Chapter 2: Basic Principles, Concepts and definition : Systems of Unit

Learning Outcomes:
At the end the student should be able:

1. To explain the concept of energy and basic thermodynamic system.

2. To analyse the process of energy conversion.
3. To solve some problems involving basic thermodynamic systems.

2.1 Mass
Sir Isaac Newton made a statement “the acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to its mass”,a=kF/m where k= is a
proportionality constant. (Faires) This concludes that F=ma/k.
There are systems of unit where k is at unity but it is not dimensionless.
cgs system: 1 dyne of force accelerates a 1 gram of mass in 1 cm/sec2.
mks system: 1 newton of force accelerates a 1 kilogram of mass in 1 m/sec2.
fps system: 1 pound force accelerates a 1 pound mass in 1 ft/sec2.
There are systems of unit where k is at not in unity but it is not dimensionless. Both
mass and force used the same word in a given system.
1 gram of force accelerates a 1 gram of mass in 980.66 cm/sec2.
1 kilogram of force accelerates a 1 kilogram of mass in 9.8066 m/sec2.
1 pound force accelerates a 1 pound mass in 32.174 ft/sec2.
Relationship between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝑚 𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 𝑚
𝑘=1 𝑘 = 9.8066
𝑁 − 𝑠2 𝑘𝑔𝑓 − 𝑠 2

𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝑚 𝑘𝑔 −𝑚
Therefore: 1 = 9.8066 𝑘𝑔𝑚−𝑠2
𝑁−𝑠2 𝑓

1𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.8066 𝑁
Relationship between pound mass (lbm) and slug
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡
𝑘=1 𝑘 = 32.174
𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2

𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑓𝑡

Therefore: 1 = 32.174
𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑠2

1𝑙𝑏𝑚 = 32.174 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔

2.2 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Also, it is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to its mass.
𝐹𝑘
𝑎=
𝑚

1 lbm 1 poundal

1 ft/s2 1 poundal = (1lbm)(1 ft/s2)

1 pound force= (1 slug)( 1 ft/s2)

1 slug
1 pound force

1 ft/s2

force
Acceleration

Mass

Figure 2.1: Illustration for Acceleration

The greater the force applied to an object the greater the distance it may travel.
2.3 Mass and Weight

Mass and weight are often confused with one another, but there is a difference between the
two.

Mass is a scientific term used to describe the density and type of atoms in any given
object. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), though mass can also be measured in pounds
(lb).
Weight, on the other hand, is the gravitational force (Fg) exerted on the body.
𝑚 𝐹 𝐹𝑔
= =
𝑘 𝑎 𝑔
Where: g = is the acceleration that the gravity produces by force, Fg
a = acceleration that is produced by another force, F.
On earth or under the standard condition, k and g are numerically equal therefore giving m and
force, Fg, an equal numerical values.

Sample Problems:

1. What will be the weight of a man with 50 kgm at a standard condition?

Solution: Fg=W=mg/k

Given:

m= 50 kgm g = 9.8066 m/s2

(50 𝑘𝑔𝑚 )(9.8066 𝑚⁄ 2 )
𝑠
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑘𝑔 −𝑚 = 50 𝑘𝑔𝑓
9.8055 𝑚 2
𝑘𝑔𝑓 −𝑠

2. The weight of an object is 108.50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

Solution: Fg=W=mg/k

Given:

Fg= 108.50 lbf g = 32.174 ft/s2

𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑓𝑡
(108.50 𝑙𝑏𝑓 )(32.174 )
𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑠2
𝑚= 𝑓𝑡⁄ = 108.50 𝑙𝑏𝑚
(32.174 )
𝑠2
3. The gravity of acceleration at equatorial sea level is g= 32.088 ft/s2 and that its variation is – 0.003ft/s2
per 1000 ft of ascent. Find the approximate height in ft at the top of the mountain for which (a) the
gravity of acceleration becomes 30.504 ft/s2, (b) the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%, (c) what
is the weight of 180 lbm man atop the mountain of 29,131 ft height, relative to this point?

