MUSICAL FORMS

Musical form, the structure of a musical composition. The term is regularly used in
two senses: to denote a standard type, or genre, and to denote the procedures in a
specific work. The nomenclature for the various musical formal types may be determined
by the medium of performance, the technique of composition, or by function.

Musical forms in Baroque period

• Minuet

• Rondo

• Fugue

• Ternary forms (Aria)

• Ritornello

Musical forms in Classical period

• Minuet (Ternary)

• Theme & Variations

• Sonata

• Sonata Rondo

• Scherzo (Ternary)

Strophic Form
Strophic form – also called verse-repeating form, chorus form, AAA song form,
or one-part song form – is a song structure in which all verses or stanzas of the text are
sung to the same music.[1] The opposite of strophic form, with new music written for every
stanza, is called through-composed.[1]

Through composed
Through-composed music is relatively continuous, non-sectional, or non-
repetitive music. A song is said to be through-composed if it has different music for
each stanza of the lyrics. This is in contrast to strophic form, in which each stanza is set
to the same music.

1 of 14
 BINARY FORM

Binary Form describes the structure of a piece of music which is divided into 2

different sections. The 2 sections are usually labelled A and B.

The key concept to grasp is that there is some sort of contrast between the A
section and the B section. This contrast is usually (though not always) created by a key
change. There are 2 main types of Binary Form you will come across.

SIMPLE BINARY FORM

Simple Binary Form refers to the basic Binary Form structure outlined above. There is an
A section followed by a B section in a different key (both sections are usually repeated). It
usually follows the pattern of key changes outlined below:

Examples of Simple Binary Form – A large number of Baroque dances typically had
a Binary Form structure. Examples include the sarabande, allemande, gigue, minuet,
bouree and the courante. Have a look/listen to his example:

ROUNDED BINARY FORM

Rounded Binary Form is very similar to simple Binary Form except for the fact that
Section B is often longer than section A and part of section A is repeated again at the end
of section B.

Rounded Binary Form was very common in the Classical period of music. It was often
used as the structure for the theme in a set of theme and variations. Here is an example
from Mozart’s Piano Sonata in D major K284 3rd movement:

2 of 14
 TERNARY FORM
A musical structure where the piece is divided into 3 distinct sections. The 1st and
last sections are exactly the same as each other and so the form can be written A – B – A

Each of the sections sound like complete pieces of music in themselves – you
could play just the A Section of a Ternary Form piece and it would not “feel” like it must
continue onto a new section. This is because it ends on a perfect/authentic cadence.

The B Section is usually written in a key that is closely related to the key of the A Section

The B section also usually has a different mood to the A Section. If the A Section is
upbeat and lively then the B Section will often be more subdued.

Have a look/listen to this famous example of Ternary Form – “Alla Hornpipe” by Handel
from The Water Music.

COMPOUND TERNARY FORM

This is when each of the sections (A-B-A) are subdivided into a clear Ternary Form
structure as in the diagram below. Examples of Compound Ternary Form include trios and
minuets.

3 of 14
 Minuet Form
A classical minuet movement typically contains a main minuet, followed by a trio,
_followed by a _da capo repeat of the main minuet (usually performed without taking the
repeats). The movement, then, has a large-scale ABA’ form: minuet–trio–minuet da capo.

Both the main minuet and the trio tend to be small ternary structures. Like the
minuet/trio movement itself, the small ternary form follows an ABA’ structure. However,
the small ternary structure found in the typical main minuet is of the rounded binary type.
That is, while there are three distinct modules—A, B, and A’—they are grouped into two
larger sections, each of which is repeated.

The first part in the two-part structure is the first reprise, and the second part is
the second reprise, so called because they each repeat. The first reprise contains the A
module of the minuet; the second contains the B and the A’ modules.

Each section of the minuet’s (or the trio’s) small ternary form has its own formal
function attached to it. The formal function exhibited in the A section is
called exposition function; the B section contrasting middle function ; and the A’
section recapitulation function.

Exposition

At the least, the exposition module of the minuet typically contains a primary
theme: tight- knit (period, sentence, or hybrid), ending with a PAC, or occasionally a HC. It
is common, however, for an exposition to have more complex structure, projecting not
just primary theme, but secondary thematic function, transition, and closing. Not all of
these functions are necessarily present.

