as other services for a
specific event or series of events.
(e) Non-compete Agreement

This is an agreement in which an employee agrees not to compete within a
specific jurisdiction or marketplace for a specified period of time following
termination of employment.
(f) Purchase Order

This is an order to a vendor to provide services or products.
(g) Sponsorship Agreement

This is a contract between a sponsor and an event organiser in which the
organiser agrees to provide specific marketing services to the sponsor for a
prescribed fee and/or other consideration.
(h) Vendor Agreement

This is an agreement between a vendor and an event manager or client to
provide specific services or products for an event.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Consider some of the social and legal issues concerning the use and
abuse of alcohol and drugs at events. Identify ways in which this risk can
be minimised and managed.
6.5.1 Permits
Permits are issued by local, state, provincial or federal governmental agencies
and allow the event manager to conduct certain activities at the event. There are
many typical permits that may be required. A permit may be issued only after
the event manager has submitted the appropriate documentation and has paid a
fee. The permits are not issued automatically. A permit reflects that an agency is
permitting your event organisation to conduct certain activities provided that
you conform to the regulations established.
6.5.2 Licensing
A license is granted by a governmental institution, a private organisation or a
public entity to allow you to conduct a specific activity. The difference between a
permit and a license may be slight in some jurisdictions. For many events, both
permits and licenses must be secured. The larger the event, the more likely the
number of permits and licenses will increase.
6.5.3 Contracts, Permits and Licenses: A Synergistic

Relationship
All the three instruments are essential for the professional operation of modern
events. When developing an agreement, determine in advance who is
responsible for obtaining and paying for specific permits and licenses and
incorporate this language into the agreement. Therefore, conduct research
carefully and determine who will be responsible for coordinating this process.
Contracts, permits and licenses have legal, ethical and risk management
ramifications. To ensure that these impacts are positive, event managers must
understand their importance and work diligently to communicate with the
required agencies as well as to prepare and execute valid agreements.
On the other hand, Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris (2005) divided risk
management into six main stages, which are:
(a) Identification
The risk assessment meeting is a vital as an opportunity to train and
motivate event staff in the awareness, minimisation and control of risk.
There are several techniques used to identify risks:

(i) Work-breakdown Structure

Isolating the event areas in this way gives a clear picture of the
possible problems. However, this analysis may not reveal the
problems that result in a combination of risks.
(ii) Test Events

Large sporting events often run smaller events to test the facilities,
equipment and other resources.
(iii) Internal/External
Internal risks arise in the event planning and implementation stages.
These risks are generally within the abilities of the event company to
manage. On the other hand, external risks arise from outside the event
organisation and may need a different control strategy. This technique
focuses on mitigating the impact of the risk.
(iv) Fault Diagram

Risks can also be discovered by looking at their impact and working
backwards to the possible cause. This is a result-to-cause method.
(v) Incident Report

Almost all large public events have an incident report document.
These may be included in the event manual and are meant to be filled
out by the event staff when there is an incident.
(vi) Contingency Plan

An outcome of the risk analysis may be a detailed plan of viable
alternative integrated actions. The contingency plan contains the
response to the impact of a risk and involves decision procedure,
chain of command and a set of related actions.
(b) Evaluation
Once the risks are identified they can be listed in order of importance. They
are given priority according to the probability of their occurrence and the
severity of their results. Risk assessment meetings often reveal the
Âprophets of doomÊ who can bring an overly pessimistic approach to the
planning process. This is itself a risk that must be pre-empted. It is
important that the meeting be well chaired and focused, since the time
needed for risk assessment must always be weighed against the limited
time available for the overall event planning. An effective risk assessment
meeting will produce a comprehensive and realistic analysis of the
potential risks.

(c) Control
After the potential risks have been evaluated, the event manager needs to
create mechanisms to control any problem that can arise. Many different
strategies are possible. Therefore, Berlonghi (1990, cited in Allen, OÊToole,
McDonnell & Harris, 2005) suggests the risk control strategies as follows:
(i) Cancel and Avoid the Risk

If the risk is too great, it may be necessary to cancel all or part of the
event.
(ii) Diminish the Risk

Risks that cannot be eliminated need to be minimised.
(iii) Reduce the Severity of Risks Which do Eventuate

A major part of safety planning is preparing quick and efficient
responses to foreseeable problems. Training staff in elementary first
aid can reduce the severity of an accident. The event manager cannot
eliminate natural disasters but can prepare a plan to contain the
effects.
(iv) Devise Back-up Alternatives

If something goes wrong, the situation can be saved by having an
alternative plan in place; on a larger scale, back-up generators are a
must at big outdoor games.
(v) Distribute the Risk

If the risk can be spread across different areas, its impact will be
reduced if something does go wrong. Having a variety of sponsors is
another way to distribute risk.
(vi) Transfer the Risk

Risk can be transferred to other groups responsible for an event’s
components.
(d) Specific Event Risks
(i) Crowd Management

There are many factors that impinge on the smooth management of
crowds at an event. The first risk is correctly estimating the number
of people who will attend the event. No matter how the site is
designed, too many attendees can put enormous strain on the event
resources. For free events, too few attendees can significantly affect
the event objectives.

(ii) Alcohol
The alcohol risk management procedures can permeate every aspect
of some events including limiting ticket sales, closing hotels early,
increased security and roping-off areas. Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell &
Harris (2005) also stated the alcohol risk management procedure as
follows:
Ć Erecting a perimeter fence around the site.
Ć Alcohol allowed only in licensed premises.
Ć Alcohol- and glass- free policy for all public areas.
Ć Rearranging the entertainment so that there were areas that
appealed to families and senior citizens.
Ć Publicising the new policy in all advertisement.
(iii) Communication
The risks involved in communication are varied as they concern both
the organising of the event and the reporting of any risks. Easy access
to relevant information is vital to good risk management.
Communication can include how the public is informed of the event.
It includes signage and keeping the attendees informed when they are
at the event site.
(iv) Environment
Of increasing concern to the general community is the risk to the
environment posed by modern business. There are both dangerous
risks such as pollution, spills and effluent leakage and the more
indirect risks minimised by waste recycling, water and energy
conservation. The impacts and therefore the priorities for their
control will vary over the event project life cycle.
(e) Emergency
An awareness of the nearest emergency services and their working
requirements is mandatory for the event management. The reason for
calling in an outside emergency service is when the situation is beyond the
capabilities of the event staff and needs specialised attention. It is
important to understand the chain of command when emergency services
arrive.
(f) Review
Evaluating the successes and failures of the risk control strategy is central to
the planning of future events. The analysis of and response to feedback is
essential to this process.

6.6 SAFETY AND SECURITY

Security is generally required for premises, equipment, cash and other valuables,
but the predominant role of most event security staff is to ensure that the correct
people have access to specific areas and to act responsibly in case of accident or
emergency. According to Wagen & Carlos (2005), there are several considerations
in the organisation of security for an event.
Ć Firstly, it is necessary to calculate the number of trained staff required for the
security role.
Ć Secondly, if the venue covers a large area, vehicles and equipment may also
be required.
Ć Finally, the level of threat will determine whether firearms are needed.
In all cases, security staff should be appropriately licensed, and the security
company should carry the appropriate insurance.
6.6.1 Police Service

Local police departments often provide some of the required security services,
generally at limited or no cost for community events. However, with the growth
of the event industry and the increased demands on police for spectator control,
charges are now being levied by some police departments for every officer
attending an event.
6.6.2 Security Services

Security service refers to a service that provides security protection for checking
delegatesÊ credentials, searching hand luggage, protecting equipment, and
patrolling congress and exhibition areas (Goldblatt, 2005). In addition, Wagen &
Carlos (2005) state the roles of security officers in relation to the event
management industry as follows:
Ć Acting as a bodyguard, bouncer or crowd controller.
Ć Patrolling or protecting premises.
Ć Installing and maintaining security equipment.
Ć Providing advice on security equipment and procedures.
Ć Training staff in security procedures.

6.7 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Occupational safety and health legislation aims to prevent accidents and injury in
the work environment and is essential to the event organiser.
6.7.1 Insurance
All employers must take up workerÊs compensation insurance. This covers all
staff for work-related accident or injury, including their medical expenses,
payment for time-off work and rehabilitation. However, volunteers are not
covered by this insurance because they are not, by definition Âpaid workersÊ.
6.7.2 Safe Lifting Techniques

Lifting techniques are generally part of training for anyone involved in lifting,
carrying or moving heavy objects, such as sporting equipment or display stands.
6.7.3 Safety Steps for Electrical Equipment

Electrical equipment is a significant hazard in the event environment,
particularly in wet weather. All safety steps must be taken to prevent accidents
involving electrical equipment, including routine tagging and inspection of
equipment. Many venues are extremely rigorous in their demands for
documentation that demonstrates correct licensing and inspection.
6.7.4 Other Considerations

(a) Verify location of all buried or embedded electrical circuits before digging
or cutting.
(b) Determine the reason that a fuse operated or circuit breaker tripped before
replacing or resetting.
(c) Know where your over current devices are, so they can be easily and
quickly reached in case of an emergency.
(d) When replacing lamps and bulbs, verify that the replacement matches
fixture requirements.

