Activity No. 4.

1 THE PLANT AND STEM

Systematics
I. INTRODUCTION

The body of flowering plants is composed of vegetative organs (stem, leaf, and root) and
reproductive organs (flower, fruit, and seed). The stem is the axis of the plant to which the other organs
are attached.

The stem functions primarily to support the leaves and reproductive organs, conduct materials
between the roots and leaves, and in many of the higher plants, is involved in secondary growth. The
stem possesses many structural adaptations enabling it to perform its many functions.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Plant and the Stem

The PLANT. Plants are described as terrestrial when growing and rooting in the soil and aquatic
when growing entirely or partly submerged in water. Plants like bromeliads, many ferns, orchids, etc. that
grow on other plants without taking nourishment from the host plant are epiphytes and those that take
nourishment from the host plant like members of Loranthus and Balanophora are parasites.

Plants may vary in their habit of growth and are called herbs when they do not develop persistent
woody parts above ground, and trees when they have a single distinct, erect woody stem, live from year
to year, and reach a height of 5 to 6 m or more (Fig. 1). Tree-like plants less
than 5 m tall at maturity are shrubs (other authorities restrict the term to smal, erect, woody plants which
produce several trunks from the base). Undershrubs are small shrubs less than a meter high; but all
intergrades occur between undershrubs, shrubs and trees. Vines are plants that climb either by twining,
by special organs for attachment, or by sprawling over other plants or object. Vines may be either woody
or herbaceous according to the development and permanence of woody tissue. Scadent shrubs are
woody vines with no special adaptations for climbing and usually sprawl over the other plants or objects.

According to duration, plants are annuals when growing, reproducing and dying in one year
or less, sometimes in a short as a few weeks like many herbs; biennials when completing their life cycle
in two years, producing flowers and seeds on the second year and dying like the carrot and cabbage;
and perennials when living for more than two years like all trees and shrubs and many herbaceous plants
whose aboveground parts die back at the end of the growing season, the underground stems and roots
sending out new growth in the next growing season. Biennials are common in temperate regions but rare
in the tropics.

THE STEM. The axis of the plant to which all other plant parts are attached is the stem. The
portions on the stem or its branches where the leaves are attached are the nodes while the parts in
between the nodes are the internodes. The leaf, at its attachment to the stem forms an angle with the
latter known as the leaf axil. Buds arise from the leaf axils. A stem with its attached leaves is known as a
shoot. Stems are said to be armed when with spines or thorns and unarmed when without spines or
thorns. The stem is also referred to as a caudex

The stem is very evident in most plants, but in some species, it is entirely underground. Plants
with no obvious stem above ground, appearing to bear only leaves and flower-stalks, are called stemless
or acaulescent. Stems above ground may be simple when without apparent branches or forks or
branched when with branches or forks. Stems vary in their texture, they are herbaceous when forming
no persistent woody tissue; suffrutescent when more or less woody or half-woody, at least at the base;
and woody when forming persistent woody tissue lasting from year to year as in all shrubs and trees.

According to direction stems are erect, that is rising straight up from the base; ascending per
rising obliquely; decumbent, more or less reclining on the ground at or near the base, the upper part
being erect or ascending; prostrate, lying flat on the ground; creeping, closely appressed to the ground
and rooting at the nodes; climbing or scandent, ascending by means of the support, offered by other
plants or objects, by the use of tendrils, special spirally twisted organs, rootlets, or by other means; and
twining, climbing by coiling about other stems or objects.

The different types of arrangement of branches and leaves are: alternate or spiral, that is, one is
borne at each node on one side, and the next above or below borne towards the opposite side; distichous,
one is borne at each node the next one borne 180° away, the leaves regularly arranged one above
another in two opposite rows; opposite, that is, two are borne at the same node, one on each side of the
stem; whorled or verticillate, three or more are borne at the same node arranged regularly around the
stem; fascicled or fasciculate, two or more are borne at the same node on the same side of the stem;
and decussate when each succeeding pair in opposite arrangement is oriented at right angles to the
preceding pair. When all leaves on the stem is also known as phyllotaxy.

Special kinds of stems or branches are the culm, the hollow or solid stems of the grasses with
well-defined nodes and internodes; sucker, a branch arising from the stem of from roots underground of
from adventitious bud on the trunk or larger branches of shrubs or trees, the latter being called stem
suckers; and stolon, a branch from above ground that becomes prostrate and strikes root at the tip or
nodes, producing new plants.

Some modified stems are underground stems like the rhizome or rootstock, a creeping stem
growing beneath the ground surface and may be slender, bearing scales (modified leaves) at the nodes
as in the mint (Yerba buena), various perennial grasses, etc., or thick and fleshy, as the ginger (luya).
Other authorities use the terms rhizome or rootstock only when the horizontal, underground stem is thick
and fleshy, calling the slender, horizontal underground stem stolon or runner. A tuber is a stout, thickened
end portion of a slender underground stem as in the potato while a corm is a vertical, short, thick and
fleshy underground stem. Usually sending off numerous roots from the lower part, and leaves and flower
stalks from the upper part as in the taro (gabi). A bulb is made up of a small disk-like stem, with attached
thickened scales (leaf bases) and may be tunicated bulbs when the scales closely enwrap each other as
in the onion or scaly bulbs when the scales are narrow.

II. Procedure

Study the terms used in the description of the plant and the stem referring to available references
for additional information. Compete Fig.1. Label the sketches in the figure and make your own sketches,
if necessary, to illustrate the different descriptive terms.

Following the instructions of your teacher, and using your scissors or cutter collect and tag a
Specified number of specimens or shoots. Take note of characters that may be available (observable) in
the whole plant but not available in your specimen (e.g. the plant may be woody, but your shoot specimen
may be herbaceous because it is still immature).

Place your specimens completely inside a plastic bag to prevent wilting. In the laboratory place
your specimens in a bottle half-filled with water to keep the specimens fresh.