Solution:

(a) change in acceleration, Δa = 30.504 ft/s2 – 32.088 ft/s2 = -1.584 ft/s2

𝑓𝑡
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑎 −1.584 ⁄ 2
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, ℎ = = = 𝑠 = 𝟓𝟐𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑡
−0.003 ⁄𝑠 2
1000 𝑓𝑡
(b) Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level.

F= 0.95 Fg
a 𝐹 𝐹𝑔
=
𝑎 𝑔

0.95𝐹𝑔 𝐹𝑔
=
𝑎 𝑔
h=? 𝑓𝑡⁄ 𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = 0.95𝑔 = (0.95) (32.088 ) = 30.484 ⁄ 2
𝑠2 𝑠
𝑓𝑡⁄ 𝑓𝑡
∆𝑎 30.484 −32.088 ⁄ 2
𝑠2 𝑠
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, ℎ = 𝑎𝑣
= 𝑓𝑡 = 𝟓𝟑𝟒, 𝟔𝟕𝟎 𝒇𝒕
−0.003 ⁄ 2
𝑠
1000 𝑓𝑡

Fg g= 32.088 ft/s2

(c) Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level.

F
a

𝑓𝑡⁄ 29,131 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑎𝑓 = (32.088 )−( ) (0.003 ⁄ 2 ) = 30.001 ⁄ 2
𝑠2 1000 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 𝑠
𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑎 (180 𝑙𝑏𝑚 )(32.001 ⁄ 2 )
𝑠
h=29,131 ft 𝐹= = 𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑓𝑡 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗. 𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝑘 32.174 2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑠

g= 32.088 ft/s2
Fg m= 180 lbm
2.4. Specific Volume, Density and Specific Weight

2.4.1 Specific Volume

A specific property that is defined as the total volume of the substance per unit mass. Specific
volume is denoted small letter “v”. It is the reciprocal of density. Specific volume is an intrinsic property
which means that the substance is independent to the amount. The same way, specific volume is also an
intensive property which is the bulk property of the substance that does not affect by the amount of
sample.

Formulas:
𝑽
𝒗= ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑽 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒎
𝟏
𝒗= ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝝆 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝝆
2.4.2 Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is denoted with lower case Greek letter
"ρ" (Rho). Density is a measure of how tight the matter pressed or crammed together in a given
volume. Density is also an intensive property which does not affect by the amount of the given sample
of a substance.

Formulas:
𝒎
𝝆= ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑽 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑽
𝟏
𝝆= ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗

Densities of Common Substances

Material Density (g/cm3) State of Matter
hydrogen (at STP) 0.00009 gas
helium (at STP) 0.000178 gas
carbon monoxide (at STP) 0.00125 gas
nitrogen (at STP) 0.001251 gas
air (at STP) 0.001293 gas
carbon dioxide (at STP) 0.001977 gas
lithium 0.534 solid
ethanol (grain alcohol) 0.810 liquid
benzene 0.900 liquid
ice 0.920 solid
water at 20°C 0.998 liquid
 Material Density (g/cm3) State of Matter
water at 4°C 1.000 liquid
seawater 1.03 liquid
milk 1.03 liquid
coal 1.1-1.4 solid
blood 1.600 liquid
magnesium 1.7 solid
granite 2.6-2.7 solid
aluminum 2.7 solid
steel 7.8 solid
iron 7.8 solid
copper 8.3-9.0 solid
lead 11.3 solid
mercury 13.6 liquid
uranium 18.7 solid
gold 19.3 solid
platinum 21.4 solid
osmium 22.6 solid
iridium 22.6 solid
7
white dwarf star 10 solid
Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/table-of-densities-of-common-substances-603976
Table 2.1

2.4.3 Specific Weight

Specific weight is defined as the force due to gravitational pull, weight, per unit volume. It is
denoted with lower case Greek letter “γ” (gamma).

