INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

CEN-105: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Module – 5 (Air Pollution Sources & Impacts)

1
 Air Pollution

AQI
(04/10/2018)
TYPICAL AIR POLLUTION SCENARIO
Healthy alveoli
 Pulmonary emphysema:
The air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air
sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones.
This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen that
reaches your bloodstream.
Bronchial asthma
 Air Pollution and Public Health

• Air pollution is a major killer in India

• Pollution, inversion and meterological conditions
• Dust storms
• Photochemical smog
• Burning to dispose solid waste and keep warm
in winter
• Crackers
Air Pollution and Public Perception

• Pollution from India even reaches the Hindu

Kush Himalayas, causing smog and
environmental damage in the fragile region.
• Great expectations from a National Clean Air
Programme (NCAP) drafted by India’s Ministry
of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
– It recommends more detailed monitoring, measuring,
and apportioning of pollutants and inclusion of the
recent development of a National Air Quality Index
– The rules are not implemented with anywhere near
the level of stringency that is required.
 Why Air Pollution?
• Main cause: Combustion
Fuel (C,H,S,N,Pb,Hg,ash) + Air (N2 + O2)
CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, Hg, SPM,
PM10,PM2.5, VOCs

Usage/handling of Chemicals: paint, varnishes,

perfumes, CFCs, petrol pumps, etc.

Cement handling, insulation on winding of

motors/alternators/transformers etc.
 Combustion processes
1. Electricity generation
Total generation capacity: 2,75,912 MW

2. Transport : 18 % of total energy

Liquid fuels: 97.5% of total in sector (petroleum
products)
Electricity: 1.0% of total in sector

3. Industry: coal, petroleum products, electricity

4. Domestic sector : biomass, petroleum products, electricity
5. Agriculture: electricity, petroleum products
 Agencies responsible for monitoring
state of air pollution in India
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981

Centre-Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change

Central pollution control board (CPCB)
State pollution control boards (SPCB)/committees

Set procedure : ambient air, industry wise norms

FIR against the firm/sealing of the industry
 Pollutants Time- Concentration in ambient air
weighted Industrial Residential, Sensitive
National Ambient average Areas Rural & Areas
other Areas
Air Quality SulphurDioxide (SO2) Annual 80 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3
Average*
Standards 24 120 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3
µg/m3
(NAAQS) hours**
Oxides of Annual 80 µg/m3 60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3
in India, 1994 Nitrogen as
(NO2)
Average*
24 120 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3
hours** µg/m3
Suspended Particulate Annual 360 140 µg/m3 70 µg/m3
Environmentally Matter (SPM) Average* µg/m3
Sensitive areas (ESA): 24 500 200 µg/m3 100
landscape, wild life & hours** µg/m3 µg/m3
Respirable Particulate Annual 120 60 µg/m3 50 µg/m3
historical importance Matter (RPM) (size less than Average* µg/m3
10 microns) 24 150 100 µg/m3 75 µg/m3
hours** µg/m3
Lead (Pb) Annual 1.0 µg/m3 0.75 µg/m3 0.50
Now industrial, Average* µg/m3

residential, rural and 24 1.5 µg/m3 1.00 µg/m3 0.75

hours** µg/m3
other areas have been Ammonia1 Annual 0.1 mg/ 0.1 mg/ m3 0.1
merged Average* m3 mg/m3
24 0.4 mg/ 0.4 mg/m3 0.4
hours** m3 mg/m3
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 5.0 2.0 mg/m3 1.0 mg/
hours** mg/m3 m3
* annual mean of 104 measurements in a year
1 hour 10.0 4.0 mg/m3 2.0
** 24/8 h values should be met 98% of time in a year mg/m3 mg/m3
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:2009

18.11.2009
 Particulate Matter
Suspended Particulate Matter
Fine Particulate Matter
 What is Particulate Matter?
• Particulate matter, or PM, is
the term for particles found in
the air, including dust, dirt,
soot, smoke, and liquid
droplets.
• These small particles can
remain suspended in the air
for long periods of time.
• Some particles are large or
dark enough to be seen as
soot or smoke. Others are so
small that individually they
can only be detected with an
electron microscope.
 Types of Fine Particulate Matter
• Primary Particles
– These particles are emitted directly
from air pollution sources such as
power plants, factories, automobile
exhaust, construction sites, unpaved
roads, wood burning etc.
• Secondary Particles
– Formed in the atmosphere indirectly
when gases from burning fuels react
with sunlight and water vapor and
are chemically transformed into
particles, secondary pollutants:
solid/liquid
 A few definitions
• Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.001 – 100 μm may be in air
• General term for these is aerosols
• Dust originates from grinding or crushing
• Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
• Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
• Smog is used to describe air pollution and
is a combination of smoke+fog
Hukka
 Stokes Law