6.7.5 Safe Use of Machinery

Many factors can cause or increase the risk, such as using the wrong machinery
for the job, poor machinery maintenance and inadequate training in the use of
machinery. There are several control measures to ensure the safe use of
machinery. They range from using the right equipment for the job, providing
machinery guards where possible, providing maintenance and cleaning, and
training and supervision of machine operators.
6.7.6 Safety Signs

Safety signs are particularly important in the event workplace, since staff are
generally only at the venue for a very short period. This does not allow much
time for reinforcement of safety issues; however, these can be stressed during
briefing sessions. Posters and safety signs can be used to reinforce key messages,
helping to prevent many accidents.
6.7.7 First Aid

In most cases, event managers need to alert local authorities of a planned event,
although venue and event staff should also be trained in first-aid procedures.
6.7.8 Parking Lot Safety

Parking lot is one of the crucial parts in an event that presents safety and security
hazards and risks. According to Tarlow (2002), parking lots are dangerous for the
following reasons:
(a) People tend to drive in parking lots as if there were no rules of the road.
(b) Pedestrians assume that parking lots are safe and that drivers will see them.
(c) Event-goers often forget where their cars are parked and some people have
a tendency to panic when their car cannot be found.
(d) Sudden storms can create danger for people who have parked in outdoor
lots.
(e) Poorly lit and inadequately patrolled parking lots can be high-security risks
for parking lot users, especially at night and at odd hours.
(f) Children can run off while parents are loading cars and easily be injured.

6.8 CROWD MANAGEMENT AND EVACUATION

To manage crowds, the risk manager must first have an understanding of the
sociology of the crowd to investigate how crowds become mobs. According to
Canetti (1973, cited in Tarlow, 2002), there are three principles of the crowd,
which are:
(a) Humans have a desire and a fear of being touched by the unknown.
(b) To deal with the fear of being touched, humans set boundaries.
(c) In crowds, there is a loss of fear of being touched:
(i) Crowds create equality.
(ii) There are no distinctions in a crowd.
(iii) Crowds have tendencies to grow.
(iv) Open crowds have no boundaries.
In addition, there are five major attributes of a crowd:

(a) Crowds want to grow.
(b) Crowds create equality.
(c) Crowds seek to become denser.
(d) Crowds move and seek direction.
(e) Stagnant crowds seek rhythm or discharge.
6.9 TYPES OF CROWDS

According to LeBon (1895, cited in Tarlow, 2002), there are two main categories
of crowds, which are:
(a) Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous is a crowd that is composed of people who do not
necessarily share a common heritage, such as:
Ć The anonymous crowd (e.g., street crowds).
Ć The planned crowd (e.g., assemblies and juries).

(b) Homogeneous
Homogenous is a crowd that is composed of people who share a common
heritage such as religion or a political affiliation. It is composed of the
following:
Ć Sects (e.g. political or religious).
Ć Castes (e.g. military or working caste).
Ć Classes (e.g. economic classes in socially fluid societies).
In addition, Canetti (1973, cited in Tarlow, 2002) also divides the crowd into six
groups, which are:
(a) The Invisible Crowd

The crowd that forms to represent a dead person and soon turns into a riot.
(b) The Bating Crowd

The crowd that forms for a specific goal, which is clearly marked and easily
obtainable. The lynching mob is an example of this type of crowd.
(c) The Fleeing Crowd

The crowd that perceives a threat and flees from it, often in panic. The risk
manager should seek to avoid this type of crowd at all costs.
(d) The Prohibition Crowd

The crowd that refuses to do what is asked, instead obeying a self-proposed
prohibition. This type of crowd has often been viewed in a political context
but it can also be borne of a crowd that is coming for entertainment
purposes and suddenly adopts a cause.
(e) The Reversal Crowd

The crowd that seeks to overturn the political status quo. These crowds are
defenseless but due to their numbers, gain strength and often gain control.
(f) The Feast Crowd

These are people who are in a crowd only to celebrate. They have no
purpose other than to have a good time.
6.10 THE CROWD MANAGEMENT PLAN

The initial task of the event manager is to develop a crowd management plan.
According to Wagen & Carlos (2005), there are several key aspects to consider
when developing the crowd management plan, which are:

(a) The number of people at the venue (the event audience, staff, and
contractors).
(b) The likely behaviour of spectators (especially for events with a history of
crowd behaviour problems).
(c) The timing of the event, including session times and peak periods.
(d) The layout of the venue and/or other facilities.
(e) The security services to be provided or contracted.
(f) The legal requirements and general guidelines.
The crowd management plan covers readily available information, such as the
dimensions of the venue or site, but it also goes further to encompass the
probable number of spectators at particular times of the event and their flow
through the site.
6.11 MAJOR RISK

The major incidents that need to be considered in relation to crowd management
and evacuation include the following:
(a) Fire, smoke
(b) Bomb threat, terrorism, threats to VIPs
(c) Flood, earthquake or other natural disasters
(d) Heat, failure of air-conditioning or lighting
(e) Gas leaks or biological hazards
(f) Crowd crush, overcrowding, congestion
(g) Riots, protests
(h) Vehicle accidents
(i) Collapsing fences or other structures
6.12 EMERGENCY PLANNING

Every business needs to have guidelines for emergencies that impact normal
workplace operations. The guidelines should include communication protocols
and evacuation procedures. A Crisis Management Plan (CMP) is a detailed guide
outlining the policies and procedures to be followed in case there is an
emergency situation (Wagen & Carlos, 2005). The goals of the CMP are as
follows:

(a) Provide guidance to managers regarding appropriate procedures and

resources.
(b) Protect the safety and well-being of all employees.
(c) Provide for the care of employees and their families through personnel
services.
(d) Minimise post-traumatic stress reaction among employees.
(e) Ensure that accurate and appropriate information about the incident is
conveyed to appropriate audiences.
(f) Plan the orderly return of the workplace to a normal mode of operation.
(g) Outline preventative measures that should be taken in advance.
The Crisis Management Team (CMT) is the team responsible for responding to
the emergency. This team includes the following personnel:
(a) Crisis Manager

The crisis manager is responsible for managing the crisis on-site and
assisting the CMT.
(b) Administrative Coordinator

The administrative is responsible for all administrative support needs of the
CMT and works closely with crisis manager. The person also assists with
notifications and mobilising resources; tracking the situation; and
collecting, organising and distributing documentation.
(c) Operations Coordinator

The operation coordinator acts as a liaison officer between the CMT and
operations staff to maintain operational efficiency. The people would also
assess and identify the operational needs, establish alternate sites as
needed, coordinate transportation, and assist in the return to normal
operations.
(d) Employee Support Coordinator

The person would coordinate psychological services, family support and
trauma recovery. These services should be available to all victims, families
and co-workers.
(e) Technical Support Coordinator

The person responsible for setting up equipment for the command centre
and any other areas needed.

6.13 IMPLEMENTING EMERGENCY

PROCEDURES
According to Wagen & Carlos (2005), in order to effectively implement
emergency procedures, there are several steps which should be taken and they
are:
(a) Review implementation issues, and integrate them with all other event
operational plans.
(b) Ensure broad awareness of the procedures through wide dissemination of
information and consultation with all concerned.
(c) Use signage and well-designed communication material in a simple format
to provide information.
(d) Train all staff.
(e) Test the procedures by conducting evacuation exercises.
(f) Review procedures to check effectiveness.
6.14 FIRE PROCEDURES

There are four major steps that should ideally be initiated concurrently:
(a) Ensure the safety of everyone within the vicinity of the fire.
(b) Call the fire department in any circumstance in which there is suspicion of
fire.
(c) Conduct evacuation.
(d) Fight the fire with appropriate equipment, or retreat and close all doors.
6.15 EVACUATION PROCEDURES

All staff should be trained in their specific roles in this situation. In the event of
an evacuation, it is important for staff to do the following:
(a) Remain calm.
(b) Be observant.
(c) Listen to and follow instructions.
(d) Provide information and instructions to staff and spectators when advised
to do so.
(e) Maintain radio protocol (do not block channels).
(f) Follow all safety precautions (for example not using lifts in case of fire).

ACTIVITY 6.3
Identify some of the security issues at the following events. Prepare
plans to prevent or address these issues:
• Street festival
• Private party for celebrity
• Marathon race
• Carnival (e.g. „Jom Heboh‰)

6.16 MORALITY, LAW AND ETHICS IN EVENT

MANAGEMENT
Morality, law and ethics in the event management field have become more
important in recent years (Goldblatt, 2005). Decisions need to be made
throughout the event process and it is crucial if the decisions are related to moral,
legal and ethical issues.
6.16.1 Differences between Morals, Laws and Ethics

Morals are personal decisions which have personal consequences. The legal
system is a series of laws which are linked to specific punishment. Laws are
enacted by groups, and punishment is imposed by peers (juries) or judges.
Besides that, laws use third parties to enforce them and issue the punishment
based on the degree of the violation. However, ethics are the action by
individuals or groups based on the business culture that is accepted at the time of
the action. Ethics are also guided by group behaviour and group acceptance even
if they are personal decisions.
6.17 COMMON ETHICAL PROBLEMS IN THE

SPECIAL EVENTS INDUSTRY
Ethical problems often vary according to type of industry and geographic
location. In the special events industry, some ethical problems faced by hoteliers
may or may not affect those in the party rental industry. Table 6.1 lists some of
the ethical issues which the risk manager will encounter most often.