Formulas:
𝑭𝒈 𝑾
𝜸= = ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑭𝒈 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍,
𝑽 𝑽
𝑽 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝝆𝒈
𝜸= ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝝆 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆,
𝒌
𝒈 = 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭𝒈

𝒌 = 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Specific Weight for Some common Materials

Source: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity-d_290.html
Table 2.2

2.4.4 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density to the density of a
𝒌𝒈𝒎
reference substance. The most common reference is pure water, 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ⁄ 𝟑 . Specific gravity is
𝒎
denoted with “sp gr” or “SG”. Specific gravity can also be defined as the ratio of specific weight of the
substance to the specific weight of the reference substance.

Formulas:
𝝆𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑺. 𝑮. =
𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑺. 𝑮. =
𝜸𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆

Note: The reference for solid and liquid is water at STP and for gas is air at STP.
Sample Problems:

1. What is the specific volume of a given liquid with density of 912.25 kg/m3?

𝟏
Solution: 𝒗=
𝝆
Given: ρ= 912.25 kgm/m3
1 𝟑
𝒗= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒎 ⁄𝒌𝒈
𝑘𝑔𝑚⁄ 𝒎
912.25
𝑚3
2. A liquid is poured in a 150 L tank and the mass of the liquid is 25 lbm. Find the specific volume in
m3/kg and the density in lbm/ft3.
𝑽
Solution: 𝒗=
𝒎

𝟏
𝒗=
𝝆
Given: V= 150 L; m= 25 lbm
1𝑚3 3.28 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 150 𝐿 ( ) = 0.15 𝑚3 ( ) = 5.2931 𝑓𝑡 3
1000 𝐿 1𝑚

1𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝑚 = 25 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ = 11.3379 𝑘𝑔𝑚
2.205 𝑙𝑏𝑚
0.15 𝑚3 𝟑
𝑣= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒎 ⁄𝒌𝒈
11.3379 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝒎

25 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝒍𝒃𝒎
𝜌= = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟏 ⁄𝒇𝒕𝟑
5.2931 𝑓𝑡 3

3. Find the specific gravity and the specific weight at standard condition of a given block with a density
of 2,558.31 kgm/m3?
𝝆𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒈 𝑾 𝝆𝒈
Solution: 𝑺. 𝑮. = 𝜸= = =
𝝆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽 𝑽 𝒌

Given: 𝝆 = 𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟖. 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒎 /𝒎𝟑

2,558.31 𝑘𝑔𝑚 /𝑚3
𝑆. 𝐺. = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟑
1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚 /𝑚3
𝑚
(2,558.31 𝑘𝑔𝑚 /𝑚3 )(9.8066 2 ) 𝑵 𝒌𝑵
𝑠
𝛾= 𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝑚 = 𝟐𝟓, 𝟎𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟑
1 𝒎𝟑
𝑁−𝑠2
4. There are two different liquids with different densities ( ρ1= 1553.21kgm/m3, ρ2=
728.33kgm/m3) are poured together into a 150 L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 945.12 kgm/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find the weight of
the mixture. The local gravitational acceleration, g= 9.628 m/s2.
Given:ρ1=1553.21kgm/m3, ρ2=728.33kgm/m3,Vt= 150 L, ρm=945.12 kgm/m3, g= 9.628 m/s2
Solution: mass of mixture, mm= ρmVm
m1 + m2 = mm
ρ1V1 + ρ2V2 = mm
V1 + V2 = Vm
mm= (945.12 kgm/m3) (0.150 m3)= 141. 768 kgm
(1553.21kgm/m3 )(V1) + (728.33kgm/m3 )V2 = 141. 768 kgm

V1 + V2 = 0.15 m3
V1= 0.15 m3 – V2
(1553.21kgm/m3 )( 0.15 m3 – V2) + (728.33kgm/m3 )V2 = 141. 768 kgm

232.9815 kgm – (1553.21kgm/m3 V2) + 728.33kgm/m3 V2 = 141. 768 kgm

- 824.88 kgm/m3 V2= - 91.2135 kgm

V2= 0.1106 m3
V1= 0.15 m3 – 0.1106 m3
V1 = 0.0394 m3
m1= ρ1V1= (1553.21kgm/m3)( 0.0394 m3) = 61.1965kgm
m2= ρ2V2= (728.33kgm/m3)( 0.1106 m3) = 80.5533 kgm
weight of the mixture,

