Structural Health Monitoring

Fiber Bragg gratings in structural health monitoring

Prof. Zhoa
Name: Phoung sokeara
Student ID: 21606307
Department of Civil Engineering
Dalian University of Technology
 Structural Health Monitoring

1.Introduction
Structural integration of fiber-optic sensing systems represents new interdisciplinary branch of
engineering which involves the unique combination of laser-optics, fiber-optics, optoelectronics,
microelectronics, artificial intelligence, composite material science and structural engineering. fiber-
optic sensors have a number of advantages over their electrical counterparts and are the primary
candidates for complete sensing systems. fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have undergone a rapid
development in the recent years following the observation of very-narrow-band reflection in the
photosensitive core-region of Ge-doped silica optical fibers. FBGs are immune to electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and ground loops. They are lightweight and have small physical dimensions,
suitable for being embedded into, or attached to a structure. No wires are required to connect sensors
to the control system as the fibers themselves act as both the sensing elements and the signal
propagation conduit. FBG sensors offer unique advantage of single ended connection to control
systems because only reflected signals from the FBGs are important for demodulation. FBGs possess
excellent resolution and range, water and corrosion resistance, ability to be multiplexed, immunity to
harsh weather conditions, compact sensor and harness size, and reasonable cost per channel. Besides,
wavelength encoded information is given by FBGs. Since wavelength is an absolute parameter, signal
from FBG may be processed such that its information remains immune to power fluctuations along
the optical path. Thus, they offer a self-referencing, absolute measurement scheme. The FBG sensing
technology shows great potential for applications within a variety of industries [3]. FBG sensors have
attracted interest from the civil structure communities over the past decade for structural health,
vibration and seismic response monitoring. FBG sensors have been embedded in concrete for
deformation monitoring and traffic load assessment in bridges and buildings.

Strain studies in civil structures are pivotal in avoiding unexpected catastrophic failures. Long-term
strain study of structures also helps in freezing the design limits of similar structures. Conventionally,
most structures rely on maintenance schedules, visual inspection and a few conventional sensors for
the purpose of damage monitoring. But the high cost of maintenance, lack of precision
in visual inspection and susceptibility of sensors to harsh environmental conditions has made
structural health monitoring (SHM) a necessity. Over the past few decades, fiber Bragg grating
sensors have emerged as a suitable, accurate and cost-effective tool in SHM of civil structures like
high-rise buildings, bridges, tunnels and dams. For existing structures, FBG sensors can be attached
onto the structure surface, whereas for new structures, these sensors can be
embedded into the structure during the construction phase without any serious effect on the structural
integrity. The information from such SHM systems can provide early warning for compromised
 Structural Health Monitoring

Fig1. Transmission and reflection spectra from an FGB

integrity of structures and thus help avoid severe losses. Such information is also helpful to adapt
and update newer designs of similar structures. Several review papers on applications of FBGs have
been published. Strain and temperature have so far been the dominating measured of interest. These
reviews have primarily focused on the various usages of the FBG sensors in different sensing areas.
This paper aims to provide an overview of the application of FBG sensors for strain measurement,
particularly in the field of structural sensing. Various applications as in structural health monitoring
for bridges and concrete structures, moisture sensing, strain sensing of smart structures using FBG–
FRP bars and ultrasonic nondestructive testing using FBG sensors have been discussed. Practical
aspects like packaging of the sensors and demodulation techniques suitable for the use of FBG sensors
in structural health monitoring have been discussed in detail. This review is expected to provide useful
insight to researchers in the field of structural sensing using a reliable and effective strain sensing
platform.

2. Principle of operation of FBG sensors

FBGs are obtained by creating periodic variations in the refractive index of the core of an optical
fiber. fig1. shows the internal structure of an optical fiber with an FBG written in it. When light is
made to pass through the grating, at a particular wavelength, called the Bragg wavelength, the light
reflected by the varying zones of refractive indices will be in phase and amplified.
The Bragg wavelength is expressed as:

B  2  ne   (1)

where  B is the Bragg wavelength, is the e effective refractive index of the FBG and  is the
n

grating period.
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2.1 Strain measurement using FBG sensors

When strain is induced in an FBG, the relative change in Bragg wavelength is expressed as

B
 1   e   
B (2)

where ε is the longitudinal strain on the FBG and e is the effective photo-elastic constant of the
fiber core material.

ne2
e   p12    p11  p12 
2 (3)

where pij are the silica photo-elastic tensor components and is the Poisson’s ratio. For an FBG of
central wavelength of 1550 nm, typical strain sensitivity is approximately 1.2 pm/macrostrain [9].