Table 6.1: Typical Event Industry Ethical Issues

Issue Those Affected Proactive Measures
Breach of confidentiality Staff members Include a confidentiality clause in
employment agreements and policies
and procedures.
Gifts versus bribes Buyer and seller Define gifts, set limits for receipt of
gifts, and establish policies and
procedures.
Sexual harassment Staff members, Establish written policies and
supervisors, client, procedures in accordance with federal
and guests laws, conduct training for new staff
and notify clients of policies and
procedures.
Staff members soliciting Staff members Establish employment agreements
clients from previous that limit this exposure.
employment at new place
of employment.
Taking credit for othersÊ Staff member and Clearly identify who is responsible
work. organisation for work produced.
Theft of ideas by clients Clients, Insert a copyright statement on
and competitors. competitors proposals and notify others of
infringement.
Vendors accepting work Vendors and Establish written policies.
directly from clients. clients.
6.18 AVOIDING OR ADDRESSING ETHICAL

PROBLEMS
The proactive measures described in Table 6.1 illustrate some of the simple and
practical steps that the risk manager can take to avoid the pitfalls of unethical
behaviour. Realistically, the ethical dilemma that may arise is unpredictable.
However, the risk manager can still be prepared to resolve these problems with a
proven three-step process:
(a) Admission;
(b) Remorse; and
(c) Correction.
Therefore, it is important for the organisation to develop policies, procedures and

practices to address ethical issues when they arise.

6.19 ESTABLISHING POLICIES AND

PROCEDURES FOR ETHICAL ISSUES
According to Goldblatt (2005), there are some ways to avoid or resolve many of
the issues within the code of ethics, which are:
(a) Do Not Accept Expensive Gifts

Ban or set a limit on gifts.
(b) Avoid Confusion Regarding a Change in an Agreement

Put all agreements (and changes) in writing and have both parties initial
acceptance.
(c) Avoid Improper Promotion of Your Services

Seek written authority while working for another event manager.
(d) Avoid Claiming Credit for an Event You Produced While Working for
Another Firm
Clearly disclose the circumstances concerning the production of the event.
(e) Avoid Submitting Photos of an Event as an Example of Your Work

Clearly disclose that you helped produce your specific contributions to this
event.

• Risk management is a modern, formal process of identifying and managing

risks. Every risk is unique, hence it is important to accurately identify these
risks based on knowledge and experience of the event managers.
• In order to ensure event managers are prepared to manage the risks, it is

crucial for them to understand the legal requirements of their events.
• This topic had covered the necessary area of risk management issues.
Ć The legal and ethical aspects of event management. Legal matters can be
complex and can differ from one state to another. It is more vital for the event
organisations to seek legal advice when they are unsure of the matters
especially if they plan to organise special events overseas.
Ć The safety and security which is generally required for premises, equipment,
cash and other valuables.

Ć The occupational safety and health which includes insurance and safety
procedures.
Ć The crowd management and evacuation which is vital in order for the event
managers to manage the crowds especially during events. In addition, this
topic also highlighted the types of crowd, the crowd management plan, the
major risk incidents, emergency planning, fire and evacuation procedures
and so on.
Ć The morality, law and ethics in event management which have become more
important considering the type of industry we are in.

Authentic Quality Control
Contingency Planning VIP (Very Important Person)
Demographic Visibility
Geographic

1. Explain five factors which must be considered in risk management.
2. Discuss the process and elements of risk management for events.
3. State five principles of risk management.
4. Give the definition of security services. Explain their roles to the event
industry.
5. Identify the important factors in developing the crowd management plan.
6. List the evacuation procedures.

1. Discuss the following subtopic extensively:
(a) Risk management
(b) Permits
(c) Licensing

2. Discuss six techniques which are used to identify risks.

3. State three principles of a crowd.
4. Discuss two types of crowds.
5. Explain five personnel who are involve in Crisis Management Team (CMT).
6. State six steps to implement emergency procedures effectively.
7. Identify ways to avoid the issues within the code of ethics.

Topic X Technology
7 and Career
Advancement
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the important roles of technology within the event industry;
2. Explain how to build up event management career through formal
and informal education;
3. Discuss the importance of education for event managers;
4. Describe career opportunities for undergraduates and graduate
students in event industries; and
5. Differentiate data processing systems.
X INTRODUCTION
Technological progress during the last century has revolutionised work patterns
and enabled the industrialisation of most production functions. As a result, the
way we live and work in most societies around the world has been significantly
changed. Internet, personal computers (PC), multimedia and computerised
system application have been part of our life. Indeed, technology plays an
important role in event management. Any advances in technology for example
information technology, has effects on events. Information technology touches
almost all areas of event management, from the sound system used at the event
to the ticketing attendee registration. The use of technology as a tool to expedite
data collection, storing of data and provide data to different levels of users assist
the event manager to manage the event more effectively. This topic will focus on
technology for modern event management which includes data processing
systems, hardware configuration, and interactive web and event management
databases. Data processing system will discuss the three steps in data processing
systems:

116 X TOPIC 7 TECHNOLOGY AND CAREER ADVANCEMENT
Ć Batch data processing;

Ć Real-time data processing; and
Ć Time sharing and service bureaus.
Meanwhile, hardware configuration will explain its basic types which include the
online system, PC systems and distributed data processing. The online system
will discuss the two methods which are direct and indirect for implementing the
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). On top of that, this topic on technology will
explain the interactive web which has become more popular to make contact
with potential customers as well as the event management databases which
discuss on the importance of managing the databases.
In addition, this topic will also discuss career advancement in event

management. As mentioned in previous topics, events are an expanding industry
and it provides new and challenging job opportunities for people entering the
field. A successful career in events depends on the applicantsÊ own skills and
interests as well as educational background. There are many event management
related studies available around the world which include advertising, catering,
communications, public relations and so on. This topic on career advancement
will explain the education which includes a body of knowledge in event
management and education and event management careers. Examples of a body
of knowledge are administration, marketing, coordination and risk management.
Additionally, the education and event management careers discuss briefly on
event managersÊ career advancement and the importance of understanding both
theory and practice in the event field. This topic will also discuss the professional
experiences which comprise finding an internship or externship. The difference
between internship and externship are explained and the importance of finding
the right companies to get engage with so that students will learn more. Lastly a
case study will be presented to assist students to better understand the event
management overall business.

7.1 TECHNOLOGY FOR MODERN EVENT
MANAGEMENT
Goldblatt (2005) points out that the major task of the technology and information
system in modern event management is to collect, store, and provide data to the
different levels of users. In addition, the comparative advantages of technology
over manual systems are:
Ć Opportunities to use data in a more efficient and timely manner.
Ć Greater reliability: less possibility of human error.
Ć Consistency of operations.

TOPIC 7 TECHNOLOGY AND CAREER ADVANCEMENT W 117
Ć Better data security.

Ć Real-time analysis and review.
7.1.1 Data Processing Systems

According to Goldblatt (2005), there are three steps of event data processing
systems, which are:
(a) Batch Data Processing

In batch data processing systems, event transactions are accumulated and
processed in groups. All revenues and invoices for a day are viewed as
batch transactions, to be processed as a group. The general rule in
technology is that the more complicated the systems, the greater the
potential for mistakes. The biggest advantage of batch-processing systems
is their cost. However, a batch-processing system does not allow quick
processing of transaction and therefore, event managers do not always have
the potential to retrieve current information. Because of their characteristics,
batch processing systems are rarely used in large event management
companies.
(b) Real-time Data Processing

In real-time processing system, transactions are entered as they occur. The
status of all major accounts such as admission revenue, sales revenue, and
inventory can be determined at any moment because the database will be
updated continuously as and when transactions are entered. The system
tracks all activities through an event management company. It allows event
managers to set their activities schedule in the most beneficial manner. The
system provides event managers with a great tool for inventory control and
for control over collection of revenue and of comparison data. However, it
is more expensive than batch processing. Real-time systems are common
for middle-sized event management companies with diverse operations
and/or for large event management companies.

(c) Time Sharing and Service Bureaus
Time sharing occurs when a system services more than one branch of an
event management company at the same time. A service bureau is a
company that processes transactions for other entities. Many small and
middle-sized event management companies often hire bureau companies to
handle small operations (e.g., payroll and collection of receivables). The
event company internal data processing system can be either linked or not
linked to the bureau company data-processing system.

7.1.2 Hardware Configuration

According to Goldblatt (2005), there are several basic types of hardware
configuration that are in the event management systems, which are:
(a) Online Systems

Online systems are unique in that each transaction is entered via a
communication device connected to a computer. It may or may not be real-
time systems, depending on whether transactions are processed and
updated immediately as they happened. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
is currently being adopted by an increasing number of large event
management companies. It is a computer-to-computer exchange of
intercompany information and data in a public standard form. In an EDI
system, documents such as purchase orders, invoices, attendance
projections and checks are converted into standard form, permitting other
companies to read and accept them. There are two methods available for
implementing EDI:
(i) Direct
The direct method links the computer system of an event
management company with a major client or a supplier such as a
major beverage supplier (refer Figure 7.1). When an event
management company makes adjustments to its attendance numbers,
the system informs the supplier, which helps to eliminate inventory
shortages.

Figure 7.1: Direct method

(ii) Indirect
The indirect method utilises a network of various companiesÊ
computers and companies, and provides a ÂmailboxÊ for use by all
(refer Figure 7.2). The advantage of this method is that the sender can
transmit documents to several receivers without changing the format
each time.



Figure 7.2: Indirect method

(b) PC Systems
PC systems may consist of stand-alone computers used by a single event
manager or they may be connected to one another and/or to mainframe
computers through a form of networking.
(c) Distributed Data Processing

Many large event management companies use PCs extensively for both
data processing and analysis. Distributed data processing systems are
usually connected to a mainframe computer located at the headquarters
office of an event management company (refer Figure 7.3). In addition, they
can be linked to one another through a networking system, such as local
area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Networks are used to
enable PCs to communicate with one another and share workloads.