(𝑚𝑚 )(𝑔) (141.768 kgm)(9.628 𝑚⁄ 2 )

𝑠
𝐹𝑔𝑚 = 𝑘
= 𝑘𝑔𝑚 −𝑚 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒇
(9.8066 )
𝑘𝑔𝑓 − 𝑠2
 2.5 Pressure

Pressure is the measure of applied force perpendicular in a given surface area. Pressure
measurements can be divided into three different categories: absolute pressure, gage pressure and
differential pressure.
Absolute pressure
(p=po + pg) Local Atmospheric Pressure
+pg Gage (Positive gage)

Atmospheric pressure
(p=po, pg= 0)
p -pg Vacuum (Negative gage)

Po Absolute pressure (p=po - pg)

p

Zero Absolute or Total Vacuum

(p=po, pg= 0)
Figure 2.2 Pressure Term Relationships

2.5.1 Measuring Pressure

a.) Using Manometers

po
Where:
p= Absolute Pressure
po= Atmospheric Pressure
p hg
pg= Gage Pressure
pg hg= Pressure due to liquid
column

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑝𝑔

Figure 2.3: Manometer (a) Absolute pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure.

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑔
p
pg
hg po

Figure 2.4: Manometer (b) Absolute pressure is less than the atmospheric pressure.
 b.) Using Pressure gages

Pressure gages are devices that is able to measure gage pressure as it name implies.

The Bourdon Gauge is one of the common

pressure measuring devices that is consist of coiled
tube whose one end is connected to the system under
consideration and other end is sealed. The applied
pressure in the tube causes it to straighten up causing
deflection on the sealed end. The sealed end is linked
to an indicating needle through a gear. The deflection
of the sealed end results in movement of the needle
which moves on a calibrated dial.

In the equation from the figure 2.3 of absolute

pressure, 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑝𝑔 , where “p” is the absolute
pressure, po is the atmospheric pressure and pg is the
gage pressure, we can extract gage pressure as:
Figure 2.5. Bourdon Gauge
𝐹𝑔 𝑚𝑔 1 𝜌𝑉𝑔 1 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑔 𝐴 1 Source: https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-
𝑝𝑔 = = ( )( ) = ( )( ) = ( )( ) civil-engineering/43777-pressure-measurement-pressure-
𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 measurement-devices/
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑔
𝑝𝑔 = ( ); where: hg= Pressure due to liquid column.
𝑘

Problem Sample:
A 30- m vertical column of fluid with density of 1878 kg/m3 is located where the local acceleration due
to gravity is 9.65 m/s2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑔
Solution: 𝑝𝑔 = ( )
𝑘

po Given: ρ= 1878 kgm/m3, hg= 30-m, g= 9.65 m/s2

𝑘𝑔𝑚
(1878 ⁄ 3 )(9.65 𝑚⁄ 2 )(30𝑚)
𝑚 𝑠
𝑝𝑔 = ( 𝑘𝑔 −𝑚 )
1 𝑚 2
𝑁− 𝑠

30m 𝑁
𝑝𝑔 = 543,681 𝑜𝑟543,681 𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 543.681 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚2
 2.5.2 Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure it is the force per unit area exerted by an atmospheric column, that is the
air above the specified area. It is also defined as the pressure measure within the atmosphere of the
earth and it is also called as barometric pressure.

𝛾ℎ𝑜
𝑝𝑜 = ( 𝑘
); where ho is the height of the column supported by
the atmospheric pressure, po.

ho
po

2.5.3 Absolute Pressure

Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or the atmospheric pressure
and the gage pressure. In the relation of height of column of liquid that is:

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ, where h= ho ± hg

Sample Problem:

1. Forty-five psig registers in the pressure measuring device in a region where the atmospheric pressure
is 14.7 psi. Find the absolute pressure in psia and in kPaa.

Solution: p= po ± pg

Given: pg= 45 psig, po= 14.7 psi

𝑝 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 + 45 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂

101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑝 = (59.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 ) ( 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
) = 𝟒𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂
2. Given the standard condition convert the following:

a.) 122 psig to psia and to atm.

b.) 23.5 mm- Hgv to in- Hga and to psia

c.) 12.2 psia to psiv and to Pav.

d.) 15 in- Hgg to psia, to torrsg, and to Pag.