Primary Theme

Expositions always have a primary themes. A prototypical primary theme is (1)

tight-knit and (2) ends with a PAC or HC in the tonic key. When an exposition does not
modulate, it is understood to exclusively express primary theme function.

Secondary Theme

But if the exposition modulates, the functions of transition, and secondary

theme may appear as well. At minimum a secondary theme will close with cadential
4 of 14
confirmation (usually a PAC) of the subordinate key. Often, it is looser than the main
theme—perhaps expanded or contracted.

Transition

If a phrase contains a [pivot chord modulation][modulation.html] linking the main

key to the subordinate key, that phrase is understood to express transition function. (If a
new phrase begins immediately in the subordinate key through [direct modulation]
[modulation.html], there is no transition function.)

Closing Section

Sometimes the secondary theme closes with a PAC and is followed by a closing section.

Contrasting Middle

A contrasting middle section is significantly looser than the exposition. Though it may
contain some kind of thematic structure (sentence, primarily), it often does not.
Sequences and remote tonal areas are quite typical of the digression section. When doing
analysis, your goal should be to identify the melodic/motivic material and understand the
tonal structure.

Contrasting middle passages end with a I:HC, creating a harmonic interruption.

Commonly, the I:HC is followed by a post-cadential “[standing on the dominant]
[externalExpansions.html].”

Recapitulation

The definitive characteristics of a minuet’s recapitulation function are (1) the return of the

basic idea from the A section at its beginning, (2) the return of the home key at its
beginning, and (3) a final PAC in the home key.

A recapitulation typically copies the thematic and phrase-structural features of the

exposition, but altering the secondary theme so as to end in tonic. Commonly, the
recapitulation expands the exposition’s closing phrase.

5 of 14
Trio

Like the minuet, a trio is typically a rounded or simple binary form. It’s primary job is to
establish melodic and harmonic contrast. While contrasting tonally with the main
minuet is a central feature of the Trio, Trio’s often simply projection modal contrast. When
the tonic stays the same, a major-key main minuet might be contrasted with a Trio
marked minore. (The corresponding situation for a minor-key main minuet is
a maggiore Trio.)

WIKIPEDIA

A minuet (/ˌmɪnjuˈɛt/; also spelled menuet) is a social dance of French origin for two

people, usually in 3/4. The word was adapted from Italian minuetto and French menuet,
possibly from the French menu meaning slender, small, referring to the very small steps,
or from the early 17th-century popular group dances called branle à mener or amener.

The term also describes the musical form that accompanies the dance, which
subsequently developed more fully, often with a longer musical form called the minuet
and trio, and was much used as a movement in the early classical symphony.

Rhythm and form

The name of this dance is also given to a musical composition written in the same time
and rhythm, though when not accompanying an actual dance the pace was quicker
(Chisholm 1911). Stylistically refined minuets, apart from the social dance context, were
introduced—to opera at first—by Jean-Baptiste Lully, who included no fewer than 92 of
them in his theatrical works (Little 2001) and in the late 17th century the minuet was
adopted into the suite, such as some of the suites of Johann Sebastian Bach and George
Frideric Händel. Among Italian composers the minuet was often considerably quicker and
livelier and was sometimes written in 3/4 or 6/8. Because the tempo of a minuet was not
standard, the tempo direction tempo di minuetto was ambiguous unless qualified by
another direction, as it sometimes was (Russell 2001).

Initially, before its adoption in contexts other than social dance, the minuet was usually
in binary form, with two repeated sections of usually eight bars each. But the second
section eventually expanded, resulting in a kind of ternary form. The second (or middle)
minuet provided form of contrast by means of different key and orchestration. On a larger
scale, two such minuets might be further combined, so that the first minuet was followed
by a second one and then by a repetition of the first. The whole form might in any case be
repeated as long as the dance lasted.

6 of 14
Minuet and trio
Around Lully's time it became a common practice to score this middle section for
a trio (such as two oboes and a bassoon, as is common in Lully). As a result, this middle
section came to be called the minuet's trio, even when no trace of such an orchestration
remains.[citation needed] The overall structure is called rounded binary or minuet form (Rosen
1988, 29):

A B A or A′
I (→ V) V (or other closely related) I
After these developments by Lully, composers occasionally inserted a modified repetition
of the first (A) section or a section that contrasted with both the A section and what was
thereby rendered the third or C section, yielding the form A–A′–B–A or A–B–C–A,
respectively; an example of the latter is the third movement of Mozart's Serenade No. 13
in G major, K. 525, popularly known under the title Eine kleine Nachtmusik.