Aerodynamic diameter: Diameter of the sphere having the same settling

velocity as that of the particle

Given by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851

𝑑2 𝑔(ρ𝑠 − ρ𝑚 )
𝑣𝑡 =
Where, 18μ
acceleration of gravity (g), m/s2
particle diameter (d), m

density of particle (ρp), kg/m3

density of medium (ρm), kg/m3

viscosity of medium (μ), kg/m s

Particulate Matter
Courtesy, EPA

TIME TO MOVE
DOWN 2 m
DISTANCE
 What are PM10 and PM2.5 ?
PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less
and PM2.5 represents particles of 2.5 micrometers or less
in aerodynamic diameter
Hair cross section (70 mm)

Human Hair (70 µm diameter) PM10 PM2.5

(10µm) (2.5 µm)
Sources of Particulate Matter PM10
and PM2.5
India
 Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)
Standard Reference Date Region

Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†

2010.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
* National Capital Region (Delhi)

† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune,

Surat, Kanpur and Agra
Health Effects of Particulate Matter
• Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
• Large particles trapped in nose
• Particles >10 μm removed in
tracheobronchial system
• Particles <0.5 μm reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
• Particles 2 – 4 μm most effectively get
deposited in lungs
Health Effects from Particulate Matter
– aggravated asthma
– increase in respiratory
symptoms like
coughing and difficult
or painful breathing
– chronic bronchitis
– decreased lung
function
– premature death
 Other Effects of PM
• Visibility Impairment
– PM is the major cause of
reduced visibility (haze).
• Aesthetic Damage
– Soot, a type of PM, stains and
damages stone and other
materials, including objects
such as monuments and
statues.
• Plant Damage
– PM can form a film on plant
leaves interfering with
photosynthesis and plant
growth
 Particulate Matter and Taj
The deposition of
PM on the
shimmering
white marble of
the Taj Mahal
imparts yellow
tinge to the
marble surface
 Carbon Monoxide
• Most abundant air
pollutant
• Produced by incomplete
combustion
– insufficient O2
– low temperature
– short residence time
– poor mixing
• Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust
 Carbon Monoxide
• Colorless and odorless
• When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
• brain function reduced, heart rate increased at lower levels
• asphyxiation occurs at higher levels

• % COHb = β(1- e-γt) (CO)

• % COHb = Carboxyhemoglobin as % saturation

• CO = Carbon monoxide conc. in ppm
• γ = 0.402 h-1
• β= 0.15 %/ ppm CO
• t = exposure time in hours
Carbon Monoxide - impact
 TYPICAL LEVELS OF CO

Concentration Source
0.1 ppm Natural atmosphere level
0.5 to 5 ppm Average level in homes

5 to 15 ppm Near gas stoves in homes

Exhaust from automobiles with catalytic

100 to 200 ppm
converters

5,000 ppm Exhaust from a home wood fire

Undiluted warm car exhaust without

7,000 ppm
a catalytic converters
 Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
• SO2, SO3, SO4-2
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
• H2S released is
converted to SO2
• 10 Tg/yr natural
sources
• 75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources
 Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects
• High concentrations of SO2 can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
• Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO2, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
• Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO2 levels may result in reduced lung
function.
Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental Effects
• Acid Rain Decreased Visibility
Gross sulfur dioxide damage to trees
Sulfur dioxide damage to corn
Thermal
power plants
to blame for a
significant
chunk of SO2
emissions
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
• Primarily NO and NO2
• NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4,
N2O5 are also known
to occur
• Thermal NOx created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N2 when
T > 1000 K
• Fuel NOx from
oxidation of N in fuel
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