Referring to your notes and the laboratory manual, describe the following characters for each of
the specimens. Describe the mature condition. Write your answers in the ruled sheet.

a. Habit of growth d. Direction

b. Stem type (simple or branched?) e. Phyllotaxy
c. Texture
1. Tree 2. Shrub 3. Undershrubs 4. Herb 5. Vine 6. Stemless

7. Simple 8. Branched 9. Erect 10. Ascending 11. Decumbent 12. Prostate

17. Stolon or
13. Creeping 14. Climbing 15. Twinning 16. Rhizome runner 18. Tuber

19. Corm 20. Bulb 21. Opposite 22. Whorled 23. Fascicled 24. Spiral

25. Alternate 26. Distichous 27. Decussate

Figure 1. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with drawings for types of habitat (1-5), types of stems (6-
8), direction of stem (9-15), direction of stem (9-15), forms of underground stems (16-20), and types of
phyllotaxy or leaf arrangement. Refer to the definition of terms in the text.
 Activity No. 4.2 THE LEAF
Systematics

I. Introduction

The leaf organ may be distinguished by the following criteria: a) it is attached at the node the stem
b) as a general rule, a bud is found at the leaf axil, and c) a leaf does not have nodes internodes or leaves
attached at nodes. It is helpful to remember that a bud may develop into a shoot or a flower later on.
When a leaf falls from the plant, it leaves a leaf scar where the leaf stalk as attached to the stem.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Leaf

The typical complete leaf is composed of flattened portion, the blade and the leaf-stalk which
connects the blade to the stem. In dicots, a pair of foliaceous (thin and leaf-like) or membranaceous or
variously shape processes called stipules are found one on each side of the base of the leaf-stalk. The
leaf is referred to as stipulate if the stipules are present and exstipulate if the stipules are absent or
wanting. The stipules may be modified as prickles or tendrils, or they may sheath the stem being then
called ocreate. The leaf-stalk is called a petiole when it is more or less round in cross section as in dicots,
and a leaf-sheath when it is flattened with its base or the entire leaf-stalk partly or completely encircling
or sheathing the stem as in monocots. Some monocot leaves have a flattened, tongue-like process, the
ligule found on the inner side at the junction of the leaf blade and the leaf-sheath or petiole. In its normal
position, the ligule is usually pressed against the stem sealing and the leaf-sheath or petiole.

The upper surface of the leaf is the adaxial (towards the body axis) surface, while the lower
surface is called the abaxial (away from the body axis) surface. The lower end of the blade attached to
the leaf-stalked is the base while the opposite end is the tip and the outer edges of the blade is the
margin. In most leaves, there is a major vein much stronger than the others, the midrib running along the
center of the blade from base to tip from which smaller veins, the primary branches or lateral veins or
nerves branch off into the blade producing branches in turn and anastomosing or connecting with each
other. The ultimate divisions are called veinlets or nervules. The arrangement of the veins is known as
venation.

According to type, a leaf is simple when the blade is of one piece, regardless of how much it may
be cut up, and compound when the blade is divided into two or more separate parts called leaflets with
stalks called petiolules. The extension of the petiole above the lowest leaflets in compound leaves is
called the rachis. Some compound leaves have their leaflets or petiolules subtended by variously shaped,
usually small appendages called stipels, corresponding to the stipules of the leaves. Leaflets are
stipellate when stipels are present and exstipellate when stipels are absent corresponding to stipulate
and exstipulate as applied to the entire leaf.

According to insertion, leaves are cauline when they are attached on the aerial stem and radical
when the leaves or the flowers are borne on a short stem with short internodes close to the ground in
acaulescent plants. Radical leaves that are spread in a circle on the ground forming a rosette are called
rosulate. A leaf without a leaf-stalk is called sessile. Sessile leaves are called amplexical or stem clasping
when the leaf-base clasps the stem; perfoliate when the lobes meet around the stem so that the blade
appears as though it were pierced by the stem; decurrent when the lower edges of the leaf extend
downward along the stem as ridges or wings; and sheáthing when the base of the blade is attached more
or less encircling the stem (Fig.2a).

The two main kinds of venation are: parallel venation when the apparent veins (visible to the
unaided eye) run parallel to each other not dividing and subdividing to form meshes; and netted venation
or reticulate venation when the apparent veins branch and rebranch into finer and finer veinlets which
unite with each other to form apparent meshes. Parallel-veined leaves are simple parallel when the veins
run from the base or near the base to the apex or near the apex; and pinnate parallel or pinniparallel
when the veins run from the midrib to the margins. Netted-veined leaves are pinnate net or pinnately
netted when major veins run from the side of the midrib to the margins and palmate net on palmately
netted or digitately nerved or, in peltate leaves, radiately nerved when several equally strong veins radiate
from the top of the petiole.

Palmately netted leaves, with the veins all starting from the base are called 3-nerved, 5- nerved,
etc., according to the number of major nerves, but when some of the major veins start just above the
base, they are called 3-plinerved, 5-plinerved etc. When the nerves are obscured and not evident to the
naked eye, they are referred to as obsolete or wanting.

According to shape or outline leaves may be linear when very narrow with nearly parallel margins
and several times longer than wide; lanceolate when shaped more or less like a lance, three or more
times as long as wide, broadest below and tapering upward or both upward and downward; oblanceolate
the reverse of lanceolate, widest above the middle and tapering downward; oblong when two or three
times as long as wide, the sides nearly parallel and not conspicuously narrowed; elliptic when shaped
like an ellipse, broadest at the middle. tapering more or less equally to the base and tip, the width not
distinctly more than one half of the length; oval when somewhat like elliptic but the width distinctly more
than one half of the length; ovate when twice or less as long as wide, widest below the middle and more
or less narrowed upward; obovate, the reverse of ovate, widest above the middle and tapering downward;
orbicular when circular in outline; spatulate when narrow, more or less rounded above, and tapering from
near the apex to the base; cuneate or wedge-shaped when broad above, tapering by nearly straight lines
to the base; falcate when more or less curve; flabellate or fan-shaped when broad and rounded at the
top, narrowed below like a fan; deltoid when broad below tapering upwards and shaped like a triangle;
reniform when broader than long, shaped somewhat like a kidney.

Combinations like ovate-lanceolate, oval-elliptic, etc., are used to describe intermediate forms
while oblong to elliptic means both oblong and elliptic leaves are on the same plant or oval to obovate
means both kinds are on the same plant. The prefix "sub" when prefixing a root word should be read as
almost (e.g. suborbicular means almost orbicular).