Figure 7.3: Distributed data-processing system
ACTIVITY 7.1
Technology plays an important role in ensuring every event successful.
Discuss.

7.1.3 Interactive Web

A website is an excellent marketing tool which can either be used or misused.
According to Goldblatt (2005), there are certain advantages that a site can
provide to an event management company:
(a) Wide market reach.
(b) Ability to update information quickly and easily.
(c) Ability to track and collect data about potential clients.
(d) Ability to cut marketing expenses.
In addition, the Internet is a great equaliser. Small and middle-sized event

management companies have the same opportunities as industry giants to reach
potential customers.
7.1.4 Event Management Database

A major database-related challenge that companies face in every fast-growing
industry is the problem of keeping a database up to date. There are two criteria to
distinguish database, namely its resources and search features. The first criterion
explains about the resources in which the more resources a database has, the
more valuable it is. Young database normally contain less data than older ones
due to the fact that resources are collected over time. In addition, the second
criterion refers to search features which relate to database in a number of ways,
such as alphabetically, by region, by service offered, by price and by age.
Indeed, the more criteria a database has, the more valuable it is. Development of
the Internet has provided new opportunities for event management, such as real-
time information database, interactive databases, and commercial databases.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Surf the internet and search five event management companies. Look at
their company profile and check how many clients they have and how
many events they had organised. How long have they been in the
industry? Do the number of clients relate with the number of events
being organised?


7.2 ADVANCING CAREER IN THE TWENTY-

FIRST CENTURY
7.2.1 Education
According to Goldblatt (2005), based on research conducted by George
Washington University on event management related studies field, the event
management courses include the following:
Ć Advertising Ć Hospitality
Ć Anthropology Ć Hotel
Ć Art Ć Law
Ć Beverage management Ć Museum studies
Ć Business administration Ć Music
Ć Catering Ć Public relations
Ć Communications Ć Recreation, etc.
(a) A Body of Knowledge

Goldblatt (2005) points out those organisations such as the Convention
Industry Council, the International Association for Exhibition Management
and the International Special Events Industry have identified specific
bodies of knowledge within their industry sector. This knowledge is
encapsulated in the certification programmes that each organisation has
developed. Generally, each of these fields includes knowledge in the
following domains:

(i) Administration (iii) Marketing
• Communications • Analysis
• Financial planning, • Assessment
management, and analysis • Conflict resolution
• Information technology • Evaluation
• Organisational development, • Sponsorship, etc.
etc.
(ii) Coordination (iv) Risk management

• Amenities • Compliance
• Advertising • Contracts
• Awards • Insurance
• Catering • Management
• Décor • Safety, etc.
• Entertainment, etc


(b) Education and Event Management Career

To be successful, it is important for event managers to understand both the
theory and practice of event management. In order to sustain their career,
event managers should carefully design an educational blueprint from
which to construct future career. This blueprint should include a thorough
understanding of the history and theory of the profession, skill training and
practical observation and application. According to Goldblatt (2005), there
is a model blueprint for developing event management education:
(i) General studies education: arts and sciences, business administration
(observation/internship).
(ii) Postgraduate education: business administration, tourism, event
management (practical training/externship).
(iii) Executive development: certificate in Event Management, meetings,
expositions, or related field (observation/externship).
(iv) Certification: Certified Meeting Professional, or other respected
industry certification programme (practical training).
(v) Continuing industry education: through professional associations,
Meeting Professionals International and others (observation/practice).

ACTIVITY 7.3
What are the differences between event managers with and without
education? Why is it important for event managers of the future to be
well educated?

7.2.2 Professional Experience

Finding a worthwhile internship or externship can be a discouraging task,
especially for a newcomer to the industry. It is important to understand the
difference between internship and externship.
Generally, internship is used to describe a supervised experience that an
undergraduate or graduate student affiliated with a college or university receives
while earning academic credit. On the other hand, externship refers to the
practical experience that a senior professional employed in the event
management industry receives in an organisation other than his or her own.
Indeed, the internship and externship should both include a blend of observation
and practice.

Finding an Internship or Externship

One of the easier ways to identify a high-quality practical training opportunity is
through a formal institution of learning such as a college or university. Another
way is through professional networking in an industry organisation. Some
internship is paid, others include a small salary or allowance, a few provide
living expenses, and still others provide no compensation or expenses. Usually,
event management and other employers may use interns to support staff but
should not utilise them as a means of displacing current employees to reduce
expenses. During the internship or externship, trainees should exhibit good work
habits (e.g., attendance, punctuality) and conduct themselves in a highly ethical
manner.

ACTIVITY 7.4
Search for event companies in Malaysia. How many of them are willing
to invest their time and money to train students? Why do you think
many of them are interested or not interested?

7.3 CASE STUDIES IN TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

EVENT MANAGEMENT
LetÊs take a look at the following case study on event management and answer
the questions as follows:

7.3.1 Festival Challenge
The event manager sighed as the festival approached and she had only five crafts
vendors who had committed to take part in the marketplace. She and her assistant
were frantic. They had been pounding the streets, attending festivals all over the
city trying to recruit artists and vendors to sell artwork, crafts, authentic items and
concessions at the event. With only nine days before the event and only a few
vendors confirmed, they were afraid that the event would be a failure.
At the end of April, the event manager was asked to plan the festival with only two
months to put everything together. In addition, the budget was minimal and was
heavily dependent on vendor participation. The festival was supposed to be a
positive community event promoting a neighbouring shopping centre where the
event would take place. The opening was promoted in local newspapers as an event
that would bring the community together.
The problem was that, despite the fact that the shopping mall was located in an
unpopular neighborhood, the main stakeholders wanted to have a first-class
celebration with upscale vendors and the best entertainers. However, the shopping
mall where the event was taking place mainly featured stores that targeted middle-
and low-middle-income shoppers. Therefore, the vendors selected could not benefit
from people living in the area because they did not have the income to purchase
upscale merchandise or simply were not interested. However, all the entertainers
and contractors were confirmed, and the local shop owners were determined to
have a festival and marketplace for the neighbourhood. The event manager and her
assistant made the decision to reduce the vendor participation fee from $25 to $15.
Due to the short time frame, they went to comparable festivals and distributed
flyers to prospective vendors. Fortunately, 25 vendors were recruited, close to their
goal of 30. However, they both felt that they should have talked with the owners
about raising donations and sponsorship money to offset the cost instead of
recruiting more vendors for the marketplace.
Source: Adapted from Goldblatt (2005)

CASE QUESTIONS
1. What could the event manager and her assistant have done to market their
event effectively to vendors?
2. What integrative marketing techniques would be most effective for this

type of event, given the low budget?
3. Do you think the situation would have been the same if the event manager
had more time?
4. How could the event manager incorporate cause marketing in this event?
Would it have been appropriate?
5. What types of sponsors would have been appropriate for this event?
6. What negotiation strategy would you use to negotiate sponsorship for this
event?
CASE ANSWERS
1. • Conduct better marketing research.
• Ask for small deposits from exhibitors to confirm participation.
2. • Seek sponsors to underwrite the event.

• Cross promote the event through individual stores.
3. • Perhaps, although time is a critical factor.

• Time is important but may be overcome through better strategy and
more resources.
4. • The location of the shopping mall opens a wide range of possibilities

including Boys and Girls Club.
• Yes, if an appropriate course can be identified, it is appropriate.
5. • Clothing manufacturers.
• Major chain stores featured in the mall.
• Bottlers (Coca-Cola, Pepsi).
6. • Provide the sponsor with title sponsorship and exclusivity for the
event.
• Allow sponsor to conduct marketing research at the event (product
sampling).

• Over the last few decades, the progress in technology has revolutionised both
the global economy and enterprises. The emergence of internet, the
development and application of computerised systems and so on has made
technology as one of the major aspects which need to be considered in any
activities to improve our living conditions.
• Hence, technology plays an important role in event management fields. Event

management requires a huge array of alternatives and choices to ensure the
event organised will be a successful event.
• In order to be creative, unique and different, event managers will have to be

dependent on the logistics and technology.
• This topic had briefly discussed some of the areas which are considered as
crucial for event managers to understand and be aware of the role of
technology in managing events.
• Points which had been highlighted are:

- The data processing systems, hardware configuration, and online
systems.
- The interactive web as well as event management databases to give a
clear picture to event managers regarding the value of keeping and
updating databases.
Ć Career advancement in the event management field. As a lucrative industry,
many job opportunities are being offered to the public. Related studies with
event management for instance advertising, catering, communications, public
relations and so on have given a huge number of people a chance to work in
this challenging industry. Due to the high need for professionalism, the
industry needs its managers to be well educated as well as have the
opportunity to search for externship.
Ć The overall business of event management and in order to assist students to
understand better, a case study had been included.

Blueprint Local Area Network (LAN)

Database Postgraduate Course
Hardware

1. List five advantages of technology systems compared with the manual

systems.
2. Discuss three steps of event data processing systems.
3. Explain two methods which are used to implement (Electronic Data
Interchange) (EDI).
4. State the model blueprint which is used to develop an event management
education.
1. Identify three types of hardware configuration which are used in the event
management systems.
2. List four advantages of website to an event management company.
3. Differentiate between internship and externship concisely.
4. Illustrate the direct method and indirect method process in Electronic Data
Interchange (EDI).


Answers
TOPIC 1: THEORY OF EVENT MANAGEMENT
Self-Test 1
1. The five WÊs that needs to be considered before on event manager organises
an event:
Ć Why must we hold this event?

− Must be series of compelling reasons that confirm the importance
and viability of holding the event.
• Who will be the stakeholders for the event?

