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IDT History Paper

Cameron Ware

University of North Dakota

IDT 500
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Introduction

When did people start learning? Clearly humans have been learning as long as

humans have been living. This is surely not a surprise to anyone. However, when did

we start studying how this learning is accomplished and how to make it more effective

and worthwhile? The field of instructional design was born from the thought and desire

to develop meaningful instruction that best facilitates learning. Throughout the history of

instructional design there have been major contributors, significant theories and key

events in and out of the field itself which have all worked together to shape the field into

what it has become today. Today’s instructional designers have an assortment of tools

and methods to choose from and work with as they work through the various projects.

Origins of Instructional Design

Where did instructional design start? Many would say it was around the turn of

the 20th century. However, some events previous to that should be given mention since

if they had not occurred the development of instructional technologies may not have

happened on the same timeline. These items included: the development of ink in ~256

BCE (Ink, 2013) and paper in the 2nd century (Paper, 2013). Both of which are

contributed to the Chinese.

Continuing to move forward through history the ability to reproduce a large

number of volumes in a short time, attributed to Gutenberg whose movable type printing

press developed in 1450 (Printing Press, 2013) allowed for the printing of books at an

otherwise unknown rate. Other inventions, such as electricity in the 18 th century

(Electricity, 2013) and the light bulb in 1802 by Humphry Davy although it was Thomas

Edison in 1878 who is credited with the first practical use incandescent light bulb
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(incandescent light bulb, 2013), allowed for the beginning of getting information more

easily than before. The invention of the microphone in 1877 (microphone, 2013)

followed by radio in 1895 (radio, 2013) allowed for the sharing of information in real time

over distance.

The first time this idea of using technology in educational was in St Louis in 1905

with the opening of the first school museum which was used to supplement the

curriculum material already in the classroom (Reiser, 2012). This is when many see the

field of audiovisual technology starting. Advances in technology continued but it was in

1910 that the Rochester, NY school district was the first to adopt the use of motion

projector and films as instructional tools (Reiser, 2012). During the 1920s and 1930s the

push seemed to be the integration of sound with pictures. It is said that “one of the most

significant events in this evolution was the merging, in 1932, of the three existing

national professional organizations for visual instruction” (Reiser, 2012). This resulted in

the formation of the Department of Visual Instruction (DVI).

With the onset of World War II the military quickly realized the importance of

being able to provide effective training to a lot of personnel quickly and successfully. In

1941 the Division of Visual Aids for War Training was established (Reiser, 2012). They

were tasked with the development of training material for the military. The main device

or method they oversaw production of was the film strip or training film. It allowed the

same information to be taught without any variation in the material being taught. Film

strips also allowed a high number of people to be taught in a single sitting. Upon

completion of the war the country began to see the success the military had in not only

training its incoming service members but also informing and training the public.
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During the next decade a good amount of research was done to help better

understand why this shift in instructional methods had been so successful. What about

this audio-visual instructional method was successful and what parts were not. This

research however did not seem to have any major effects on the then current

educational methods. Potentially due to the results of the research not reaching the

mass educational field or the results not being well received by those it did reach

(Reiser, 2001).

Another area of research that was sparked from the outcome of the audiovisual

technological success was in the area of communication, specifically communication

methods. One such method which changed communication or at least the sharing of

information was the advent of the television, arguably the next big development. It was

the 1950’s that saw a considerable growth in the use of the television as tool for

audiovisual instruction. However this was short-lived and by the end of the 1960s the

use of instructional television in schools had all but disappeared. The Carnegie

Commission on Educational Television released a report in 1967 supporting the

continued use of educational television, although the report focuses on the public

educational television aspect is does mention instructional television as something that

should still be funded and advanced (Carnegie Commission on Educational Television,

1967). As the era of educational television wound down and research with computers

was gaining strength the term audiovisual instruction began to be replaced with terms

like instructional technology and educational technology (Reiser, 2001).

Due to the relatively small success of instructional television it was not until

computers came about that the field of instructional technology saw another step
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forward. Although research had been done on using computers for computer based

instruction it really was not until the 1980s that the computer saw widespread

acceptance. In the years following, computers by themselves did not have as large an

impact on educational technology as some would have initially predicted. The number of

computers in schools was growing but they were not being used for as much instruction

as they maybe could have been. It was not until the mid 1990s and the introduction of

the internet that allowed computers to really take-off as an asset in the area of

instructional technology. The internet also sparked the massive growth of distance

education especially in higher education arenas and the military. Although computers

were not as quick to be used as initially envisioned they are steadily becoming a more

and more integral part of education. (Reiser, 2012)

Major Theories

Besides the press for technological change that stemmed from World War II,

those in the psychological field took notice of what happened with audiovisual

technology and started to do more focused research of their own, specifically focusing

on the psychology of education. From this research came multiple theories, the first

being behaviorism. “Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as

opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion” (McLeod, 2007). One behaviorist

researcher was B. F. Skinner, who developed what many saw as a more radial view of

behaviorism. He believed “that learning can be understood, explained and predicted

entirely on the basis of observable events, namely, the behavior of the learner along

with its environmental antecedents and consequences” (Driscoll, 2012). To him the

outside, observable environment was all that mattered. If a person is attempting to learn
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something their behavior will be reinforced either positively or negatively, by their

environment and this will promote learning.