The different types of leaf tips or apexes (Fig.2b) are: rounded, that is, broad and semicircular in
outline; truncate, cut off square or nearly so; acute, ending in acute angle with the sides straight;
acuminate, pointed, but tapering lines incurved; obtuse, blunt or narrowly rounded; retuse, slightly
notched at the apex (authors like Porter, 1967 and Henderson et al., 1963 defines retuse as having a
broad shallow or rounded notch at the apex); emarginated, prominently notched at the apex; obcordate,
with a sinus and two-rounded lobes; cuspidate, tipped with a cusp or sharp point; mucronate, abruptly
tipped by a small short point, aristate, the mucronate point is longer and more or less bristle-like; and
caudate, similar to aristate but the appendage broader and not bristle-like. Some or all of those terms are
also applicable to the base of the leaf and to other organs of the plant.

The base of the leaf may be cordate or heart-shaped when the outline of its rounded base is
turned in forming a sinus where the petiole is attached; auricled or eared, when with a pair of small
projections at the base; sagitate or arrow-shaped when the ears or lobes are acute and turned
downwards; hastate when the acute basal lobes point outwards and oblique or inequilateral when the
two sides of the base are unequal or not at the same level. A peltate or shield-shaped leaf has the petiole
attached to the lower surface and towards the center of the blade some distance from the base, the ribs
or veins of the leaf radiating from the point of insertion, the leaf appearing somewhat like an umbrella.
1. Stem clasping 2. Perfoliate 3. Decurrent 4. Sheathing 5. Simple parallel

8. Palmate net (3-

6. Pinnate parallel 7. Pinnate net nerved) 9. Radiately nerved 10. Linear

11. Lanceolate 12. Oblong 13. Elliptic 14. Oval 15. Cordate

16. Orbicular 17. Spatulate 18. Cuneate 19. Falcate 20. Fan-shaped

21. Reniform

Figure 2a. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with drawings for types of sessile leaves (1-4), types of
venation (5-9) and leaf outline (10-21). Measure to the nearest mm the length (L) and width (W) of sketches
no. 10-15 and record the measurements where indicated. Check if the length-width relationship for that type of
leaf outline is satisfied. Refer to the definition of terms in the text.
 The different types of margin in simple leaves are: entire, that is, even, without teeth or
indentations, serrate, with sharp teeth pointing forward (towards the tip) like the teeth of a saw; serrulate,
diminutive of serrate; dentate or toothed, with sharp teeth pointing outward, not forward; denticulate,
diminutive of dentate; crenate, with rounded teeth; crenulate, diminutive of crenate repand or undulate
with a wavy margin; sinuate, strongly undulate; incised or cut, with deep, sharp, irregular teeth; lobed,
deeply cut, but the incisions not reaching much more than halfway to the midrib; cleft, almost like lobed,
but the incisions extend more than halfway to the midrib; parted, with incisions extending nearly to the
midrib; and divided, with incisions extending quite to the midrib. According to the number of lobes, clefts,
etc., leaves may be 5-lobed, 7-cleft, many-cleft. etc.

In pinnately-veined simple leaves the incisions all point toward the midrib, and in palmately veined
ones they point toward the apex of the petiole. Pinnately veined leaves may be pinnately-lobed, pinnately
cleft or pinnatifid, pinnately-parted, and pinnately-divided or pinnatisect. In palmately veined leaves the
same combinations are applied with palmately substituted for pinnately. When using the number of lobes
or divisions, we may have palmately 3-lobed, 3-cleft or trifid, 3- parted leaves, etc. and with higher
numbers palmately many-lobe, -many-cleft or multifid, etc. The same combinations are made with the
substitution of pinnate for palmate.

There are two principal kinds of compound leaves, corresponding to the principal kinds of division
in simple leaves, pinnately compound and palmately compound. Pinnate compound leaves are those
where the leaflets are attached along the sides of a main stalk or rachis, the leaflets corresponding to the
lobes of a simple, pinnately lobed leaf. When there is an odd or end leaflet, such leaves are termed odd-
pinnate, uneven pinnate, or imparipinnate and when there is no odd terminal leaflet they are called evenly
or abruptly pinnate. Simple pinnate compound leaves are those with a double row of leaflets along an
unbranched rachis; bipinnate or twice pinnate or 2-pinnate leaves are those where the rachis bears
branches, the branches bearing the leaflets in which cases the branches are termed pinnae; the division
may be carried still further and we may have 3- or tripinnate, 4-or quadripinnate or pinnately
decompounds leaves, etc.

A simple palmate compound leaf has the leaflets attached to the tip of the petiole and when there
are only three leaflets, the leaf is called a ternate leaf. The division may be carried further in twice palmate
or when the division is in three's, twice ternate or biternate; if the division goes still further the leaf is
called palmately decompound.

According to the number of leaflets, leaves are called 1-foliolate, or unifoliolate; 2-foliolate or
bifoliolate; 3-foliolate or trifoliolate, etc.; and pinnately 5-foliolate; palmately trifoliolate, etc. In pinnately
compound leaves the terms 2-or bijugate, 3-or trijugate, multijugate, (juga= pairs) etc., are used to
express the number of pairs of leaflets, pinnae, etc. The terms ternate (in three's) and binate (in pairs)
are also used to refer to the number of other parts or units (e.g. inflorescences)

Special forms of leaves include equitant, with the leaves more or less vertical, each leaf
overlapping the next as if they were folded together lengthwise; plicate, folded into pleats like a fan;
acicular, very slender and sharp, like needles; and subulate or awl-shaped, narrow and tapering from the
base to a fine tip. Leaves may be modified and reduced in size as bracts or as smaller scale leaves.

As to consistence, leaves (and other plant parts) are fleshy, that is, thick and soft; succulent, with
more juice; coriaceous, firm or tough like leather; chartaceous, paper-like in texture; and
membranaceous, thin and more or less flexible.
1. Rounded 2. Truncate 3. Acute 4. Acuminate 5. Obtuse 6. Retuse

7. Emarginate 8. Obcordate 9. Cuspidate 10. Mucronate 11. Aristate 12. Caudate

13. Cordate 14. Auricle 15. Sagitate 16. Hastate 17. Peltate 18. Oblique

19. Entire 20. Serrate 21. Dentate 22. Crenate 23. Repand 24. Sinuate

30. (Uneven)
pinnate
25. Cut 26. 5-lobed 27. 5-cleft 28. 5-parted cleft 29. 5-divided compound

31. Simple pinnate

compound 32. Bipinnate 33. Ternate leaf 34. Twice ternate

Fig. 2b. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with drawings for types of leaf tips (1-12), leaf bases
(13-18) and compound leaves (30-34). Refer to the definition of terms in the text.
 Surfaces of leaves, stems, fruits, and other plant parts may be glabrous, smooth and withoutany
projections; glabrescent, becoming glabrous at maturity; rugose, wrinkled or with irregular raised and
depressed lines; striate, marked with parallel lines; scabrid, roughened by small projections; tuberculate,
covered with small wart-like projections (other authors use verrucose for tuberculate and verruculose as
the diminutive); muricate, with protuberances that are hard and pointed; and echinate, with projections
that are stiffer and longer, almost awn-like.