− Stakeholders are both internal and external
− Conducting research to determine the level of commitment for each
stakeholders
− Examples: Internal ă BOD, committee members, staff, elected
leaders, guests etc. External ă media, politicians, bureaucrats,
investors for events
• When is the event being held?

− Check the time frame (research-through-evaluation) is appropriate
for the size of the event.
− When the events will be held involves where the event will be held.
− If the time isnÊt right, the date may need to be shifted or
streamlining the operations.
• Where will the event be held?

− Select a site will make your event operations become easier or
tougher.
− Make sure you are prepared for the challenge, if any. The decision
to select a site must be made as early as possible as it affects many
other decisions.
• What is the event product that you are developing and presenting?
− Matching the events product to the needs, wants, desires, and
expectations of your guests while satisfying the internal
requirements of your organisations.
− What must be analysed carefully and critically to make certain that
the why, who, when, and where are synergised in this answer.

ANSWERS W 129
2. Definitions for the term:
(a) Special Events

• Specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that
are consciously planned and created to mark special occasions or
to achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and
objectives.
(b) Event Management

Ć A function requiring public assembly for the purpose of
celebration, education, marketing and reunion.
Ć The process that includes research, design, planning, coordinating,
and evaluation of events.
(c) Mega Events

Ć Large events, which affect whole economies and reverberate in the
global media, e.g Olympic Games & World Fairs.
(d) Hallmark Events

Ć Refer to those events that become so identified with the spirit or
ethos of a town, city or region that they become synonymous with
the name of the place and gain widespread recognition and
awareness.
(e) Major Events

Ć Are events that, by their scale and media interest, are capable of
attracting significant visitor numbers, media coverage and
economic benefits. E.g. top international sporting championships,
cultural events, arts.
3. The process of event management:

Ć Research
Ć Design
Ć Planning
Ć Coordination
Ć Evaluation
4. Ć Conduct a brainstorming session and then connect the creative ideas to

the goals and objectives identified in the research phase.
5. The common characteristics of successful events are:-

Ć A clear vision and a definite purpose for everyoneÊs efforts.
• Clear SMART (Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic, Timed)
objectives to which everyone is committed.

130 X ANSWERS
• An appropriate, flexible organisational structure able to achieve specific

task, but retaining an overall unified purpose.
• Committed personnel, willing to Âgo a step beyondÊ.
• A leader of calibre, authority and personality.
• Precise detailed planning carried out and documented within an
appropriate timescale.
• A coordinated team effort operating within budget limits and drawing
on all available resources.
• Efficient lines of communication.
• A good public image.
• Effective publicity and presentation, and built-in contingency plans.
• A total commitment to customer care.
• Efficient ongoing control and monitoring systems.
• An atmosphere of unity, focus, hard work, humour and enthusiasm.
• Good post-event evaluation.
Self-Test 2
1. Three types of research commonly used in event management:
(a) Quantitative pre-event research
• Determine the demographic information.
• Two different styles are adapted, for instance, likert scale and
semantic differential scale.
(b) Qualitative pre-event research

Ć Focus group.
Ć Participant/observer.
Ć Case study.
(c) Combination of quantitative and qualitative
2. Examples of strength of an event using SWOT analysis:

Ć Strong funding.
Ć Good potential for sponsors.
Ć Well-trained staff.
Ć Many volunteers.
Ć Good media relations.
Ć Excellent site selection.
3. The three phases of planning:

(a) Timing
• Refers to time needed to act or react.
• Vital for the event managers to budget time precisely.

ANSWERS W 131
(b) Space
• Refers to both the physical space where an event will be held and
the time between critical decisions pertaining to the event.
(c) Tempo
• Rate or tempo at which event take place during both production
planning and the event.
4. Ways to evaluate events:
(a) Written Surveys

• Conducted immediately after the event finish.
• Purpose is to collect information on participants and spectators level
of satisfaction.
(b) Monitor
• Trained person will observe an element of the event and provide
both written and verbal feedback to the event manager.
(c) Telephone/Mail Survey

• Conducted after the event.
• Survey done through mail or telephone survey.
(d) Pre- and Post-event

• Event manager can determine the respondentÊs knowledge,
opinions, and other important information both before and after
their attendance at an event.
5. The importance of events to destinations:
(a) Attractions
• Can be used as attractions to a new destination.
• Can attract tourists from different segments depending on the types
of events being organised and not only cater for specific segments.
(b) Image Makers

• Portray destinationÊs strengths.
• Develop image through events by organising events that represent
the destination.
(c) Animators or Static Attractions

• Events can be used as animators or static attractions to keep
customers coming back.

132 X ANSWERS
(d) Catalysts for Other Development

• Events assist in the development of a host community by improving
the infrastructure of existing facilities or developing new facilities.
(e) Part of Alternative Tourism

• Events can act as a tourism product and provide an alternative for
destinations to give a boost to its present existing tourism products.
TOPIC 2: EVENT ADMINISTRATION

Self-Test 1
1. Interview key stakeholders, such as guest, non-attendees, vendors,
volunteers and attendees.
2. Events are business with a brief lifespan. They must have a specific mission
and vision to further define the goals and objectives.
3. Three factors on why time plays a major role for the event:
(a) Time governs every decision
(b) It is a finite source
(c) Time may be used appropriately to achieve goals and the objectives of
the event ă pre-planning and effective organisation
4. The importance of volunteers in managing events:

(a) People are the reasons events succeed or fail
(b) To assist the event organiser to meet the demand of the stakeholders
(c) Assisting the organiser in organising events with less cost
5. The process to recruit quality volunteers:

(a) Recruitment
• Match the quality of your team to the goals and objectives of your
event.
• Sources to get volunteers ă civic and fraternal organisations as one
of their mission is community service.
• What we can offer to these volunteers will help us with our events.
(b) Training
• Always orient (give the broad overview, discuss your vision first,
then provide skill training).
• Training must be comprehensive ă including policies and
procedures of the event.
• Self Test them to ensure they are learning and applying the skills.

ANSWERS W 133
(c) Coordination
• Involves coaching and mentoring to ensure their performance
coordinates and goals of the event can be met.
• Team leaders and supervisors must be skilled to ensure the
coordination of the volunteers.
(d) Rewarding Excellent, High Quality Performance

• Thank the volunteers for their help during the event and reward
them immediately.
• Giving early, frequent, and constant recognition in developing
strong and loyal volunteer team.
• Keep encouraging them to seek additional rewards.
Self-Test 2
1. Factors that need to be put into account in order to identify the needs of
guests offending events:
Ć Provision for guests having disabilities
Ć Implications of size, weight and volume
Ć Securing the environment
Ć Transportation and parking factors
2. The typical themes that are used for events:

Ć Historical Ć Artistic
Ć Geographical and cultural Ć Food
Ć Sporting Ć Object (i.e. flowers, animal, etc)
Ć Film, music and entertainment
3. Time governs every decision in the event management. It is a finite

resource. However, through pre-planning and effective organisation, time
may be used appropriately to achieve the goals and objectives of the event.
4. The management functions that need to be considered in organising events:

Ć Creating
Ć Problem solving
Ć Motivating
Ć Controlling
Ć Planning
Ć Organisation
Ć Communication

134 X ANSWERS
5. Three groups of leadership styles:
(a) Democratic Style

• This leadership style is used during the early stage of the event
planning. It is an excellent approach for facilitating discussions,
conducting focus groups and building consensus of stakeholders.
The skills needed in this style are listening and facilitation.
However, it takes time to reach a consensus.
(b) Autocratic Style

• The autocratic style is used for instance when emergency evacuation
is required because in this situation, there is no time to try and reach
a consensus. It also should be used sparingly.
(c) Laissez-fair Style

• The laissez-fair style is least used in event management because it
requires a team with skills equal in level and therefore the event
manager does not have to facilitate to ensure that goals are being
achieved.
TOPIC 3: FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Self-Test 1
1. The potential expenses which are important in event budgeting:
Ć Advertising
Ć Accounting
Ć Automobile rental
Ć Brochure and other collateral design
Ć Consultant
Ć Audio-visual, etc.
2. Event manager has to ensure the balancing of financial control system

because:
Ć Purchases or other expenses are approved.
Ć Goods and services meet specifications.
Ć Payment is approved.
Ć Accounts are paid.
Ć Incoming revenue is checked and banked.
Ć Revenue totals are recorded correctly.
Ć Debts are met.
Ć All transactions are recorded and balanced.
Ć Taxation requirements are met.
Ć Financial matters are correctly reported to stakeholders.
ANSWERS W 135
3. The potential source of income for an event:

Ć Franchising
Ć Ticketing
Ć Fundraising
Ć Souvenirs
Ć Catering
Ć Advertising, etc.
4. The principles on how to choose good fundraisers:

Ć Stick to your distinctive competencies.
Ć Target them to your own stakeholders and known market segments.
Ć Learn from the mistakes of others and avoid overused methods.
Ć Try to get everything donated to und-raisers.
Ć Spread out the risks; avoid get-rich-quick schemes with high risk entailed.
Ć Plan the fund-raiser with the same professionalism put into the main
event.
Ć Build on strengths and experiences, as opposed to one-time efforts.
Ć Schedule them so that cancellation can occur without penalty.
5. The special nature of events and festivals requires close attention to the
flow of cash. To ensure a positive event cash flow, two measures are
necessary.
Ć Firstly, prearrange the vendorÊs payment terms and conditions that
allow collecting the adequate revenues to honor these obligations.
Ć Secondly, diligently collect those funds that are due and payable in a
timely manner in order to meet the obligations to the vendors.
Indeed, cash flow is used as a tool in setting and revising budgets. Thus, the
event manager must be able to monitor and forecast cash flow carefully.
Cash flow analysis involves the cash flow statement which is used to
forecast the organisationÊs ability to generate future cash flows or to meet
obligations, and the need for credit.
6. Three types of budgeting which are important in managing events:

(a) Operating Budgets
The operating budget is a plan for one financial year of operations and
many event managers just prepare only operating budgets.
(b) Capital Budgets
The capital budget id prepared for capital acquisition.
(c) Cash Budgets
The cash budget is used to summarise planned cash receipts and
disbursements.