2.2. Strain–temperature cross-sensitivity

The Bragg wavelength B is also affected by temperature changes. The relative change in the Bragg
wavelength due to temperature change is expressed as

B
    T
B (4)

where T is the change in temperature experienced at the FBG location, ˛ is the thermal expansion and
is the thermo-optic coefficient. For an FBG of central wavelength of 1550 nm, typical temperature
sensitivity is approximately 13 pm/◦C [9]. Combining Eqs. (2) and (4), we get the effective Bragg
wavelength shift due to strain and temperature and are expressed as

B
    T  1   e   
B (5)

For pure stain measurements, effects of temperature change on the Bragg wavelength has to be
suitably compensated. Several techniques to offset this behavior are available in literature.

3. FBG interrogation techniques

Various interrogation techniques of FBGs have been proposes in literature. The interrogation units
are responsible for reading the Bragg wavelength shift of the FBGs induced by various physical
parameters like strain, temperature, etc. Optical spectrum analyzers are unsuitable for this purpose
due to their high cost and low scanning speed. The choice of the interrogation method depends upon
 Structural Health Monitoring

several factors like type and range of strain being measured, accuracy and sensitivity required,
number of sensors being interrogated and cost of the instrumentation.
The FBG interrogation schemes commonly used are tabulated (Table 2).

4. Applications of FBG strain sensors in structural sensing

4.1. Strain monitoring in reinforced concrete beams
Number of strain studies of reinforced concrete beams instrumented with FBG sensors have been
reported in literatures. Maher and Nawy have compared the response of FBG strain sensors and
conventional resistive strain gauges on reinforcing bars. The bars having dimension of 305 cm × 25.4
cm × 30.5 cm were subjected to three-point bending tests. Few FBG sensors were carefully embedded
into V-grooves cut into the reinforcing bars and a few others were simply epoxied on the back surface
of the bars alongside the conventional strain gauges. For test duration of 7 days, the nominal
compressive strength of the concrete was found to be 76 MPa and data collected from FBG sensors
and strain gauges were in agreement. Davis et al. have reported the use of embedded wavelength
division multiplexed FBG sensors in monitoring the strain on reinforced concrete beams and decks
till their failure. An 8-ft long beam was instrumented with the Bragg sensors at different strategic
locations and subjected to four-point bending. The fiber sensors were bonded to rebar using ordinary
foil gauge adhesives and coated.

FBG sensors and strain gauges were surface mounted on CFRP wrapped concrete cylinders along
both axes and subjected to compressive loading (Fig. 4). At a compressive force of 56 MPa, the
failure strain in longitudinal direction is 4600 macrostrain, which is considerably higher than that
along the hoop direction. Below a strain value of 43 MPa, both strain gauge and FBG sensors in the
 Structural Health Monitoring

hoop direction show a close match. However, along the longitudinal direction, FBG sensors show
higher strain values than the strain gauge sensor.

Fig.2. Schematic of testing of CFRP wrapped concrete cylinder with FBGs and strain
gauges
4.2. Strain monitoring in smart beams
Sandwich composite materials like glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) and carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CFRP) have emerged as a promising load-bearing material in the civil engineering industry.
FRP materials are non-metallic and thus have a distinct advantage over steel and other metallic
building materials, which are highly susceptible to corrosion. They have high strength, high stiffness
and low weight. However, one drawback of the FRP materials is their weak shear strength. Creep and
brittle nature of the FRP materials have made it necessary to study their internal failure at an early
stage by embedding suitable strain sensors in them. Towards this end, FBGs have come up as an
interesting strain sensing tool due to its small dimensions, light weight and ability to be multiplexed.
Kalamkarov et al. have described the use of pultrusion technique to manufacture smart carbon and
glass FRP composites embedded with FBG sensors. The technique combines the strengthening
properties of fiber reinforced plastic and the sensing properties of optical fiber Bragg grating. It is
shown that polyamide coating; instead of acrylate coating on the fiber, provides better bonding with
the host material. The pultruded smart tendons thus produced were subjected to quasi-static and cyclic
tensile tests whereby they showed similar results to those of an extensometer.