The indumentums or covering of leaves and other organs may be pubescent, with fine soft hairs;
puberulent, with very short and soft hairs; pilose, with long and soft hairs; hirsute, with stiff and spreading
hairs; hispid, with short, stiff bristly hairs; strigose, with short, stiff hairs closely appressed to the surface,
all pointing in one direction; tomentose, wooly or lanate, with soft hairs more or less matted together;
cansecent, with grayish hairs not distinct to the naked eye; mealy or farinose, with very short hairs with
the appearance of meal, glaucous, with pale-bluish or bluish green waxy bloom, glaucuscent, almost
glaucous and furfuraceous, scurfy or lepidote, covered with small, spreading scales.

Leaves and other plant parts like pedicels, petals, sepals, etc. may be more or less covered with
small waxy glands, being then called glandular.

II. Procedure

Study the terms use in the description of leaves referring to available references for additional
information. Label the sketches in the figures after referring to the definitions of the descriptive terms.
Indicate the length (L) and width (W) to the nearest millimeter (mm) of some of the sketches illustrating
leaf outline where there is a length-width relationship required, by measuring the sketch. If necessary,
make sketches to illustrate the different descriptive terms.

Collect specimens of leaves as instructed by your teacher by cutting off with a pair of scissors or
a cutter a short length of shoot containing both young and mature leaves. Tag each specimen and place
them inside a plastic bag making sure no part of the plant extends outside the bag to prevent wilting or
drying up and bring your specimens to the laboratory. Keep your specimens fresh by immersing their cut
ends in water in a bottle.

Describe the leaves of each specimen following the guide below:

a. Leaf type (simple or compound?) If compound, describe only b below:

If simple, describe b to f. b. Specific type of compound leaf
b. Venation (specific)
C. Outline
d. Tip
c. Base
f. Margin
 Activity No. 4.3 THE FLOWER AND THE INFLORESCENCE
Systematics

I. Introduction

The flower is one of the reproductive organs of the following plants. In size, flowers vary fromthe
common duck-weed found floating in ponds whose flowers are scarcely visible to the unaided eve to the
giant flower of the parasitic. Rafflesia arnoldii of the dark tropical forest floor of the Malay Archipelago
that may measure a little over a meter in diameter. Flowers of the several species of Rafflesia in the
Philippines are less than a meter wide. Of all the parts of angiosperms, the flower is the least affected by
environmental changes. This constancy of the floral structure makes flowers and the fruits derived from
them, the most important plant parts for the classification of flowering plants.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Flower

The flower is considered as a modified shoot, i.e. an axis (stem) to which are attached the
modified leaves -sepals, petals, and other floral organs. A typical flower is composed of four concentric
circles or whorls of organs namely, from outermost to innermost a) the calyx composed of individual
sepals b) the corolla composed of individual petals c) the androecium composed ofindividual stamens
and d) the gynoecium composed of individual carpels. The floral whorls arise from the receptacle the
usually enlarged end of the pedicel or flower stalk. The floral parts are distinct or free when they are not
fused with each other and are united when they are variously fused. One or more of the floral whorls may
be absent in the flower.

The sepals are usually green, leaflike, firmer in texture and enclose the other floral parts in the
bud. The petals are leaflike, thinner in texture and generally, are larger and may be white or variously
colored. When the petals are distinctly stalked, the stalk is called the claw and the broad part of the claw,
the lamina. Some flowers in cultivated plants consist wholly of floral envelopes, and these are known as
double flowers as in the rose, some cultivated species of Hibiscus (gumamela), and others. The sepals
and the petals are the sterile organs of the flower and the calyx and corolla are collectively called perianth.

The fertile organs of the flower are the stamens and the carpels. The stamens form a whorl lying
inside the corolla and encircling the carpels. Each stamen consists if a slender stalk or filament with the
anther, containing the dust-like usually yellow pollen, attached at its tip. The filament may be petaloid
when flattened and broad. Underdeveloped or imperfect stamens are called staminodes.

The carpel, the basic unit of the gynoecium, has three parts: the enlarged basal portion, the ovary
which bears the ovules or rudimentary seeds inside the cavity called a locule; the style, a slender tapering
stalk arising from the ovary and bearing at its tip, the stigma a variously shaped, often small, usually the
apical part of the style with a moist surface to which the pollen may adhere.

The term pistil is applied to each individual structure in the gynoecium. Thus, a pistil may be
composed of a single carpel (simple pistil) or it may be composed of two or more carpels fused together
(compound pistil). In some flowers, there may be two or more separate (distinct or free) carpels, each
single and separate carpel referred to as a pistil. A simple pistil has a simple ovary with one cavity (one-
celled) while a compound pistil has a compound or syncarpous ovary with two or more cavities (2- or
many-celled). A cell may be derived from the locule of a single carpel, or it may be derived from two or
more locules of two or more fused carpels by the secondary breakdown of the walls (septa) between the
fused ovaries. Modern concepts of floral structure have rendered the meaning of the ancient term pistil
somewhat inexact but it is still a convenient term for referring to the individual parts of the gynoeciumn.

Flowers may be solitary when borne singly, each flower subtended by a foliage leaf, or they may
be variously grouped into an inflorescence, several flowers in a cluster borne on a common axis (Fig.3).
Solitary flowers may be pedicelled when supplied with a stalk or pedicel, or sessile when the pedicel is
absent. The stalk of the inflorescence is the peduncle.

According to insertion a solitary flower or an inflorescence is terminal, when it terminates a branch;

axillary when borne in the axils of the leaves; extra-axillary when borne on the internodes between the
nodes or axils, leaf-opposed when borne opposite a leaf; cauline when borme on the stem below the
leaves; and radical when seemingly borne on the root but actually borne on a very short stem with very
short internodes. In an inflorescence that is radical in position the peduncle is referred to as a scape and
the plant scapose.

