SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance is the length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The available sight distance
on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop
before reaching a stationary object in its path. Although greater lengths of visible roadway are desirable,
the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least that needed for a below-average driver
or vehicle to stop.

Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the
instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and (2) the
distance
needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are referred to as brake
reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.
 3.2.4 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways
Criteria for Design
Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles frequently overtake
slower moving vehicles. Passing maneuvers in which faster vehicles move ahead of slower vehicles
are accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing is to be accomplished without
interfering with an opposing vehicle, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead,
clear of traffic, so the passing driver can decide whether to initiate and to complete the passing maneuver
without cutting off the passed vehicle before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the
maneuver.
 3.2.5 Sight Distance for Mul􀆟lane Highways
There is no need to consider passing sight distance on highways or streets that have two or more traffic
lanes in each direction of travel. Passing maneuvers on multilane roadways are expected to occur within
the limits of the traveled way for each direction of travel. Thus, passing maneuvers that involve crossing
the centerline of four-lane undivided roadways or crossing the median of four-lane roadways should be
prohibited.
Multilane roadways should have continuously adequate stopping sight distance, with greater-than-design
sight distances preferred. Design criteria for stopping sight distance vary with vehicle speed and are
discussed
in detail in Section 3.2.2 on “Stopping Sight Distance.”

Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Curve
Superelevation
When a vehicle negociates curved path,it is subjected to an outward force known as
Centrifugal force.in order to resist this force,the outer edge of the road is generally raised
above the inner edge,this is known as superelevation or cant or banking.
i-e
V²
0. 01𝑒 + 𝑓 =
127R
Where;
e = rate of superelevation
f = side friction factor
V = Vehicle Speed ,m/s
R = Radius of curvature

Maximum Supereleva􀆟on Rates for Streets and Highways

The maximum rates of superelevation used on highways are controlled by four factors:

 climate conditions((i.e., frequency and amount of snow and ice);

 terrain conditions (i.e., flat, rolling, or mountainous);
 type of area (i.e., rural or urban);
 frequency of very slow-moving vehicles whose operation might be affected
by high superelevation rates.
The highest superelevation rate for highways in common use is 10 percent, although 12 percent is used in
some cases. Superelevation rates above 8 percent are only used in areas without snow and ice. Although
higher superelevation rates offer an advantage to those drivers traveling at high speeds, current practice
considers that rates in excess of 12 percent are beyond practical limits. This practice recognizes the
combined effects of construction processes, maintenance difficulties, and operation of vehicles at low
speeds.
Generally, 8 percent is recognized as a reasonable
maximum value for superelevation rate.
it is recommended that (1) several rates, rather than a single rate, of maximum superelevation
should be recognized in establishing design controls for highway curves, (2) a rate of 12 percent should
not be exceeded, (3) a rate of 4 or 6 percent is applicable for urban design in areas with few constraints,
and (4) superelevation may be omitted on low-speed urban streets where severe constraints are present.
To
account for a wide range of agency practice, five maximum superelevation rates—4, 6, 8, 10, and 12
percent

Minimum Radius
The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed and is determined from
the maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum side friction factor selected for design (limiting
value of f ).

i-e

V²
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
127(0.01𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
Where;
e = Maximum rate of superelevation
f = Maximum side friction factor
V = Vehicle Speed ,m/s
R = Minimum Radius of curvature,(m)

3.3.5 Design Superelevation Tables

3.3.5 Design Supereleva􀆟on Tables
 Design for Low-Speed Urban Streets
On low-speed urban streets where speed is relatively low and variable, the use of superelevation for
horizontal curves can be minimized. Where side friction demand exceeds the assumed available side
friction factor for the design speed, superelevation, within the range from the normal cross slope to
maximum superelevation, is provided.
 . Superelevation may be optional on low-speed urban streets.
 . Negative superelevation values beyond –2.0 percent should be used for unpaved surfaces such as gravel, crushed
stone, and earth. However, a normal cross slope of –2.5 percent may be used on paved surfaces in areas with
intense rainfall.
Transition Design Controls:
The superelevation transition section consists of the superelevation runoff and tangent runout sections.
The superelevation runoff section consists of the length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in
outside-lane cross slope from zero (flat) to full superelevation, or vice versa. The tangent runout section
consists of the length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from the
normal cross slope rate to zero (flat), or vice versa.
Minimum length of superelevation runoff

(𝑤𝑛1 ) 𝑒𝑑
𝐿𝑟 = (𝑏𝑤 )
𝚫
where:
Lr = minimum length of superelevation
runoff, m
w = width of one traffic lane, m
(typically 3.6 m)
n1 = number of lanes rotated
ed = design superelevation rate,
percent
bw = adjustment factor for number of
lanes rotated
Δ= maximum relative gradient,
percent
 Example:
Find length of superelevation runoff 𝐿𝑟 for design speed of 70kph,having superelevation ( e ) of
4% and a width of one lane is 3.6m.
Sol;
As we know that;
 (𝑤𝑛1 ) 𝑒𝑑
𝐿𝑟 = (𝑏𝑤 )
𝚫
For design speed of 70kph;
Δ = 0.55%

&

For one lane rotating;

𝐵𝑤 = 1
So by putting the values in equation we get

(3.6 𝑥 1) 4%
𝐿𝑟 = ( 1)
0.55%

𝐿𝑟 = 26.18𝑚
Minimum length of tangent runout:
The following equation should be used to compute the minimum tangent
runout length:

𝑒𝑁𝐶
𝐿𝑡 = (𝐿𝑟 )
𝑒𝑑
where:
Lt = minimum length of tangent runout, m

eNC = normal cross slope rate, percent

ed = design superelevation rate, percent
Lr = minimum length of superelevation runoff, m

Example:
Find the length of tangent runout having length of superelevation runoff of 26m,& the normal
crown of highway is -2% with the design superelevation of 4%.
Sol,
As we know that
𝑒𝑁𝐶
𝐿𝑡 = (𝐿𝑟 )
𝑒𝑑
By putting the values in equation we get:
0.02
𝐿𝑡 = (26)
0.04

𝐿𝑡 = 13𝑚
The tangent runout lengths determined with Equation 3-24 are listed in Table 3-17 in the 2.0 percent row.

Spiral Curve Transition

Minimum length of Spirals
Desirable length of spiral
if the desirable spiral curve length shown in Table 3-21 is less than the minimum spiral curve
length determined from Equations 3-26 and 3-27, the minimum spiral curve length should be used in
design.
Length of tangent runout
the following equation can be used to compute the tangent runout length:
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Another element of horizontal alignment is the sight distance across the inside of curves. Where there are
sight obstructions (such as walls, cut slopes, buildings, and longitudinal barriers) on the inside of curves
With sight distance for the design speed as a control, the designer should check the actual conditions on
each curve and make the appropriate adjustments to provide adequate sight distance
For example, with an 80-km/h [50-mph] design speed and a curve with a 350-m [1,150-ft] radius, a clear
sight area with a horizontal sight line offset of approximately 6.0 m [20 ft] is needed for stopping sight
distance. As another example, for a sight obstruction at a distance HSO equal to 6.0 m [20 ft]

Vertical crest curve design and sight distance requirements

In the case of a crest curve, the intervening highway pavement obstructs the visibility between driver and
object. The curvature of crest curves should be sufficiently large in order to provide adequate sight
distance for the driver. In order to provide this sight distance, the curve length L is a critical parameter.
Too great a length is costly to the developer while too short a length compromises critical concerns such
as safety and vertical clearance to structures. For vertical crest curves, the relevant parameters are:
_ The sight distance S
_ The length of the curve L
Sag Vertical Curves