136 X ANSWERS
Self-Test 2
1. Discuss the process of budgeting which is used to compare actual costs and
revenues with projected costs and revenues.
(a) Establish what is the economic environment.
(b) Establish budget guidelines to fit objectives, including sub-budgets.
(c) Identify and estimate cost areas and revenue.
(d) Prepare a draft budget for committee and sponsor approval.
(e) Evaluate draft budget and prepare final budgets and controls ratios.
2. Explain the two options of financial structures committee.

(a) Finance is a free-standing committee; everyone requests money and
awaits their decision.
(b) Each Committee or sub-committee has its own treasurer to look after
its allocated budget.
3. List ten categories of general expenses for most events.

(a) Advertising
(b) Accounting
(c) Automobile rental
(d) Brochure and other collateral design
(e) Consultant
(f) Audio-visual
(g) Décor
(h) Entertainment
(i) Insurance
(j) Food and beverage
(k) Guest transportation
(l) Photocopying
(m) Photography
(n) Public relations
(o) Site rental
(p) Staffs travel
(q) Volunteer appreciation
(r) Research
(s) Report preparation and publishing, etc.
4. Discuss the types of fund-raising events.

(a) Sponsored runs, swims, cycles
(b) Dances, discos
(c) Marathon swims
(d) Raffles, lotteries
(e) Car wash
(f) Gambling evenings

ANSWERS W 137
TOPIC 4: EVENT COORDINATION
Self-Test 1
1. Five important factors to develop the event team:
(a) Communication
Communication between stakeholders has become a vital part in
event management. The event manager is responsible for developing
and sustaining the event communications to ensure all stakeholders
are informed, in touch and involved in each of the phase of managing
the event.
(b) Self-interest
The event manager is responsible for persuading each person to build
his or her group interest. It is important to develop trust, congeniality,
and a common purpose among the team members so that the event
manager can identify those who naturally work best in teams and
those who will need more coaching or persuasion to feel comfortable
working in a group project.
(c) Dependability
One of the biggest management problems in working with volunteers
is time and attendance because they are not compensated for their
efforts, and do not feel the obligation to arrive on time or even to
show up at all. Indeed, this is a crucial part and the event manager
should take it seriously to ensure a successful event. Among the ways
are to recruit dependable people; keep accurate records of time and
attendance; and use the records to determine who to engage for future
events.
(d) Trust
Trust is the result of the sustained effort by the event manager to
develop an atmosphere and environment wherein the event
stakeholders invest their trust in his or her behaviour and judgments.
It is the net result of a pattern of positive behaviours exhibited by the
event manager. To develop, establish and sustain trust, the event
manager must earn and ask it from the stakeholders.
(e) Collaboration
The event coordinators must be able to develop close collaboration
between all the stakeholders. It is difficult because of the disparity of
the personalities, skills and experiences of each stakeholder. On the
other hand, the event manager must be clear on the purpose of the
event and convince the stakeholder that they must work together to
achieve or exceed the expectations of the guests. Indeed, the purpose

138 X ANSWERS
of the event team is to cooperate and collaborate to achieve the goals

and objectives of the event and the event manager is the leader of this
effort.
2. Ten methods to identify appropriate resources:

Ć Conduct a needs assessment.
Ć Determine the budget.
Ć Develop the request for proposal document and evaluation criteria.
Ć Identify appropriate firms or individuals to submit proposals.
Ć Distribute a request for proposal.
Ć Review the proposals.
Ć Select the suppliers.
Ć Negotiate with the suppliers.
Ć Develop contracts with the suppliers.
Ć Execute and monitor contract performance.
3. Eight elements that must be considered to choose the event venue:

Ć Size of the event (including the size of the audience).
Ć Layout of the site and its suitability for the event.
Ć Stage, field of play, or performance area.
Ć Transport and parking.
Ć Proximity to accommodations and attractions.
Ć Supply issues for goods and services providers such as caterers.
Ć Technical support.
Ć Venue management.
4. Five important aspects which are used to develop an event theme:

(a) Entertainment
An entertainment is an activity performed for the enjoyment of others.
Entertainment can enhance the theme of an event; and corporate events,
in particular often employ interesting performers.
(b) Décor
Décor refers to the planning and furnishing of an exhibition of function
with carpet, plants, floras, etc. to create a pleasant, attractive
environment. Décor encompasses many things, from the colour scheme
to the drapes, props and floral arrangements. The challenge is to bring
them all together into one cohesive theme.
(c) Layout
Layout will influence the success of the event. Goldblatt (2001) defined
layout as an artistÊs or designerÊs description of how a printed piece will
look.

ANSWERS W 139
(d) Lighting and Special Effects

Lighting can be used to spectacular effect to create the general ambience
and to highlight particular features. Moreover, it can be used to
highlight sponsor advertising and to create a particular mood. Most
importantly, it must be consistent with the event theme.
(e) Sound
Sound has a great impact on the mood of audiences. The event manager
has to ensure that all members of the audience are able to hear clearly.
5. Five benefits of timeline-production schedule:

Ć A timeline-production schedule requires the event manager to schedule
every element involved in an event systematically and logically.
Ć It provides a unique comprehensive communications tool for the use of
other team members.
Ć It enables external stakeholders such as police, fire brigade, security and
medical to stay informed regarding event operations.
Ć It is easily distributed to internal and external stakeholders via a
computer modem for quick updates.
Ć It provides an accurate historical accounting of the entire event.
Self-Test 2
1. Three factors which are important in catering management:
(a) Quality Control
• Menu selection and design, including special diets and food display.
• Quality of staff and supervision.
• Equipment, including style and quantity, and selection of in-house
or hired.
• Cleanliness.
• Staff-to-guest ratio
(b) Costs
• Are there any guarantees, including those against loss and
breakages?
• What are the payment terms?
• Who is responsible for licenses and permits: the caterer, the venue
or the event management?
• What deposits and upfront fees are there?
(c) Waste Management

• Must occur before, during and after the event.
• Must conform to health regulations and environmental concerns.
• Must be appropriate to the event theme

140 X ANSWERS
2. Three elements which are used to manage an event management:

(a) Pollution
The pollution aspect should be part of the planning process. It
includes the environmental impact of noise, air and water pollution.
The planning process must include the methods to reduce the
pollution.
(b) Restroom Facilities
Restroom facilities include those at the venue and any temporary
facilities required. However, too many events provide inadequate and
substandard restroom facilities that cannot meet the demand.
Therefore, the event manager should be aware of the event
requirements and engage a restroom facilities rental company.
(c) Cleaning
Usually, cleaning is done before and after the event. Maintaining
cleanliness during peak times is challenging, particularly if there is
only a short changeover time between event sessions. However,
cleaning staff should be treated as part of the event staff and receive
appropriate training so that they can answer questions from the
people attending the event.
3. Six processes that are important in order to develop the production

schedule:
(a) Creating the Schedule
There are three important resources to incorporate when creating
document draft which are:
• Check with the key informants to ensure that all
• critical information have been incorporated.
• Explain the production schedule at an upcoming group meeting to
• receive feedback from the entire group.
• Recheck the timing, function and assignment to check for gaps
and
• ensure that production schedule is logical.
(b) Implementing the Schedule
After the production schedule is completed, the event manager must
circulate a series of drafts to key constituents to ensure that approvals
are received before issuing the final document. The key constituents
should have a specific role to play, relevant to their level of expertise.
However, they should review the entire plan to check for overall gaps
as well as their own particular area of expertise.

ANSWERS W 141
(c) Monitoring the Schedule

Appoint several capable people to serve as monitors and oversee
various stages of implementation of the production schedule. They
should have a copy of the schedule and in the notes section, list any
variances from the schedule published.
(d) Handling Changes
One of the most useful aspects of the production schedule is its ability
to assist the event manager in managing change because it provides a
solid framework for decision making. A quick glance at the
production schedule allows the event manager to make the necessary
adjustments and see how these adjustments are affecting other
elements of the event.
(e) The Resume versus the Production Schedule
Usually, the meeting event manager traditionally uses the term
„resume‰ rather than „production schedule‰. The resume comprises
not only the time, venue, task and person responsible but also
detailed information regarding room setups, audio-visual and other
components of the meeting. However, the meeting event manager
also must be aware of the gaps in the resume.
(f) Evaluate Schedule
The best way to evaluate the use of the production schedule is to ask
the key stakeholders if the process was effective. A quantitative way
to monitor the use of the schedule is to review the notes section and
look for wide gaps between the scheduled start and stop times and
the actual times.
TOPIC 5: EVENT MARKETING
Self-Test 1
1. Four guidelines which are used to develop an effective market research:
(a) The objectives must be very clear.
(b) There must be a cost-effective plan of how best to ascertain the
relevant information.
(c) State how the plan will be implemented.
(d) Explain what plans are necessary for reviewing the process and the
information.
2. (a) The brand refers to a name, phrase, design, symbol, or a combination

of those elements which associates a product or service to an
advertisement and differentiates it from other similar products.