There are various forms of the inflorescence. A raceme or racemose inflorescence has pedicelled
flowers borne along the sides of a simple undivided axis or rachis; a spike or spicate inflorescence is
similar to a raceme, but the flowers are sessile; a panicle or paniculate inflorescence has the axis if rachis
divided regularly into branches which bear two or more pedicelled or sessile flowers, and is usually more
or less open (the terminal flower or inner flower opens last); an umbel or umbellate inflorescence has
pedicelled flowers all arising from the apex of the peduncle, the pedicels arranged like the ribs of an
umbrella; a head or capitate inflorescence is similar to an umbel but the flowers are sessile and arranged
in a dense globose mass at the expanded apex of the peduncle; a corymb or corymbose inflorescence
has the pedicels and branches of the axis starting from the different points but attaining the same level,
the lower branches or pedicels longer than the upper ones, and having a flat or nearly flat top, the outer
flowers opening first; a cyme or cymose inflorescence is similar to a corymb but is closed (the inner
flowers open first) and often the parts arranged in threes; a dichasium has only three flowers, the central
flower opening first and the two below, one on each side opening last (a cyme is also defined as a
compound dichasium); a fascicle has sessile or pedicelled flowers and crowded, usually axillary; catkin
or ament is a short or long usually dense, scaly spike; a spadix is a dry or fleshy spike with small flowers,
the whole surrounded by an enveloping organ called a spathe, as in the taro (gabi). Inflorescence with
flowers occurring in pairs are said to be binate.

Flowers and inflorescences often have small or large, often leaf-like organs, called bracts or
bracteoles. When present, bracts are found under each branch or branchlet of the inflorescence
(bracteate), while bracteoles are borne on or at the base of the pedicels of the flowers (bracteolate).
When they are absent, the corresponding terms are ebracteate and ebracteolate. Some authors apply
the term bract to the leaf-like structures subtending one flower. The term involucre is applied to the whorl
of bracts or bracteoles at a node enveloping an inflorescence or a flower. The usually dry bracts enclosing
the flowers in the grasses and sedges are called glumes while the inner chaff-like scales in the heads of
certain Compositae, the inner scales of grasses, the scales on the rootstocks and stipes of ferns, etc.,
are called paleae (sing. palea).

A flower is complete when all four whorls or sets of organs are present and incomplete when one
or three of the whorls of organs are absent. When the stamens and the carpels are present and fully
developed, regardless of whether the perianth is present or absent, the flower is called perfect, bisexual,
or hermaphroditic. When one of the fertile sets of organs is imperfect or wanting, the flower is called
imperfect or unisexual. Imperfect flowers may be staminate or male when with stamens but no or only
rudimentary carpels and carpellate (pistillate) or female when with carpels but nor or only rudimentary
stamens.

Incomplete flowers are naked when both calyx and corolla are absent and apetalous when the
corolla is absent and only the calyx is present. When there is but one set of floral envelopes present it is
always considered to be the calyx, the petal-like sepals referred to as petaloid.

Plants are called monoecious when both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant
as in Cucurbita maxima (squash), dioecious when male flowers are borne on one individual and female
flowers on another as in Antidesma (bignay); and polygamous when both perfect and imperfect flowers
(either male or female) are borne on the same plant.
 A flower is regular when all parts of each whorl of organs are of like size and shape and irregular
when some parts of one or more whorls of organs differ from other parts of the same whorl either in
shape, size or both. A corolla with all petals being the same in shape or size is called regular corolla and
if the petals are of different shape or size, an irregular corolla. One must therefore check if what is being
referred to is a regular flower or a regular corolla, an irregular flower or an irregular corolla. Remember a
flower may be irregular even if it has a regular corolla. Some authors consider a flower irregular if any of
its whorls is irregular but other authors consider a flower irregular only if the calyx and/or corolla is
irregular. One should find out the particular usage employed in a book or manual.

Flowers are symmetrical when the parts of all whorls of organs are the same in number or in
multiples of the prevailing number and unsymmetrical when there is a variation from the standard number
in one or more whorls of organs. Flowers are called 3-merous or trimerous, when the parts are in threes,
5-merous or pentamerous when the parts are in fives, etc. According to the number of stamens, plants
with 1,2,3, or many stamens, are called monandrous, diandrous, trianrous or polyandrous respectively.
Those with two long and two short stamens in the flower are called didynamous and those with four long
and two short stamens are called tetradynamous. Plants with 1,2,3, or many petals in the flower are
referred to as monopetalous, dipetalous, tripetalous or polypetalous respectively.

As to the union of parts, the term connate refers to the union of the parts of the same whorl or
organs and adnate refers to the union of the parts of one whorl of organs to the parts of another whorl of
organs. When the sepals are more or less united, the calyx is said to be gamosepalous or synsepalous
and when they are quite free from each other, as polysepalous or choricepalous. Corresponding terms
expressing the union or non-union of the organs of the corolla are gamopetalous or sympetalous and
polypetalous or choripetalous respectively.

The gamopetalous corolla usually has three parts, the tube which is the contracted part below,
the limb which is the spreading part above, and the throat which is the junction between the tube and the
limb. In flowers with regular gamopetalous corollas, the shape of the corolla may be tubular, that is,
elongated and shaped like a tube or cylinder; funnel-shaped, gradually spreading from near the base to
the apex; campanulate, with a broad and rather short tube widening upward like a bell; salver-shaped,
the tube is cylindric and the limb spreads more or less perpendicular to the tube, the limb or its lobes
being shorter than the tube; rotate or stellate, the limb or its lobes are longer than the tube and spread
radiately from the much shorter tube, the flower looking like a wheel or star; and urceolate, the tube is
ovoid or globose, contracted above into a short neck and again expanded in a narrow limb like an urn.

Flowers with irregular corollas may be papilionaceous when consisting of five petals of different
shapes and sizes: one large distinct, upper and outer (most posterior) petal called the
standard or vexillum, two lateral petals usually smaller than the standard and very different in shape
called the wings, and two lower and usually smaller petals which are often slightly connate and
resembling the prow of a boat, called the keel. The caesalpinaceous flower is similar to the
papilionaceous flower but the standard is the smallest and most anterior petal. Irregular corollas that
gamopetalous may be labiates when the limb is 2-lipped, the two upper lobes more or less uniting to from
the upper lip and the three lower lobes uniting to form the lower lip; and ligulate or strap- shaped when
the tube is short opening out into an elongated narrow, flat, strap-like appendage as in the ray flowers of
some of the Compositae.