Another interesting work reported the application of smart FRP–FBG bars in reinforced concrete
beams. The FRP–FBG bars are embedded in 12 concrete beams to monitor the strain of FRP bars and
cracking of the concrete. The beams are subjected to three-point bending tests. The monitored strain
provides information on the status of cracking of the concrete and also the slip between FRP
bars and concrete. The strain range monitored and resolution of the sensor are 1200 macrostrain and
 Structural Health Monitoring

1–2 macrostrain, respectively. The FRP–FBG bars can hence be conveniently used in reinforced
cement concrete structures both as sensors as well as reinforcing bars. Health monitoring of smart
alumina-fibre reinforced plastic embedded with FBG sensors under tensile loading has been reported
. In a test coupon, one FBG sensor was located at the center and coated with polymide. The resolution
of the interrogation setup was 1 microstrain. On observing the wavelength pattern,
it is found that the spectrum pattern changes with the initiation of the cracks. It is seen that the FBG
sensors were able to detect the cracks adjacent to the sensing region of the fibre. However, for
detection of exact location of failure in the entire specimen, an array of several Bragg grating sensors
is suggested.

4.3 Early-age cement shrinkage

The curing process of cement is affected by the water to cement ratio, the curing temperature,
humidity and type of cement used. Hydration is responsible for the hardening (strength) of the
concrete. For concrete, the gain in strength continues for a long time, and theoretically for an
indefinite period of time. However, the strength of the concrete reaches a peak within 7 days of
casting. During this process water in the concrete mixture evaporates, resulting in a decrease in the
volume of the concrete. The volume of concrete also decreases due to re-arrangement of finer particles
within the larger ones. The result of the volume change is strain, also known as shrinkage strain, and
this is responsible for the small cracks that may appear after the curing process. At times,
the thermal stresses induced during the curing process due to the exothermic nature of the curing
reaction may cause cracks within the structure, thus weakening it. These cracks can grow in size and
penetrate the structure at a later stage. However, the effect of how the temperature, inner pressure and
strain changes within the concrete affect the structure is still not very clear.

FBG strain sensors have been used to study early-age cement paste shrinkage. A major practical
problem in laying concrete floors is associated to early age cracking due to shrinkage of young
concrete. Capillary water trapped inside finds a way out of the hardening concrete thereby
giving rise to fine cracks within the first 24 h of casting, i.e. the plastic stage. In this stage major
reactions accompany the transition of cement water suspension phase to cement paste phase.
Measuring early shrinkage of cement using conventional strain gauges is difficult because most
gauges can be attached to the concrete only after it has attained a minimum strength.

4.4. Moisture/humidity measurement in civil applications

Relative humidity (RH) detection is an important criterion in many civil engineering applications.
For example, it provides information about soil moisture content or water ingress in civil structures
like seepage in walls. It may also help to detect leaks in concrete tanks or water pipes. Recently fibre
 Structural Health Monitoring

Bragg grating sensors have been reported for RH measurement. These sensors essentially rely on a
measured-specific material that produces either a strain or temperature variation effect on the FBG.
Corrosion resistance, small dimensions and insensitivity to EMI are the primary advantages of using
FBG-based sensors for humidity detection in civil applications. shows the schematic of a FBG-based
moisture sensor reviewed by Leung. FBG-based RH sensors were first reported by Giaccari et al. in
2001. Bare silica fibres are unperturbed by change in RH. However, a chemical polymer called
polyamide is hygroscopic in nature. and swell with the absorption of water molecules. The effect of
RH sensitivity of polyamide was also observed to be reversible in nature. This property of polyamide
had been made use of in these sensors to coat them such that they swell in the presence of aqueous
media and thereby cause a shift of the characteristic Bragg wave length. The group has studied the
effects of RH and temperature variation on these sensors and results showed a linear dependence of
FBG center wavelength on these two measured. The relative Bragg wavelength shift / of the sensor
is given by the following equation:


 S RH  RH  ST  T


where SRH and ST are the RH and temperature sensitivities of the FBG sensor, respectively.