Solution:

a.) p= po + pg

p= 14.7 psi + 122 psig= 136.7 psia

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑝𝑔 = 122𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 (14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖) = 𝟖. 𝟑 𝒂𝒕𝒎

b.) h= ho - hg

h= 29.92 in- Hg – 0.9252 in- Hgv= 28.9948 in- Hga

14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖
ℎ = 28.9948 in − Hg ( ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒂
29.92 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑔
c.) p= po - pg

pv= 14.7psi - 12.2 psia= 2.5 psiv

101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑣 = 2.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑣 ( 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
) = 𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝑷𝒂𝒗

d.) p= po + pg

p= 29.92 in- Hg + 15 in- Hgg= 44.92 in- Hg

14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑝 = 44.92 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑔 (29.92 𝑖𝑛−𝐻𝑔) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊

760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑠
𝑝𝑔 = 15 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑔 (29.92 𝑖𝑛−𝐻𝑔) = 𝟑𝟖𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒔𝒈

101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑔 = 15 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑔 (29.92 𝑖𝑛−𝐻𝑔) = 𝟓𝟎, 𝟕𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝒈
2.6 Temperature

Temperature is an intensive property of a substance that quantifies the hotness or the coldness
of an object or substance. “We use our sense of touch to distinguish hot objects from cold objects and
to arrange objects in their order of “hotness,” deciding that 1 is hotter than 2, 2 hotter than 3, and so
on. But however sensitive human touch may be, we are unable to gauge this quality precisely. “
(Moran).

The common in relation usually used in measuring temperature are the unit degree Fahrenheit and
degree Centigrade. The measurement is according to the boiling point and freezing point of water.

212 F Boiling Pt 100 C 𝒕 ℉ − 𝟑𝟐 𝒕℃ − 𝟎

=
𝟐𝟏𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎
𝟗
𝒕 ℉ = 𝟓 𝒕℃ + 𝟑𝟐
tF tF
𝟓
𝒕 ℃ = 𝟗 ( 𝒕℉ − 𝟑𝟐)

32 F Freezing Pt 0C

In the measurement of absolute temperature (denoted with upper case “T”)

𝑻°𝑹 = 𝒕℉ + 𝟒𝟔𝟎, 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆

𝑻 𝑲 = 𝒕℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑, 𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏
Note that 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡, ℉ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒, ℃ are temperature measurement
(denoted with lower case “t”) while 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝐶° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝐹° are change
of temperature (denoted with either “dt” or “Δt”). It follows that:

1 𝐶° = 1 𝐾° and 1 𝐹° = 1𝑅°

100 𝐶° = 180 𝐹°
9
1 𝐶° = 5 𝐹°

5
1 𝐹° = 𝐶°
9
2.7 Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that “in a closed or isolated system, mass cannot be
created nor destroyed, it only changes forms or state.”

In a fluid that is flowing, like in a refrigeration system, a fluid passing in a given section is

𝑉̇ = 𝐴 𝑣
𝑉̇ 𝐴𝑣
𝑚̇ = v
= v
= 𝐴 𝑣𝜌

Where: 𝑉̇ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
In the law of conservation of mass it states,

𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝜌1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝜌2

Sample Problems:

1. Two fluids enter a mixing tube and leave as single mixture.

𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 3
In tube “a”, Aa= 80.75 in2, 𝑣𝑎 = 880.2 , va = 12 ,
𝑠 𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
In tube “b”, Ab= 62.25 in2, 𝑚̇𝑏 = 25.58 𝑠 , 𝜌𝑏 = 0.375 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 3
In the mixing tube “m”, 𝑣𝑚 = 422.2 𝑠 , vm = 8.22 𝑙𝑏 .
Find the following:
a.) the speed in tube “b”, vb and
b.) the mass flow rate in the mixing tube, 𝑚̇𝑚 , and the cross sectional area of
the mixing tube, 𝐴𝑚
(Source: Adopted from Thermodynamics 1 by Hipolito B. Sta Maria)
Solution:

ṁa

ṁm

ṁb
 𝑙𝑏
𝑚̇𝑏 25.58 𝒇𝒕
𝑠
a.) 𝑣𝑏 = 𝐴 = 1 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑙𝑏 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟕
𝑏 𝜌𝑏 (62.25 in2)( ) (0.375 3) 𝒔
12 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡

1 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑎 𝑣𝑎 (80.75 in2)( ) (880.2 ) lb
12 𝑖𝑛 𝑠
b.) 𝑚̇𝑎 = v𝑎
= 𝑓𝑡3
= 40.75 s
12
𝑙𝑏

𝑙𝑏 lb 𝒍𝒃
𝑚𝑚
̇ = 𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏̇ = 25.58 40.75 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟑𝟑
𝑠 s 𝒔
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑚̇𝑚 v𝑚 (66.33 𝑠 )(8.22 )
𝐴𝑚 = = 𝑙𝑏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑣𝑚 𝑓𝑡
(422.2 𝑠 )

2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water at the rate of 300 gallons per minute
(gpm) and is discharging through a 6-in inside diameter(ID) line with a constant speed of 5 ft/s. At a
given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water level and the mass change in the tank 15 minutes
later.(Source: Thermodynamics 1 by Hipolito B. Sta Maria )

Solution:

5 ft/s
300 gpm

15 ft

10 ft diameter
 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠
300 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑚̇𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑉𝑒̇ 𝑥 𝜌 = ( ) (62.4 3 ) = 2502.6738
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
7.48
𝑓𝑡 3

𝜋 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑚̇𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐴𝑣𝜌 = ( ) ( ) (5 )( )(62.4 3 ) = 3675.6634
4 12 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡

∆𝑚 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠) = (𝑚̇𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑚̇𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 )(𝑡@15𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 )

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
∆𝑚 = (3675.6634 − 2502.6738 ) (15 min) = 𝟏𝟕, 𝟓𝟗𝟒. 𝟖𝟒𝟒 𝒍𝒃
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

∆𝑚 17,594.844 𝑙𝑏
∆𝑉 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) = = = 281.9686 𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌 𝑙𝑏
62.4 3
𝑓𝑡

∆𝑉 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) = ∆ℎ(𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑥 𝐴 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)

281.9686 𝑓𝑡 3
∆ℎ = 𝜋 = 3.5901 𝑓𝑡
(4 ) (10 𝑓𝑡)2

ℎ@15 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 7.5 𝑓𝑡 − 3.5901 𝑓𝑡 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝒇𝒕

Review Problems: (Source: (Maria, 2012))
1. What is the mass in grams and the weight in dynes and in gram-force of 12 oz of salt? Local g is 9.65 m/s2, 1 lbm=
16oz.

2. The mass of a given airplane at sea level is 10 tons. Find its mass in lb, slugs and kg. Find also the weight in lb
when it is travelling at a 50,000 ft elevation. The acceleration of gravity g decreases by 3.33 x 10 -6 ft/s2 for each
foot of elevation.

3. The mass of a fluid system is 0.311 slug, its density is 30 lb/ ft3 and g at 31.9 ft/s2. Find the following: a) specific
volume, b) specific weight and c) the total volume.

4. A weatherman carried an aneroid barometer from the ground floor to his office atop the SEARS TOWER in
CHICAGO. On the ground floor level, the barometer reads 30.150 in- Hg absolute; topside it reads 28.607 in-Hg
absolute. Assume that the average atmospheric air density is 0.75 lb/ ft3, find the estimate height of the building.

5. Convert the following eading of pressure to kPaabsolute, assuming that the barometric reading is 760 mm-Hg; a) 90
cm-Hggage, b) 40 cm-Hgvac, c) 100 psig, d) 8 in-Hgvac, and e) 76 in-Hggage.

6. If a pump discharges 75 gallons per minute of water whose specific weight is 61.5 lb/ft 3 where g is 31.95 ft/s2,
find the following: a) the mass flowrate in lb/min, b total time required to fill a vertical cylindrical tank 10 ft in
diameter and 12 ft in height.