The arrangement of the petals and sepals in the bud or the flower may be valvate when their
edges touch each other but do not overlap; imbricate when they overlap to a lesser or greater degree
and plicate when they are folded in longitudinal pleats.
1. Solitary 2. Inflorescence 3. Terminal 4. Axillary 5. Extra-axillary

6. Leaf-opposed 7. Cauline 8. Radical 9. Raceme 10. Spike

11. Panicle 12. Umbel 13. Head 14. Corymb 15. Cyme

16. Fascicle 17. Catkin 18. Spadix 19. Tubular 20. Funnel-shaped

21. Campanulate 22. Salver-shaped 23. Rotate 24. Urceolate 25. Labiates

26. Ligulates
Figure 3. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with drawings for types of solitary flower (1), inflorescence
(2), position of flower or inflorescence (3,8), form of inflorescence (9-18), form of the regular gamopetalous
corolla (19-24), and form of the irregular gamopetalous corolla. Refer to the definition of terms in text.
III. Procedure

Study the descriptive terms for flowers by referring to available references for additional
information, then complete Figure 3 and make sketches, if necessary, to illustrate some of the terms.

Collect specimens of different flowers as instructed by the teacher. With your cutting instrument,
remove a flowering branch, a shoot bearing flowers. Tag and keep the specimens in a closed plastic bag
to keep them from drying up and bring them to the laboratory. Immerse the cut lower ends of the
specimens in water in a bottle to keep them fresh.

Examine the flowers and/or the inflorescences. Dissect away the different floral parts to determine
the structure of each flower specimen. Use a glass or a Petri dish to hold any specimen that you examine
or dissect under the microscope. When using the 4X objective of the compound light microscope, adjust
the mirror to see a different detail of the specimen. It may be necessary to keep the mirror vertical and to
use incident light falling on the specimen to see surface details of whole or thick specimens. Use different
lighting conditions to see details.

Describe the following characters for each specimen.

a. Flowers solitary or arranged in an inflorescence? If inflorescence, give the form.

b. Insertion of flower (if solitary) or insertion of inflorescence.

Characters of the flower:

c. Pedicelled or sessile?
d. Complete or incomplete? If incomplete, specific type.
e. Perfect or imperfect? If imperfect, specific type of imperfect flower.
f. Regular or irregular?
g. Type of calyx based on union or non-union of parts.
h. Type of corolla based on union or non-union of parts; if petal united, corolla shape.

Remove any slide from the stage before you return your microscope to the stockroom.
 Activity No. 4.4 THE STAMEN, CARPEL AND THE CROSS FLORAL DIAGRAM
Systematics

I. Introduction

The stamens and the carpels are the fertile organs of the flower. The stamens form a whorl,
the androecium, which surrounds the whorl of carpels of the gynoecium.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Stamens and Carpels

The principal parts of the stamen are the filament and anther described above. Stamens are
usually structurally different from petals but in a few cases, they pass by gradual intergradations into
petals. Stamens are called monadelphous when united by their filaments in a single group or cluster;
diadelphous when in two groups; triadelphous when in three groups, etc. The filaments may be entirely
united, forming a globose or cylindric tube, known as the stamina tube, bearing the nathers either on the
outside, the inside or at its apex. When united by their anthers, the stamens are called syngenesious.

As to their position stamens are exserted when they extend beyond the corolla or perianth and
included when they do not (Fig,4a). When the stamens are turned to one side or downward, they are
called declinate.

The stamens differ in terms of their insertion or attachment. They are epipetalous when inserted
on the corolla; hypogynous when inserted on the receptacle; perigynous when inserted on the calyx- tube
or a structure called the hypanthium, an outgrowth from the base of the gynoecium axis giving arise to
stamens, petals and sepals; epigynous when apparently borne on the ovary. In gamopetalous corollas,
epipetalous stamens may be inserted on the tube or on the throat of the corolla and when the stamens
arch over so as to meet, they are said to be conniving or connivent. The term hypogynous, perigynous
and epigynous are also used to describe the insertion of petals and sepals.

The anther is described as sessile when the filament is wanting. According to attachment the
anther is adnate when attached by its base and versatile when attached by a point near the middle. As
to its position, the anther is introrse when it faces inward and extrorse when it faces outward. Usually,
the anther has two cells, but in some the number may be 1, 3 or 4. The pollen in the cells are allowed to
escape when the cells open by longitudinal slits, by valves, or by pores. As stated above, rudimentary,
imperfect or sterile stamens are called staminodes.

In some carpels or pistils, the style is frequently wanting, the stigma then being called sessile.
Pistils are stipitate if stalked and sessile if without a stalk. The ovary is inferior when the other floral organs
i.e. the perianth and the stamens appear as though they were inserted on the top of the ovary
(epigynous); superior when it is inserted on the receptacle and free from the other floral organs which are
also inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous); and half-superior or half-inferior when the other floral
organs are inserted midway between the top and base of the ovary either on the calyx-tube or a
hypanthium (perigynous). When the ovary is inferior the calyx (and corolla) is superior and when the
ovary is superior the calyx (and corolla) is inferior.

The parts of the ovary wall on which the ovules are borne is called the placenta. The placenta
may be basal when located at the bottom of the cell; parietal when on the side of the ovary wall in a
simple ovary or on the outer wall in compound ovaries; and axile when the ovules are attaché to the
center or axis in many-celled or compound ovaries. In a one-celled ovary the ovules may be attached
around a stalk-like projection arising from the bottom of the cell, the placenta being then called free
central. As stated earlier, a cell may be derived from the locule of one carpel or due to breakdown of
septa, from two or more locules of a compound ovary.
 As to direction ovules erect when arising upright from the base of the cell; pendulous when
hanging from the side or near the top; suspended when hanging from the apex of the cell; and horizontal
when directed neither up or down. Ovules are said to be superposed when placed or stacked on top of
another, the ovule above in contact with the one below.