• NO has few health effects, but is oxidized

to NO2
• NO2 irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections
• NO2 reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
• NO2 reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid – acid precipitation
 Lead
• Sources:
– gasoline (historical)
– metals processing
• Highest air Pb
concentrations
– in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.
 Lead: Health Effects
• Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
• Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs.
• Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
• May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.
Crackers are a
source of
heavy metals
in air
 Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight →
photochemical smog (oxidants)

• primary
oxidants
produced:
– ozone (O3)
– formaldehyde
– peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)
 Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR)
• Ultra-violet radiation (UVR) high energy electromagnetic wave emitted from the
sun. It is made up of wavelengths ranging from 100nm to 400nm.
• UV radiation includes UV-A, the least dangerous form of UV radiation, with a
wavelength range between 315nm to 400nm, UV-B with a wavelength range
between 280nm to 315nm, and UV-C which is the most dangerous between 100nm
to 280nm. UV-C is unable to reach Earth’s surface due to stratospheric ozone’s
ability to absorb it.
 Photochemical Smog
N2+O2=2NO
2NO+O2= NO2
NO2+photon= NO+O – photolysis for λ < 0.39 µm
O2+O+M = O3+M M may be N2 or O2 which are in abundant
O3+NO=NO2+O2
Photochemical smog-concentration profiles
 Ozone: Health Effects Human
• Increased incidents of respiratory distress.
• Repeated exposures to ozone:
– Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
– Lung inflammation
– Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
– Decrease in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.
 Ozone: Environmental Effects
• Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
– reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
– reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
– increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses (e.g.,
harsh weather).
Ozone damage to radish plant resulting in smaller
radish
Ozone damage to romaine lettuce – silver shine
reduces value
 Ozone damage to alfalfa
– reduces nutritional value as animal forage
 Landmark datelines to cleaner air in capital
• April 1995: Mandatory fitting of catalytic convertors
• April 1996: Low sulphur Diesel introduced, 350 ppm
• April 1998: Introduction of CNG buses in Delhi
• Sept 1998: Complete removal of lead from petrol
• Dec 1998: Restricted plying of goods vehicles during the day
• Sept 1999: Amendment of Motor Vehicles Act to include
CNG
• April 2000: Private vehicles to be registered only if they
conform to Euro II standards
• April 2000: Eight-year-old commercial vehicles phased out
• Nov 2002: Conversion of all public transport buses to CNG
• April 2015: NGT bans 10 years old Diesel vehicles in Delhi
 AIR QUALITY INDEX
Are we affected by poor Air Quality (AQ)?
• The very young are at risk
– Lungs are not fully developed
– Faster breathing rate: more air volume/body weight
• The very old are at risk
– Undiagnosed lung or heart diseases
– Pollution can exacerbate these conditions
• Persons with chronic illnesses: Respiratory, circulatory, or
cardiac diseases
✓ Yes, EVERYONE!
• Even healthy persons can be affected when they exercise
outdoors, or if the concentration of pollutants is very high
 How do we know if Air Quality is poor?
AQI is an overall scheme that transforms
individual air pollutant (e.g. SO2, CO, PM10)
levels into a single number, which is a simple
and lucid description of air quality for the
citizens.

AQI relates to health impacts and citizens can

avoid the unnecessary exposure to air
pollutants;

AQI indicates compliance with National

Ambient Air Quality Standards;

AQI prompts local authorities to take quick

actions to improve air quality;

AQI guides policy makers to take broad

decisions; and

AQI encourages citizens to participate in air

quality management.
 Pollutants considered for AQI and air quality
standards

Pollutant SO2 NO2 PM2.5 PM10 O3 CO (mg/m3) Pb NH3

Averaging time (hr) 24 24 24 24 1 8 1 8 24 24

Indian Standard (µg/m3) 80 80 60 100 180 100 4 2 1 400

Good Satisfactory Moderate Poor Very poor Severe

(0-50) (51-100) (101-200) (201-300) (301-400) (> 401)
 AQI: Health impacts
AQI Possible Health Impacts

Good minimal impact

Satisfactory minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people

breathing discomfort to the people with lung disease such as asthma and
Moderate
discomfort to people with heart disease, children and older adults

breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure and discomfort to people with

Poor
heart disease with short exposure

respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure. Effect may be

Very Poor
more pronounced in people with lung and heart diseases

respiratory effects even on healthy people and serious health impacts on people with
Severe
lung/heart diseases

The higher the AQI, greater the air pollution and health concerns