A livelier form of the minuet simultaneously developed into the scherzo (which was

generally also coupled with a trio). This term came into existence approximately
from Beethoven onwards, but the form itself can be traced back to Haydn.

The minuet and trio eventually became the standard third movement in the four-
movement classical symphony, Johann Stamitz being the first to employ it thus with
regularity.[citation needed]

An example of the true form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni (Chisholm

1911).

A famous example of a more recent instrumental work in minuet form is Ignacy Jan
Paderewski's Minuet in G.

The Minuet and Trio is a common form used in classical music composition. It
turns up often as the third movement of symphonies and string quartets, and
has also been used extensively in the piano works of Mozart and Beethoven,
among others.

Why would any composer write a minuet and trio? It gives them a framework
within which to work. Like sonata form, there are certain rules that need to be
adhered to. And when writing a piece with four different sections - such as a
piano sonata or symphony - it's important to make sure there's variety. The
nature and placement of the minuet and trio means that it's easily
recognizable, too, which helps listeners make sense of the music more
readily.

So here's a simple guide that will help you understand and identify a minuet
and trio the next time you hear it.

7 of 14
 Rondo Form

Rondo Form is a natural extension of the 2 forms we have looked at already –

 Binary Form and Ternary Form. If Binary Form is A-B and Ternary Form is A-B-A then
Rondo Form is A-B-A-C-A-D-A.The main section or theme (known as “A”) alternates with
contrasting themes (you will hear these called various names such as “episodes”,
“couplets” or “digressions”). These contrasting themes are labelled B, C, D, etc.. So, a
typical Rondo Form structure looks like:

Each new section contrasts in some way to what has gone before it. You will find
that most composers writing a Rondo Form piece will use changes in melody, key and
harmony to contrast the different sections.

It is quite similar to Theme and Variations form except for the fact that Section A returns
each time in Rondo Form, but does not return in Theme and Variations Form.

Like sonata form, rondo forms have a long history. Where sonata emanates from
Baroque dance movements (coming mostly from Italy), rondo has a longer history whose
origins are in a French instrumental genre—the rondeaux—that was characterized by an
alternation of refrains and contrasting couplets. Within an instrumental sonata or
symphonic work, rondos are generally found in fast finales or in slow second movements.
Probably because rondos are lighter in character, they are almost never found as a first
movement.

Conceptually, rondo is quite simple. The form consists of refrains that alternate
with episodes. The refrain material is the same throughout the course of a movement—
sometimes slightly embellished or abbreviated—and is always heard in the tonic key.
Episodes contrast with refrains tonally, and usually thematically as well. Unlike refrains, a
rondo’s episodes do not have to be the same in the course of a movement. So on a large
scale, a typical rondo will articulate an ABAC … A form; A stands for refrain, B and C
indicate episodes containing unique thematic material. The ellipsis mark (…) indicates
that the precise number of refrains and episodes is variable, though the 5-part (ABACA)
rondo is certainly the most common.

Though conceptually simple, in practice, rondo may be the most difficult form to
describe theoretically and engage with analytically. This is primarily because different
composers used the simple rondo schematic above in different ways. To help you
manage these deviations, we will classify rondos into two types: (1) five-part rondo
(ABACA), and (2) sonata rondo (ABACABA). The primary difference between the types,
which we will discuss in more detail in the other rondo resources,is that in a sonata rondo,
the first refrain and first episode constitute a complete sonata exposition that is
recapitulated (with the episode transposed to the tonic key) in the third refrain and
episode. Learning to recognize the types of thematic function most common in rondo
forms is an important first step

8 of 14
 THEME AND VARIATIONS
Theme and variations is a very common musical structure you will come across,
especially in classical music. The structure is built upon a musical idea called
the theme which is played at the start of the piece. The theme can be as short as 8 bars
in length or can be much longer. It usually consists of a memorable melody with an
accompaniment of some sorts.

Once the theme has been played the composer then repeats it, but varies it in
some way. This is called Variation 1.

Once Variation 1 has been played, the composer repeats the theme again, this time
varying it in a different way, thus producing Variation 2.