THE GRASS FLOWER. The grass flower differs from the typical angiosperm flower (Fig.4b). The typical
grass flower as exemplified by the grains is generally small and called a floret. The floret is supported by
a slender stalk, the rachilla, the whole enclosed by two bracts, an outer and usually larger lemma and a
smaller palea which is frequently enclosed by the larger lemma. The lemma may have a long slender
awn attaché to it. The androecium consists of three stamens while the gynoecium composed of two fused
carpels. The perianth parts may be represented by two small protuberances, the lodicules found at the
base of the floral parts. The flowers may be imperfect as in the corn where the tassel contains th staminate
flowers and the ear contains the pistillate flowers. The pistillate flowers lack bracts.

The florets are associated into groups known as spikelets with each spikelet separated from
neighboring spikelets by two small modified leaves or bracts known as glumes found at the base of the
spikelet or completely enclosing it. The florets and the spikelets are organized into a head, spike or
panicle type of inflorescence.

B. The Cross Floral Diagram

The cross floral diagram is a sketch of a cross section of the flower representing the different
floral parts with standard symbols (Fig. 4c) and showing the parts as if they are found at the same level.
The diagram shows the parts of each whorl, their number, arrangement, union or non-union of parts, the
symmetry of the flower and whether the flower is regular or irregular. To show the union of parts e.g.
union of petals, the petal symbols are connected with a line (see Fig.4d). For an epigynous flower the
symbols for sepals, petals and stamens are all connected by lines to the symbol for the carpel or carpels.
If a flower is incomplete, the symbols for the missing organs are not shown. Thus, the standard symbols
can be arranged together to make the cross floral diagram of any flower. The cross floral diagram shows
at a glance many of the characteristics of a group making it a useful aid in determination and
classification.

I. Procedure

Study the terms used in the description of the stamens and carpels of the flower and the symbols
used for the construction of cross floral diagrams. Complete Fig.4. Refer to references for more
information. Make sketches if needed, to illustrate the descriptive terms. Sketch a few cross floral
diagrams to illustrate variation in floral structure.

Collect specimens of different flowers as instructed by your teacher. Tag each specimen and keep
them in a closed plastic bag until you return to the laboratory. Immerse the cut lower ends of the
specimens in water in a bottle.

Study the flower specimens. Remove some stamens using your dissecting needles and mount
them on a slide or place them on a petri dish. Examine under the microscope. Make longitudinal sections
of the pistil and cross sections or the ovary. Study the longitudinal first and the number then the cross
section. Count the number of ovules seen in the cross and the long sections of the ovary. From your data
determine the number of ovules in the ovary. Show the mounted specimens to your teacher. Consider
the following questions in your analysis of the flower.
1. Exserted 2. Included 3. Epipetalous 4. Hypogynous 5. Perigynous 6. Epigynous

7. Adnate 8. Versatile 9. Introrse 10. Extrorse 11. Inferior 12. Superior

13. Half-superior 14. Basal 15. Parietal 16. Axile 17. Free central 18. Erect

19. Pendulos 20. Suspended 21. Horizontal

Figure 4a. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with drawings for position of stamen (1-2), insertion of
stamen (3-6), insertion of stamen (3-6), insertion of anther (7-8), position of anther (9-10), position of ovary
(11-13), type of placenta (14-17) and direction of ovule (18-21).

1. Five-floret spikelet 2. One-floret spikelet 3. Opened one-floret spikelet

Figure 4b. Draw and identify the arrangement and parts of the grass flower with the following: 1. Five-floret
spikelet, 2. One-floret spikelet, 3. Opened one-floret spikelet, 4. Florets, 5. 2nd glume, 6. 1st glume, 7. Palca,
8. Lemma, 9. 2nd glume, 10. 1st glume, 11. Stigma, 12. Stamen, 13. Ovary, 14. Palea, 15. Lemma, 16. 2 nd
glume and 15. 1st glume
 1. Sepal 2. Petal 3. Stamen 4. Vestigial stamen 5. Carpel

6. 3 united carpels 7. Vestigial carpel 8. Lemma of grasses 9. Palea of grasses 10. Bract or glume

13. Monadelphous 14. Syngenesious 15. Axis of

11. Nectar pit 12. Hypanthium stamens stamens inflorescence

Fig. 4c Symbols used for making cross floral diagrams. Complete the blanks by drawing the following terms:
1. Sepals, 2. Petal, 3. Stamen, 4. Vestigial stamen, 5. Carpel, 6. 3 United carpels, 7. Vestigial carpel, 8.
Lemma of grasses, 9. Palea of grasses, 10. Bract or glume, 11. Nectar pit, gland, or spur on a sepal, 12.
Hypanthium, 13. Monadelphous stamens, 14. Syngenesious stamens, and 15. Axis of inflorescence

2. Polysepalous, gamopetalous
1. Hypogynous flower with separate flower with epipetalous
partsexcept for syncarpous ovary stamens

4. Epigynous flower with tubular

3. Epigynous flower hypanthium inserted on ovary 5. Perigynous flower with hypanthium

Fig. 4d Draw the cross floral diagrams showing variation in floral structure. Note that in epigynous flowers,
the ovary is represented by a heavier line that in hypogynous and perigynous flowers.
A. How many parts compose each whorl?

B. What is the insertion of the different whorls?

C. Are some parts united or not?

D. If the flower is gamopetalous, are the stamens epipetalous? If so, are the stamens inserted on the
tube or on the throat of the corolla? Are the stamens connivent or not? lf there are as many stamens
as petals, are the stamens opposite or alternate with the petals or lobes of the corolla? Split the
corolla from top to bottom to determine this.

E. How many carpels compose the pistil? If the pistil is compound, are the ovaries united or not? Are
the styles united or not? Are the stigmas united or not?

F. Are the ovules attached at the bottom, the side, or the apex of the locule? How many ovules are in
each locule? If many, are they supposed or not?

1. Describe the following characters for each specimen.

a. Stamens distinct or united? If united specific type

b. Position of stamen

c. Insertion of stamen

d. Insertion of anther

e. Ovary position

f. Ovary simple or compound?

g. Number of cells

h. Placenta type

2. Using a pencil and a drawing sheet, make a cross floral diagram for each of the specimens. Make
each diagram 5 cm wide. Label your sketch as "Cross floral diagram." Since it is a diagram, a scale of
magnification is not provided. Make sure you have read the General Instructions (p.2) for the instructions
on sketches and labeling.
 Activity No. 4.5. THE FRUIT AND SEED
Systematics

I. Introduction

THE FRUIT. The fruit is the ripened ovary of the flower together with other floral parts that may be closely
associated with the mature ovary. In this sense, fruits are found only in the angiosperms. Because they
are constant in their structure, fruits are important in classification.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Fruit and Seed

The parts of the fruit can be traced back to the parts of the flower. The pedicel of the flower
becomes the pedicel of the fruit. The ovary wall develops into the fruit wall or pericarp and the ovules
develop into the seeds. Generally, the pericarp has three layers: an outer layer, the exocarp; a middle
layer, the mesoçarp; and an inner layer, the endocarp.