142 X ANSWERS
(b) Advertising is a message that the media such as a newspaper,

magazine and television is paid to distribute. The message is
controlled by the sponsor. It is also defined as a form of non-personal
promotion paid for by the event organisation. Radio, television,
newspaper, magazines, the Internet, outdoor advertising (billboards,
bus shelters and toilets) and mobile platforms such as buses and taxis
are all channels for advertising.
(c) Publicity is the activity of generating interest and attendance at an

upcoming event by providing information with news value to the
media. This process is controlled by the medium reporting the
information, not the sponsor. Publicity includes all those activities not
directly paid for that communicates with the eventÊs target market.
(d) Public relations refer to the presentation of an event through the

media or other outlets, stressing the benefits and attractiveness of
such an event. The role of public relations is to manage the
organisationÊs and the eventÊs image in the mind of the audience and
the public.
3. The major marketing concepts:

(a) Brand Building
The major brand building involves the combination of online
marketing with television, media and print. The advantage of the
Internet is the favourable cost or benefit ratio. By using the Internet as
a promotion tool, event management organisations can achieve a
much higher return on the event.
(b) Direct Marketing
Organisers can gain a direct contact immediately with the target
market group by placing well-designed information and ads about the
event management services on the Internet.
(c) Online Sales
An online sales concept is more appropriate to companies which sell
consumer goods, not services. However, event management can still
gain benefit greatly from the Internet. Event management
organisations conduct registration, ticket sales and distribution of
materials over the Internet. All of these are segments of event sales.
(d) Customer Support
Event customer support is one of the areas where the Internet can
prove truly indispensable.

ANSWERS W 143
(e) Market Research

Event management organisations recognise the Internet potential for
market research. By using Internet technology, a company will be able
to bring together participants from different parts of the world for
small, real-time chat sessions. Clients can then observe these chat
sessions from anywhere in the world. Websites can be used to
conduct market research by surveying visitors. This information can
be effective if the process is well planned.
(f) Product or Service Development and Testing
The Internet is an ideal place for event companies to Self Test new
products or services before they are launched. One of the biggest
advantages that the Internet has over other marketing tools is real-
time contact.
4. Definitions on sponsorship:
Ć An investment in sports, community or government activities, the arts,
a cause, individual, or broadcast which yields a commercial return for
the sponsor. The investment can be made in financial, material, or
human terms (Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris, 2005) or
Ć A cash and/or in-kind fee paid to a property (such as an event) in
return for the exploitable commercial potential associated with that
property (International Events Group, 1995, cited in Getz, 1997) or
Ć A financial aid to cultural activities, with the expectation of a return on
the investment. Sponsorship is a two-way business activity, mutually
beneficial to the sponsor on one hand, and to the event on the other. It
combines commercial and charitable activity, providing for profit goals
and non-profit intentions at the same time (Skinner & Rukavina, 2003)
or
Ć A high-profile form of collaborative marketing between organisations
which usually involves an investment in an event, facility, individual,
team or competition, in return for access to an exploitable commercial
potential (Sweaney 1997, cited in Allen, OÊToole, McDonnell & Harris,
2005)
5. Five important issues which sponsors must consider before sponsoring an

event:
(a) Impact on the Programme of a Cultural Project
This is a feature of long-term sponsorship contracts. Sometimes, it
influences long-term cultural policy and adjusts it to the event
organiserÊs and sponsorÊs global business needs.

144 X ANSWERS
(b) Sponsor Identification in the Name of the Event

Event organisers should carry the sponsorÊs name on the stage, tickets
as well as printed programmes and the venue of the event should
clearly indicate who the sponsor is.
(c) Tickets and Other Advantages for the Sponsor
Usually, sponsors will receive tickets for their sponsorship which
have an economic value.
(d) Advertising
Advertising is a part of a sponsorship package and is defined in a
contract. Advertising may be direct (at the event itself) or indirect (as
a part of media packages).
(e) Special Hospitality Opportunities
A sponsor is granted certain exclusive rights within the framework of
events that specifically indicate the sponsorÊs importance. They are
often part of special events organised for the sponsor by the event
manager, such as receptions.
(f) Promotional Material
Usually, sponsors invest in ancillary activities and products that
support the event. These products are typically promotional and are
sold at the event.
(g) Long-term Cooperation
Sponsors can attain their objectives if they support the same type of
event over a period of time. Usually, long-term arrangements bring
benefits to both sides.
6. Four important questions which are important before an event manager

approaches potential sponsors are:
(a) What are the benefits?
(b) Will the sponsorship be exclusive?
(c) Is there compatibility?
(d) Will there be ambush marketing?
Self-Test 2
1. Five ways to make a successful advertising campaign:
(a) Promote awareness of the event.
(b) Pass on knowledge of relevant event details.
(c) Encourage the desire to participate in or attend the event.
(d) Promote the conviction that the event is worthwhile.
(e) Aim to establish attendance patterns in the long run for future events

ANSWERS W 145
(f) Encourage the decision that turns the interest into attendance of
participation.
(g) Promote the event image and logo.
(h) Be positive and interesting to attract attention.
2. Three types of websites which are used as online marketing tools:

(a) Brochureware
Brochureware is a type of Internet event marketing material which
has been recognised as a primitive and boring type of material
marketing. It is static and provides basic information about an
organisation, as well as missing the entire idea of marketing on the
Web.
(b) Show-biz
This type of Internet event marketing tries to entertain visitors
through interactive features: flashing pictures, news reports or press
reviews.
(c) Unititarian
A unilitarian offers viewers a unique and balanced interactive service
that is both highly informative and helpful in building brand
recognition and loyalty.
3. Five guidelines which event managers use to obtain sponsorship:

(a) Sponsorship is a special form of a companyÊs social accountability.
(b) Sponsorship has to be within the limits of good taste, which is why
moderate, but diverse, forms of advertising are recommended.
(c) Sponsorship of culture affects the mage of the company.
(d) Corporate sponsorship should be long-term.
(e) Corporate can make a strong impact internally at a company.
4. Five benefits of sponsoring events to the sponsor:

(a) Heighten Visibility
Heighten visibility is always the first reason why companies sponsor
events because they can gain tremendous brand name awareness by
the consumer. It can be done through several types of media.
(b) Shaping Consumer Attitudes
Sponsoring is able to create or change a brand image.
(c) Narrowcasting
Sponsorship gives companies an opportunity to reach particular niche
market, such as an ethnic group, student, young consumer, etc. By
sponsoring an event, sponsors can demonstrate a tie or commitment
to them.

146 X ANSWERS
(d) Client Entertainment

By sponsoring an event, the sponsor has an opportunity to entertain
clients at the event, whether they are the sponsorÊs business
associates, staff, VIPs, etc.
(e) Recruiting/Retaining Employees
Sponsors can also recruit new employees by having a job fair on-site
during the event. Usually, the companies will involve the staff in
worthwhile events as a team building and morale boosting effort.
5. Five benefits of sponsoring events to organisers:

(a) Generates necessary revenue for administration and operations.
(b) Increases marketing scope and reach through use of collateral
promotions by the sponsor.
(c) Can result in professional and human resources gains, through use of
the sponsorÊs staff and expertise.
(d) Enlarges the eventÊs constituencies.
(e) Can enhance the image of the event through association with a
positive corporate image.
6. Six types of sponsors:

(a) Title sponsor
(b) Presenting sponsor
(c) In-kind sponsor
(d) Official sponsor
(e) Media sponsor
(f) Co-sponsor

ANSWERS W 147
TOPIC 6: LEGAL, ETHICAL AND RISK MANAGEMENT

Self-Test 1
1. Five factors which must be considered in risk management:
(a) Crowds
Crowd behaviour must be taken into account when planning the
event and its setting. Large crowds combined with certain
management or site deficiencies can spell disaster.
(b) Visibility
The bigger the event and the more media coverage it receives, the
more likely it is that it will be targeted by criminals, prostitutes,
demonstrators or terrorists.
(c) Security
Security must be taken seriously, as inadequate security systems and
personnel can actually cause problems, such as by making improper
response to dangerous situations.
(d) Inexperienced Management and Volunteers
There are many pitfalls for the untrained and inexperienced. Training
is often inadequate, especially among volunteers recruited at the last
minute.
(e) Quality Control
This is often difficult owing to the occasional or one-time nature of
many events. Poor quality poses financial risks and could exacerbate
other problems, especially with regard to dissatisfied customers.
2. The process and elements of risk management for events:

(a) Identification of risk fields.
(b) Identification of specific risks and the consequences, within each field.
(c) Assignment of the probability of risks occurring (e.g., low, medium, high).
(d) Estimation of the potential magnitude of impacts.
(e) Ranking of risks, from high to low priority.
(f) Identification of strategic options to deal with risks; selection of
appropriate strategies:
(i) Avoidance strategies;
(ii) Risk reduction;
(iii) Reduction of severity of loss;
(iv) Diffusion of risk;
(v) Reallocation of risk;
(vi) Insurance.
(g) Implementation of strategies and evaluation of results.
(h) Feedback and refinement.
148 X ANSWERS
3. Five principles of risk management:

(a) Events and meetings are a form of tourism and thus suffer from the
same sociological phenomena as tourism.
(b) Events and meetings often follow the same patterns.
(c) Whenever an act of violence occurs within the world of events or
meeting, the media are almost certain to report it, forcing the local
event industry to be embroiled in acts of crisis management.
(d) Perceptions about an event crisis tend to be almost as devastating as
the crisis itself.
(e) The farther away one is from a crisis location, the worse the crisis will
appear to be and the longer the crisis will remain in the collective
travel subconscious.
4. Ć Definition: Security service refers to a service which provides

security protection for checking delegatesÊ credentials,
searching hand luggage, protecting equipment, and
patrolling congress and exhibition areas.
Ć Roles: ă Acting as a bodyguard, bouncer, or crowd controller.