Psychologists in the 1970s, recognizing the value of feedback began to adopt a

different theory. Still taking the environment into consideration but putting more weight

on the individual and that person’s perception of something; the theory of information

processing was born. In his 1967 text Ulric Neisser says “cognitive psychology refers to

all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,

recovered, and used” (Best, 1995). This is the first time we see the introduction of the

idea that learning is a multi step process. First the learner must perceive the

information, then figure out (decide) if that information is something worth holding on to,

then finally connect it with something the learner already knows or at least make more

sense of the information (Driscoll, 2012). In 1985 Skinner published an article

comparing behaviorism and cognitive theory. He attributes this perception to be at the

heart of the difference between behavioral and cognitive theories. Skinner says “For

cognitive science the direction of action is from organism to environment….In a

behavioral analysis the direction is reversed” (Skinner, 1985). In Skinner’s opinion the

learner must take an extra step and retrieve a stored memory in order to fuse it with the

newly learned material; it is not just environmental reinforcement. (Skinner, 1985)

Different sub-theories have also been introduced. All ultimately using a cognitive

theory approach but each having some differences usually in how the information is

processed or stored. The idea that how much we already know about a topic may

change the way we learn new information and/or store that information. Schema theory

is the idea that “knowledge is represented in long-term memory as packets of

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information called schemas” (Driscoll, 2012). These schemas are a storage method

used to keep information organized; thereby making recall easier. Another variation of

cognitive theory is the idea of cognitive load. This theory focuses on capacity, basically

saying the brain can only process so much information at a time. The more that is going

on around the learner or the less familiar the learner is with the material the more

cognitive load there is, so it may take longer or be harder for the learner to process and

store the new information (Driscoll, 2012).

While both the behavioral and cognitive theories used the learners perception of

something in the environment constructivism takes a significantly different approach. A

constructivist would say that information processing is going from the outside in, while

constructivism goes from the inside out (Driscoll, 2012). Rather than the learner

perceiving the outside world, a constructivist learner would give organization to what

they see and form connections and meaning this way.

Key Event/Figures

As with the study and development of different theories which have impacted the

field of Instructional Design so have specific key historical events and figures. One such

event was World War II (WWII). As previously mentioned with the onset of WWII the

country, but specifically the military, saw a significant need for the development of

training methods which would allow for the training of a large number of people without

any disagreement between the training sessions. Post WWII United States saw the

effectiveness of the audiovisual technology that had been developed and began to

survey its use for general education.

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Another worldly event which ultimately saw a subsequent impact on Instructional

Design was the Russian’s launching of Sputnik in 1957 (Reiser, 2012). Being in the

middle of the “space race” the United States saw this as a major defeat, something it did

want to have happen again. This gave a renewed interest for education, specifically in

the fields of math and science. This renewed interest albeit for a well intentioned

outcome came with its drawbacks. The material being developed did not necessarily

have the desired effect. The material was designed and put together by subject matter

experts but there were no checks to see if the material was working like it was being

designed to. (Reiser, 2012)

Out of this mishap came the concept of formative evaluation, introduced by

Michael Scriven in 1967 (Reiser, 2012). Scriven said there has to be some amount of

evaluation during the design process and revision to the design dependent on the

outcome of the evaluation. Along with formative evaluation Scriven also developed the

term summative evaluation. These different forms of evaluation were being discussed

prior to Scriven formally giving them a name. Susan Markle, also in 1967, made

reference to “a lack of rigor in testing processes” (Reiser, 2012). Markle then described

procedures that should be used for evaluating material both during and after

development. This idea of evaluation became integral to many instructional designers

methodologies.

In conjunction with worldly events key figures made noteworthy impacts on the

field of Instructional Design as well. One such figure is Benjamin Bloom. In 1956 a

committee led by Bloom introduced Bloom’s Taxonomy. This model is still prescribed to

by some in the field today. It consists of the following six levels: knowledge,
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comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Fig 1) (Instructional

Design, 2013). Bloom suggests a learner must move through these levels as a part of

learning and each level must be mastered before the next level can be achieved. Some

critics of Bloom’s Taxonomy would suggest the levels are not sequential but the top

three are better described as in parallel (Fig 2). Each of these top three could be done

at any time and in conjunction with each other(Bloom’s Taxonomy, 2013).