This process is repeated as many times as the composer chooses producing a musical
structure called Theme and Variations. Each variation is different, but can still be traced
back to the original theme in some way.

HOW ARE VARIATIONS CREATED?

There are a number of ways in which composers vary the theme. Here are the most
common elements of music which are changed:

Melody – composers will change the original melody in a number of different ways. These
include adding notes (addition), taking notes away (subtraction) and inverting the melody
(if the melody went up in pitch in the theme it is played going down in pitch in the
variation). Another common technique is to add ornamentation such as trills.

Rhythm – composers will change the rhythm of a melody when it is played again.

Harmony/Tonality – Key changes are a great way of varying a theme. A composer may
play the theme in a major key and then reharmonise it in a minor key (the relative minor is
a common choice) or vice versa.

Time Signature – a theme played in 4/4 and then changed to 3/4 will instantly lead to a
variation.

Other elements to look out for which can be varied are dynamics, tempo, instrumentation
and texture.

9 of 14
 Sonata Form
Sonata Form (sometimes known as Compound Binary Form or Sonata-
Allegro or First Movement Form) is one of the most difficult forms of music to understand.

SONATA FORM IS NOT THE SAME AS THE SONATA

Firstly, let me teach you about the big mistake people make about sonata form:

Sonata Form is NOT the same as the sonata!

The sonata is a piece of instrumental music made up (usually) of several contrasting

movements (a movement is a bit like a “mini piece” within a whole sonata).

Sonata Form describes the structure of an individual movement.


You will usually hear it used in the first movement of a sonata, symphony or
concerto (amongst other pieces of music as well).

Sonata Form started to be used by composers in the Classical period of music (1750-c.
1820).

SONATA FORM HAS 3 SECTIONS

A piece of music composed in sonata form has 3 clearly recognisable sections:

Exposition – this is when the composer introduces themes for the first time. In other
words, the themes are “exposed” to the listener.

Development – the themes are altered/changed in a variety of different ways. These

changes are said to be how the musical ideas are “developed”.

Recapitulation – this section is a “recap” of the musical themes from the exposition. The
themes the composer introduced in the exposition are played again, often with some
variation.

THE EXPOSITION

10 of 14
The exposition has 2 themes (called subjects).

The 2 themes contrast with each other.

The 1st theme/subject is often called the principal theme and the 2nd theme/subject is
called the subordinate theme. A connecting episode of music is usually heard before the
2nd theme enters.

Contrast between the 2 themes is often achieved through differences in key.

(e.g. 1st theme/subject may be in minor key, 2nd theme/subject in the relative major key).

Also, there may be differences in pitch, rhythm, melody, etc…

The crucial aspect is that there MUST BE contrast between the 2 themes.

Normally you will find a coda at the end of the exposition.


The exposition ends in a different key and the whole section is usually repeated.

THE DEVELOPMENT



The key word to understanding the development is “Variation”.

The musical material that was introduced (“exposed”) in the exposition is reworked and
extended through different musical techniques.

▪ Sequencing

▪ Imitation

▪ Augmentation and diminution

▪ modulation

▪ inversion

▪ new rhythms

THE RECAPITULATION



In the recapitulation, the exposition is repeated with some changes.

Instead of simply repeating the exposition, composers tend to make some significant
changes to add some variety. For example, the 2nd theme/subject is often in the tonic
(home) key. Also, composers may add in ornamentation and alter the length of the
themes. Connecting Episodes are used to link the 2 themes. A coda is often added to the
end of the movement to give it a clear and memorable finish.

11 of 14
 Ritornello

Ritornelles, or ritornels, a recurrent musical section that alternates with different

episodes of contrasting material. The repetition can be exact or varied to a greater or
lesser extent. In the concerto grosso the full orchestra (tutti) has the ritornello; the solo
group (concertino) has the contrasting episodes.

In the Middle Ages, the term ritornello referred to the last two lines of a madrigal,
as well as to a verse form having three lines, with the first and third rhyming. Its function
in 17th-century operas and strophic (stanzaic) songs as an instrumental introduction,
interlude, or conclusion derives from the popular practice of round-dances reflected
already in the 13th- and 14th-century French rondeau (“little circle”). In the late 18th- and
early 19th-century rondo (Italianized form), the ritornello often featured a catchy tune as a
sort of refrain alternating with more elaborate instrumental excursions.