ă Patrolling or protecting premises.
ă Installing and maintaining security equipment.
ă Providing advice on security equipment and procedures.
ă Training staff in security procedures.
5. Important factors in developing the crowd management plan:

Ć The number of people at the venue (the event audience, staff, and
contractors).
Ć The likely behaviour of spectators (especially for events with a history
of crowd behaviour problems).
Ć The timing of the event, including session times and peak periods.
Ć The layout of the venue and/or other facilities.
Ć The security services to be provided or contracted.
Ć The legal requirements and general guidelines.
6. Evacuation procedures:
Ć Remain calm.
Ć Be observant.
Ć Listen to and follow instructions.
Ć Provide information and instructions to staff and spectators when
advised to do so.
Ć Maintain radio protocol (do not block channels).
Ć Follow all safety precautions.

ANSWERS W 149
Self-Test 2
1. (a) Risk management is the process of anticipating, preventing, or
minimising potential costs, losses, or problems for the event,
organisation, partners, and guests. Risks occur terms of finance,
organisational viability, safety and health. Risks occur naturally and
cannot be ignored, and events are prone to particular types of risk.
Risk management for special events is becoming more and more
crucial to the success and survival of any event.
(b) Permits are issued by local, state, provincial, or federal governmental

agencies and allow the event manager to conduct certain activities at
the event. There are many types of permits which may be required.
A permit may be issued only after the event manager has submitted
the appropriate documentation and has paid a fee. The permits are
not issued automatically. A permit reflects that an agency is
permitting your event organisation to conduct certain activities
provided that you conform to the regulations established.
(c) A license is granted by a governmental institution, a private

organisation or a public entity to allow you to conduct a specific
activity. The difference between a permit and a license may be slight
in some jurisdictions. For many events, both permits and licenses
must be secured. The larger the event, the more likely the number of
permits and licenses will increase.
2. Six techniques which are used to identify risks:

(a) Work-breakdown Structure
Isolating the event areas in this way gives a clear picture of the
possible problems. However, this analysis may not reveal the
problems that result in a combination of risks.
(b) Self Test Events
Large sporting events often run smaller events to Self Test the
facilities, equipment and other resources.
(c) Internal/External
Internal risks arise in the event planning and implementation. These
risks are generally within the abilities of the event company to
manage. On the other hand, external risks arise from outside the event
organisation and may need a different control strategy. This technique
focuses on mitigating the impact of the risk.

150 X ANSWERS
(d) Fault Diagram

Risks also can be discovered by looking at their impact and working
backwards to the possible cause. This is a result to cause method.
(e) Incident Report
Almost all large public events have an incident report document.
These may be included in the event manual and are meant to be filled
out by the event staff when there is an incident.
(f) Contingency Plan
An outcome of the risk analysis may be a detailed plan of viable
alternative integrated actions. The contingency plan contains the
response to the impact of a risk and involves decision procedure,
chain of command and a set of related actions.
3. Three principles of a crowd:

(a) Humans have a desire and a fear of being touched by the unknown.
(b) To deal with the fear of being touched, humans set boundaries.
(c) In crowds, there is a loss of fear of being touched:
• Crowds create equality.
• There are no distinctions in a crowd.
• Crowds have tendencies to grow.
• Open crowds have no boundaries.
4. Two types of crowds:

(a) Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous is a crowd which is composed of people who do not
necessarily share a common heritage, such as:
• The anonymous crowd
• The planned crowd
(b) Homogeneous
Homogenous is a crowd which is composed of people who share a
common heritage such as religion or a political affiliation. It is
composed of the following:
• Sects
• Castes
• Classes
5. Five personnel who are involved in Crisis Management Team (CMT):

(a) Crisis Manager
The crisis manager is responsible for managing the crisis on-site and
assisting the CMT.

ANSWERS W 151
(b) Administrative Coordinator

The administrative coordinator is responsible for all administrative
support needs of the CMT and works closely with the crisis manager.
This individual also assists with notifications and mobilising
resources; tracking the situation; and collecting, organising and
distributing documentation.
(c) Operations Coordinator
The operation coordinator acts as a liaison between the CMT and
operations staff to maintain operational efficiency. The people would
also assess and identify the operational needs, establish alternate sites
as needed, coordinate transportation and assist in the return to
normal operations.
(d) Employee Support Coordinator
The person would coordinate psychological services, family support,
and trauma recovery. These services should be available to all victims,
families and co-workers.
(e) Technical Support Coordinator
The person responsible for setting up equipment for the command
centre and any other areas needed.
6. Six steps to implement emergency procedures effectively:

(a) Review implementation issues, and integrate them with all other
event operational plans.
(b) Ensure broad awareness of the procedures through wide
dissemination of information and consultation with all concerned.
(c) Use signage and well-designed communication material in a simple
format to provide information.
(d) Train all staff.
(e) Self Test the procedures by conducting evacuation exercises.
(f) Review procedures to check effectiveness.
7. Ways to avoid the issues within the code of ethics:

(a) Do not accept expensive gifts.
(b) Avoid confusion regarding a change in an agreement.
(c) Avoid improper promotion of your services.
(d) Avoid claiming credit for an event you produced while working for
another firm.
(e) Avoid submitting photos of an event as an example of your work.

152 X ANSWERS
TOPIC 7: TECHNOLOGY AND CAREER ADVANCEMENT
Self-Test 1
1. Five advantages of technology systems:
(a) Opportunities to use data in a more efficient and timely manner.
(b) Greater reliability: less possibility of human error.
(c) Consistency of operations.
(d) Better data security.
(e) Real-time analysis and review
2. Three steps of event data processing systems:

(a) Batch Data Processing
• Event transactions are accumulated and processed in groups.
• The biggest advantage of batch-processing systems is their cost.
• It does not allow the quick processing of transaction.
• Batch processing systems are rarely used in large event
management companies.
(b) Real-time Data Processing
• Transactions are entered as they occur.
• The status of all major accounts such as admission revenue, sales
revenue, and inventory can be determined at any moment.
• It allows event managers to set their activities schedule in the most
beneficial manner.
• A great tool for inventory control and for control over collection of
revenue and of comparison data.
• It is more expensive than batch processing.
• Real-time systems are common for middle-sized event
management companies with diverse operations and/or for large
event management companies.
(c) Time Sharing and Service Bureaus
• It occurs when a system services more than one branch of an event
management company at the same time.
• Many small and middle-sized event management companies often
hire bureau companies to handle small operations (e.g., payroll
and collection of receivables).
• The event company internal data processing system can be either
linked or not linked to the bureau company data-processing
system.

ANSWERS W 153
3. Two methods which are used to implement Electronic Data Interchange

(EDI):
(a) Direct
• The direct method links the computer system of an event
management company with a major client or a supplier such as a
major beverage supplier.
(b) Indirect
• The indirect method utilises a network of various companiesÊ
computers and companies, and provides a ÂmailboxÊ for use by all.
• The advantage of this method is that the sender can transmit
document to several receivers without changing the format each
time.
4. The model blueprint which is used to develop an event management

education:
Ć General studies education.
Ć Postgraduate education
Ć Executive development.
Ć Certification.
Ć Continuing industry education.
Self-Test 2
1. Three types of hardware configuration:
(a) Online systems.
(b) PC systems.
(c) Distributed data processing.
2. Four advantages of website to an event management company:

(a) Wide market reach.
(b) Ability to update information quickly and easily.
(c) Ability to track and collect data about potential clients.
(d) Ability to cut marketing expenses.
3. Ć Internship is used to describe a supervised experience that an

undergraduate or graduate student affiliated with a college or
university receives while earning academic credit.
Ć Externship refers to the practical experience that a senior professional

employed in the event management industry receives in an
organisation other than his or her own.

154 X ANSWERS
4. Ć Direct Method
Ć Indirect Method

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


BBHM4103

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

BBHM4103

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

OUM Business School

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Suryati Abd Shukor

Moderator: Hassan Abdullah

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, July 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2010, BBHM4103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2: Event Administration 23

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.4 Function and Concepts of Management 31

Topic 3: Financial Administration 48

Topic 4: Event Coordination 59

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5: Event Marketing 74

Topic 6: Legal, Ethical and Risk Management 91

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

6.7 Occupational Safety and Health 103

Topic 7: Technology and Career Advancement 115

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 is an introductory topic which covers the theory of event management,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 explores the event financial administration. It describes the financial

Topic 4 describes event coordination as one of the event management phases,

Topic 7 describes technology and career advancement in the Twenty-first Century.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management & planning.

Watt, D. C. (1998). Event management in leisure and tourism. New York:

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

management subfields and Professional Model, as well as the event management

1.1 TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY GLOBAL EVENT

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

The most important person in event management is the event manager.

He also defines event management as a profession that requires public assembly

Figure 1.2: Three unique characteristics of the professions of event management

1.1.1 Event Management Subfields

(a) Civic Events

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(c) Fairs and Festivals

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(f) Meetings and Conferences

(g) Retail Events

(h) Social Life-cycle Events

(i) Sport Events

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

On the other hand, an external stakeholder can include:

1.1.3 The Event Management Professional Model

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.8: The event management professional model

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)