Relative humidity measurement of a climatic chamber using polymer-coated FBG strain sensors have
also been reported by Yeo. FBGs used in this work were inscribed on boron–germanium co-doped
photosensitive optical fibers using the phase mask technique. They were then dip-coated with a
polyamide solution to a desired thickness. PI is chosen as the coating material because of its
sensitivity, linearity and reversibility to humidity change. The sensing principle relies on the swelling
of the moisture sensitive polymer coating, which in turn produces a strain on the FBG.
The Bragg wavelength shift due to relative humidity and temperature is expressed by:

B
 (1   e )   RH  (1   e )   T    T
B

where εRH and εT are the humidity and thermal expansion experienced by the fibre which leads to
inducing a strain in it. where x denotes either RH or T, p and f represent the two materials viz.,
polymer and fibre, A is the area of cross-section of the material, E is the Young’s Modulus of the
material, ˛ is the coefficient of moisture expansion (CME) or the coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE).

FBG sensors were exposed to an airtight climatic chamber having controlled RH and temperature
conditions. Six different coating thickness of the polymide have been reported and the sensor was
tested at different humidity levels whereby the maximum sensitivity achieved was 5.6 pm/%RH for
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a coating thickness of 42 m. The CME value reported was in the range between 82 to 104 ppm/%RH.
The response time and recovery time of the sensors with different coating thickness when subjected
to a variation of the RH between 33 and 75% in the chamber were seen to be in the range of 18–45
min and 4–28 min, respectively. Hysteresis was reported to be within 5% of RH. These sensors could
be well used in civil engineering applications for RH measurement where slightly lower resolution
and response time are not very critical.

5. Conclusion

This paper presents a review of recent research and development activities in structural health
monitoring using FBGs. High-quality FBG interrogation systems; practical encapsulation
(packaging) techniques and practical applications are the cores for FBGs to be widely popularized in
infrastructures. Due to the inherent properties of FBG sensors such as lightweight, immunity to
electromagnetic interference and harsh environment and ability to be multiplexed for distributive
measurement, these sensors have emerged as a suitable solution in longitudinal strain measurement
in static and dynamic strain sensing and acousto-ultrasonic sensing in a number of application areas.
In this paper, firstly, the principle of FBG sensor in strain measurement and the effect of temperature
in strain measurement are briefly discussed. Several temperature compensation techniques to correct
the effect of temperature during strain measurement are reviewed form the literature and their
advantages/disadvantages are pointed out. Commonly used schemes of FBG interrogation are
reviewed. Secondly, several practical FBG encapsulation (packaging) techniques published in the
literatures are reviewed highlighting the advantages/disadvantages of the techniques. Thirdly some
of the salient areas in structural health monitoring for the application of these sensors have been
reviewed in this paper. Finally, few techniques for ultrasonic non-destructive testing of damage in
composite materials using FBG are reviewed explaining the ultrasonic sensing methods.

This report has presented the state-of-the-art in strain monitoring of different application areas related
to civil structures using fibre Bragg grating sensors. Works of various researchers have
undoubtedly proved the suitability and reliability of these sensors in strain monitoring of both
laboratory specimens and real structures. From these studies some unique advantages of Bragg
grating sensors in strain monitoring of structures have emerged. These include immunity from emi
and harsh environment, capability of distributed sensing and small sensor and harness size, etc

After almost three decades of research in FBGs, technology for SHM using FBG sensors is on the
verge of maturity. The main thrust of technology development at present should be focused on the
various application areas of civil infrastructure monitoring using FBGs and the standardization of the
procedure. Hence, the optical fibre community should collaborate more with domain specialists
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like civil engineers and architects to extend the use of FBG strain sensors into newer avenues in
structural health monitoring.

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