Fruits are classified based on the number of flowers that go into their formation, the number of
pistils in the flower, the number of carpels in the pistil, the nature of the mature pericarp and its layers,
whether or not the mature pericarp splits or dehisces, the manner of dehiscence, and the role of other
floral parts (sepals, receptacle, etc.) in the formation of the mature fruit.

Simple fruits are derived from a single ovary of one flower, aggregate fruits are formed from the
ovaries of many pistils of one flower as in the strawberry or the sour sop (guyabano), and multiple fruits
or collective fruits are formed from several ovaries of several flowers more or less grown together into a
single mass as in the jackfruit.

Simple fruits (Fig.5) are fleshy when soft and juicy throughout and dry when the pericarp is dry at
maturity. The different types of fleshy fruits are the berry or baccate fruit, with the whole pericarp fleshy,
the seeds usually embedded in the pulp; the drupe, with a hard and stony endocarp and more or less
soft exocarp and mesocarp; the pepo, characteristic of the Cucurbitaceae family, with a hard exocarp
and soft mesocarp and endocarp; the hesperidium, characteristic of the citrus family, a type of berry with
a thick leathery rind (the exocarp and mesocarp) supplied with oil glands and with the endocarp
possessing vesicular juice-filled outgrowths known as pulp sacs filling up the wedge-shaped locules; and,
the pome in which the fleshy portion is made up of either the much thickened calyx or the hypanthium.

Dry fruits may be dehiscent when splits at maturity and indehiscent when the pericarp does not
split at maturity. Dehiscent dry fruits are of various types. The follicle and the legume or pod are both
derived from a simple ovary. The follicle splits along one (ventral) suture while the legume,
characteristic of the family Leguminosae, splits along two (the dorsal and ventral) sutures. Some
legumes do not split at maturity. The capsule and the silique are derived from compound ovaries. The
capsule splits along two or more sutures in a variety of ways; into the locules exposing the seeds
(loculicidal capsule), along the septa with the seeds not exposed but still enclosed by the septa (septicidal
capsule), or by a transverse lid at or near the apex (circumcissile capsule or cimcumciss). The silique is
interpreted as derived from an ovary of two carpels which at maturity splits into three portions with the
central persistent portion containing the seeds attached to it as in the mustard family. The schizocarp,
characteristic of the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) or carrot family, is derived from two carpels that split at
maturity along the midline into two one-seeded indehiscent halves.

Indehiscent dry fruits include the achene, a one-seeded fruit with the pericarp closely appressed
with the seed coat; the utricle, similar to an achene but with a loose, bladderlike pericarp; the grain or
caryopsis with the pericarp fused with the seed coat of the single seed; the samara with wing-like
outgrowths of the pericarp; and the nut, one-seeded fruit with a hard or stony pericarp, sometimes, with
the envolucral cup, as in acorns, enclosing the stony pericarp. Many so-called nuts are not botanical nuts
e,g. peanut, coconut and Brazil nut which are respectively, a legume, a drupe and a seed. The individual
fruits developed from the individual ovaries in the aggregate and multiple or collective fruits may be
classified as types of simple fruits. Thus, in the pineapple and the jackfruit, the individual fruits are berries.

THE SEED. The seed consists of an embryo surrounded by two seed coats, an outer thicker testa and
an inner thinner tegmen. Arillate seeds have a fleshy aril enveloping the seed.

The embryo consists of the embryonic axis with developing foliage leaves and either one
cotyledon (in monocots) or two cotyledons (in dicots). A food-storing organ, the endosperm is
usually found outside the embryo in monocot seeds and in some dicot seeds, these seeds being called
albuminous. Most dicots have no endosperm, the food being store in the cotyledons and the seeds called
exalbuminous. The endosperm is described as mealy when it is granular or powdery like meal, horny
when it is hard and bone-like, continuous when it is smooth, and ruminated when the endosperm is
penetrated with irregular depressions, as if chewed.

II. Procedure

Bring specimens of different fruits and seeds to the laboratory. Study the available specimens
making sections for examination when needed. Carefully remove the seed coats of seeds that have been
soaked in water overnight and study the parts of the embryo.

If endosperm is present, macerate a small amount on a glass slide, let dry for a while, tease the
dried material with a dissecting needle and examine the material under the microscope.

Classify the fruits according to specific types. Describe the following characters for the seed
specimens.
a. monocot or dicot?
b. albuminous or exalbuminous?
c. type of endosperm when present
 1. Berry 2. Drupe 3. Pepo 4. Hesperidium

5. Pome 6. Follicle 7. Legume 8. Loculidical capsule

10. Circumcissile
9. Septicidal capsule capsule/circumciss 11. Silique 12. Achene

13. Utricle 14. Grain/caryopsis 15. Samara 16. Schizocarp

17. Nut

Fig. 5 Types of fruits. Complete the blanks by drawing the following descriptive terms defined: 1. Whole pericarp
fleshy, 2. Endocarp hard or fibrous, mesocarp and exocarp soft, 3. Exocarp hard, mesocarp and endocarp soft,
4. Endocarp with pulp sacs filling locules, mesocarp and exocarp leathery and with oil glands, 5. Pericarp thin
and papery, surrounded by fleshy portion derived from calyx or hypanthium, 6. Splits along 1 suture, 7. Splits
along 2 sutures, 8. Splits along 3 or more sutures into the locules, 9. Splits along 3 or more sutures along septa,
10. Splits along a traverse line near the apex, 11. Split into 2 outer and 1 middle portion containing the seeds,
12. One-seeded, indehiscent, the pericarp closely appressed to the seed coat, 13. Indehiscent, pericarp
bladderlike, 14. Indehiscent, pericarp fused with the seed coat, 15. Pericarp with wing-like out-growths, 16.
Split into two two one-seeded halves, and 17. Whole pericarp hard or stony.