` Scherzo

It has a great deal of formal qualities in common with the minuet. These similarities
are not surprising when we consider that the scherzo gained a great deal of prominence
as an option for composers to use in place of the minuet movement of a sonata cycle. It
does, however, make discussing the scherzo as a unique form quite difficult. With that
being said, we will do our best to get a basic understanding of the formal design of a
scherzo, while hopefully drawing attention to some of what makes it unique.

At its most basic, a scherzo is an A B A' small ternary form that is often discussed
as a replacement for the minuet & trio movement of a sonata cycle. By A B A' form, we
mean that there will be three distinct sections of music: an 'A' section, followed by a
contrasting 'B' section, and then the 'A Prime' section, which is a varied repetition of the
first 'A' section, often symbolized by the letter 'a' followed by an apostrophe. Sometimes
you will hear that it is a requirement for a scherzo movement to be in ¾ time, like the
minuet which arose from a ¾ dance. While we will find this time signature quite often in
scherzo movements, it is not a necessity. As you likely noticed, these formal tendencies
aren't the most unique, something that makes a discussion of scherzo form quite difficult.
In fact, in Caplin's highly regarded textbook, 'Classical Form,' rather than devoting a
separate chapter to the scherzo, he combines it with the minuet section referring to the
scherzo 'only in those situations in which a given movement is undoubtedly a scherzo
and speaking of it as a minuet would be awkward.’

12 of 14
 Sonata Rondo

A sonata rondo (ABACABA) features the same refrain-episode alternation that we

find in the five-part rondo, but certain aspects of sonata form are infiltrate this alternation.

Exposition Development Recapitulation

Refrain 1 Episode 1 Refrain 2 Episode 2 Refrain 3 Episode 3 Refrain 4

1. Refrain 1 and Episode 1 form a sonata exposition that is recapitulated in Refrain 3

and Episode 3. As is the case in sonata form, the recapitulation contains a “tonal
adjustment” so that it ends in the tonic key. That is, Episode 1 and 3 will be the
same thematically, but Episode 3 will occur in tonic.

2. Because it resembles sonata form, the first and third episodes are always
constructed as “second-theme” complexes.

3. Episode 2 (C in the short-hand diagram above) may be a development—possibly

containing a prep-zone, CAZ, and retransition—or it may be a simpler interior
theme.

CANON
A canon is a piece of music where a melody is played and then imitated (one or
more times) after a short delay. It is a contrapuntal technique as the melodic lines move
independently from each other, but are linked harmonically.

As you can see from the diagram above the first melody is called
the leader (otherwise known as dux or proposta), whilst the following melodies are called
the follower (or comes or riposta).

The above example is a simple canon more commonly known as a Round – all of the
voices are identical in pitch and rhythm. A lot of other nursery rhymes can be sung in this
way.

The above example can be described as a Canon in 3 as it has 3 voices. If it had 4 voices
it would be called a Canon in 4.

13 of 14
OTHER TYPES OF CANON MUSIC

Interval Canons

In some canons the leader melody is transposed when it is imitated – these are
called interval canons.

If the transpositions are carried out exactly then this is called strict canon.

If the intervals are changed slightly in order to fit the scale (e.g. a leap of a major sixth
may become a leap of a minor sixth) then this is called free canon.

Canon by Inversion

In a canon by inversion the follower moves in contrary motion to the leader. For example,
if the leader goes up a third the follower will go down a third and vice versa:

Retrograde Canon

In a retrograde canon the follower plays the leader melody backwards.

Retrograde Inversion

In retrograde inversion the follower plays the leader melody in contrary motion and
backwards!!

More than one Simultaneous Canon

Sometimes you will come across a piece of music where there is more than one canon
being played simultaneously. E.g. if there were 4 voices playing and 2 simultaneous
canons then it would be described as a Canon: Four in Two (4 voices in 2 simultaneous
canons).

Accompanied Canon

Sometimes a piece of music will have a canon accompanied by another separate part
which does not play in canon. This is the case with Pachelbel’s canon in D major,
arguably the most famous canon having become a regular feature in both concerts and at
weddings. Palchelbel’s canon is a simple canon (or round) in 3 voices with an additional
Ground Bass accompaniment.

14 of 14