Fig 1 Bloom’s Taxonomy Fig 2 Alternative to Bloom’s Taxonomy

(Instructional Design, 2013) (Bloom’s Taxonomy, 2013)

Another key figure in the field of Instructional Design is Robert M. Gangé. In 1965

Gangé published a work entitled The Conditions of Learning which contained his five

domains of learning outcomes: verbal information, intellectual skill, psychomotor skills,

attitudes, and cognitive strategies. It also describes his nine events of instruction

(Reiser, 2012). According to Gangé all learning happens in a series of events. The nine

steps are in a very hierarchical structure, such that each event must be done prior to the

next in order for learning to take place (Instructional Design, 2013). Gangé’s work has

had a profound and lasting effect on the field of Instructional Design as a lot of his work

has lead others to develop the models which are still used today.
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Facets and Settings

Instructional Design is seen by most as a process for developing instruction. Like

any process there must be steps which are followed to ensure the process is being

followed the same each time. The ADDIE process is the most common and basic

process used by most Instructional Designers. This process consists of five steps:

analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Evaluation is further

broken down into two parts, formative which is really done throughout the entire process

and summative which is done afterward via some kind of test or feedback to be sure the

objectives the instruction was designed for are being met. (ADDIE Model, 2012)

Sometimes designing better instruction is not at the root of the problem.

Sometimes it is more of a problem with personnel performance. It is not that they do not

know the information; it is that they do not know how to use what they already know.

This being recognized in the last 1960’s to early 1970’s a separate branch of

Instructional Design might be beneficial, and thus the area of Human Performance

Technology (HPT) was born (Human Performance Technology, 2013). The area of HPT

is usually credited to Thomas F. Gilbert who, as a student of Skinner, learned the

principles and practices of behaviorism (Stolovitch & Beresford, 2012).

With the onset of computers being used in schools there became a need for the

teachers to learn about the new technologies they would be incorporating into their

lessons. This became another facet of the instructional design field. Instructional

Designers would work with the teachers, and others in the school, to ensure they are up

to date with the technology and how it integrates with the lessons they are using. The

ASSURE model came to be in the early 1980s, when computers where just starting to
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make their way into the classroom, which was developed to assist instructional

designers and teachers with this new technology. It is designed to emulate other

traditional instructional design models and incorporates Gangé’s nine events as well in

the final product. (Lowther & Ross, 2012)

Current Issue

An ever increasing problem facing current instructional designers is the

integration of technology. This is mainly seen when the designers are working with/for a

school system. The problem is not necessarily the technology itself but rather the

people who would be using in during instruction, in other words teachers. The students

who currently attend school are considered to be from the “digital native” generation.

Meaning they have been growing up in and around technology since birth (Hicks, 2011).

A survey from Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006 shared in “a recent survey of over four

hundred U.S. employers revealing that our high school graduates are entering today’s

workforce deficient in most of the twenty-first century knowledge and skills needed to

achieve successful careers” (Lowther & Ross, 2012). So even with the idea that the

current generation is digital natives there still may be an issue with what their

technology level of knowledge is, ultimately stemming from what they were or were not

taught prior to high school graduation. These students usually understand what a

computer is and have a basic understanding of how to use one but employers are

looking for a higher level of familiarity with more than just email and word processing.

(Lowther & Ross, 2012)

Most teachers see the integration of technology as a good thing, so then why is

there still a struggle to use the technology? The problem boils down to the teacher who
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is not nearly as comfortable with the technology as the students are. Generally most

teachers say they are comfortable using a computer for basic things such as email or

word process but not much beyond those (Ertmer, 2005). So how does a school or

school system help the teacher become comfortable? Some of this falls into the hands

of the instructional designers. Ertmer states that in a 2003 Department of Education

study “the majority of teachers (85%) now report feeling ‘somewhat well-prepared’ to

use technology for classroom instruction…” (Ertmer, 2005). This in an increase from

2000 when it was reported only 53% feel somewhat prepared (Ertmer, 2005). The same

study also revealed more teachers had availability to computers and computers with

internet access. As well most said they were at least technically competent with a

computer. Ertmer says there is one other factor besides competency and availability

that would influence a teacher’s willingness to use technology, which is the teacher’s

beliefs and attitude (2005). This seems to be the largest contributor as to why teachers

are still not using technology in the classroom. Both Ertmer and Hicks seems to come to

a similar conclusion, it is not the technology itself that is causing the problem it is the

people who are supposed to be using it. The majority of the teaching population did not

have these kinds of resources when they were in school (Hicks, 2011). Nespor (1987)

“describes beliefs as relying on episodic memory, with information being drawn from

personal experiences or cultural sources of knowledge” (Ertmer, 2005). So if a teacher

has had negative experiences with computers or technology that memory is going to

have a substantial effect of the teacher’s willingness to change a behavior (Ertmer,

2005). Hicks does show us some light at the end of the tunnel though. She states the

generation of teachers who did not have these kinds of technologies growing up are
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getting closer to retirement and are being replaced with those who have grown up with

the technology. Since this new generation of teachers already has the familiarity with

the technology there should not be as many problems with them incorporating it into

their lessons (Hicks, 2011).

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References

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ddie

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