Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Submitted By: -
1. Anurag Sharma
2. Aditya Pandit
3. AkashRahile
4. Vikas Singh
5. ChetanDokrimare
Guided by: -
Mr. B.J.Naidu
(HOD Mining and Mine Surveying)
0|P A G E
Index
Sr. Practical Name Page
No. No.
1 Preparation Of rock Sample for laboratory testing 2-13
2 Determination of uniaxial Compressive strength of rock 14-17
sample
3 Determination of Tensile strength of a rock sample 18-21
4 Standard test procedure for the determination of the shear 22-25
strength of rock material in direct shear
5 Determination of triaxial cell 26-33
6 Determination of point load strength index 34-41
7 Determination of protodykonov strength index 42-44
8 Instrumentation 45-68
9 Demonstration of various rock bolts 69-76
1| P A G E
Practical No. 1
2|P A G E
Core drilling bit
3| P A G E
1.3) Core drilling machine
Heavy duty, pillar type frame with 2 HP, single phase AC motor.
Varying cutting feeds provided with water-fed swivel head which can be connected to
suitable water supply. Provision at base for water connection/drainage.
Core preparation from regular and irregular sample core size: EX to NX
Clamping arrangement to hold specimens with regular/irregular shapes to the base of
machine.
Four cutting speeds of 600, 800, 1100 and 1500 RPM.
4|P A G E
1.4) Collection of rock sample from field
Field sampling procedure should be rational and systematic, and the material should be marked
to indicate its original position and orientation relative to identifiable boundaries of the parent
rock mass. Ideally, sample should be moisture proofed immediately after collection either by
waxing, spraying or packing in polyethylene bag or sheet.(example: for moisture proofing by
waxing the following procedure can be used for core that will not fail apart in handling).
(a)Wrap core in a clear thin polyethylene such as GLAD WRAP or SARAN WRAP,
(b)Wrap in cheese cloth,
(c)Coat wrapped core with a lukewarm wax mixture to an approx. 1/4 –in. (6.4 mm) thickness.
1.5) Avoidance of contamination
The deformation and fracture properties of rock maybe influenced by air, water and other fluids
in contact with their internal (cracks and pores) surfaces. If this internal surfaces are
contaminated by oils or other substances, their properties may be altered appreciably and give
misleading test results. Of course, a cutting fluid is required with many types of specimen
preparation equipments. Clean water is preferred fluid. Even so one must be cognizant of the
effect of moisture on test specimens. While it may be impossible to exactly duplicate the in situ
conditions even if they were know, a concerted effort should be made to simulate the
environment from which the sample came. Generally, there are three conditions to be
considered:
(a)Hard, dense rock and low porosity will not normally be affected by moisture. This type of
material is normally allowed to air-dry prior to testing to bring all samples to an equilibrium
condition. Drying at temperatures above 120 0 F (490 c) is not recommended as excessive heat
may cause an irreversible change in rock properties.
(b)Some shale and rocks containing clay will disintegrate if allowed to dry. Usually
disintegration of diamond drill cores can be prevented by wrapping the cores as they are drilled
in a moisture proof material such as aluminium foil or chlorinated rubber, or sealing them in
moisture proof containers.
(c)Mud shale and rock containing bentonites (e.g.: tuff) may soften if the moisture content is too
high. Most of the softer rocks can be cored or cut using compressed air to clear cuttings and to
cool the bit or saw.
5 |P A G E
2) Preparation of sample in laboratory
2.1) Core cutting and grinding machine
Table mounted
Stable construction
Feed arrangement for cutting
Cooling water arrangement
Heavy duty, AC, single phase motor
This unit is designed for cutting and grinding cylindrical rock specimens up to NX size. The
outfit includes 200mm diameter diamond impregnated cutter, a fine diamond impregnated
grinding wheel, a water supply system and simple holder.
AV-Vice, to hold the sample up to 55mm diameter x 140mm long to be cut parallel and square to
the longitudinal axis is provided. Core longer than 140mm can be prepared reversing the
specimen and holding the same vice. A hard feed arrangement is provided to facilitate the
specimen with a uniform and smooth feeding motion. This unit is provided with 1HP, single
phase AC motor. It can also be provided for 100mm and 150mm diameter samples.
6| P A G E
Compact table model.
20 cm diameter top and adapter to hold polishing cloth or paste.
Sample holder to accommodate up to NX size cores.
Continuous water feed arrangement during operation.
This unit is provided with a 1⁄4HP, single phase AC motor. This bench mounted single spindle
lapping machine is ideally suited for the final polishing of the mounted rock or concrete
specimens. Two sample holders of sample size ordered for are provided with each machine as a
standard supply. Sample holders of other sizes can also be provided on request. This is a motor
driven unit with 450⁄500 rpm. A swing-in tap, for continuous water supply during operation is
also provided. This unit is operated on single phase, 220V AC motor.
7 |P A G E
- Record the minimum and maximum readings on the dial gauge and calculate the difference do
repeat the same operations by rotating the specimen for every 90°, and obtain the difference d90,
d180, and d270. The maximum value of these four values shell be less than 0.50mm (0.020in).
Figure app1.1: Assembly for determining the straightness of the cylindrical surface
The flatness of the end faces is determined by a set up similar to that for the cylindrical surface.
The dial gauge, however, is now mounted near the end of the V-block (see figure app1.2.). Move
the dial gauge holder horizontally along the end of the V-block, maintaining good contact with
the block, and record the dial gauge readings every 3mm across the diameter. Plot the readings
on an enlarged scale on mm paper and dram a smooth line through the points. The smoothness
criterion is met when the smooth curve so determined does not depart from a visual best fit line
by more than the value indicated in the standard test procedure (see also tables 1 and 2). Rotate
the specimen 900 around its longitudinal axis and repeat the same operations and tolerance
checks for the new diametrical plane.
Repeat the same procedure for the other end face.
8| P A G E
Figure app1.2: Assembly for determining the perpendicularity of end surfaces to the specimen
axis
Samples after preparation before testing in laboratory (Ref: Rock testing per ISRM PPT)
This criterion can be checked using the measurements taken for the determination of the flatness
of the end faces. Calculate the difference between the maximum and minimum readings on the
dial gauge along each of the 4 diameters (the two lines perpendicular to each other on each end
9| P A G E
face). These four values of difference should be divided by the specimen diameter and the
resulting four values must all be smaller than the ratio indicated in the standard test procedures in
this manual (see also tables 1 and 2).
10 | P A G E
H/R ratio= 1:1/5
b) Tensile strength: -
i. Direct test: - cylindrical diameter= 25-50 mm, L/D ratio 2.5
ii. Indirect Brazilian test: - D/W ratio= 1.25-2.25
iii. Tensile shackle: - hollow cylinder – outer diameter 50mm, inner diameter 20 mm,
w=35.40 mm
c) Shear strength: -
i. Uniaxial by double shear
ii. Cylinder diameter 25, L/D ratio= 3-3.5
iii. Prismatic: - square base side 25 mm, L/W ratio=3-3.53
iv. Uniaxial by inclined dies: -
1) cylindrical-diameter 25-50 mm, L/D ratio 2.5-3
2) Prismatic- square base side 25mm, L/D ratio 2-2.5
d) Point load strength index:-
i. Diameter loading :- cylindrical diameter 25-50 mm , L/D ratio 1.4-1.5
ii. Axial loading: -
1) Cylindrical diameter 25-50 mm, L/D ratio 1.1-0.05
2) irregular-H/W ratio 1-1.5
e) Flexural strength
i. Cylindrical-diameter 25 mm span 15-20 mm
ii. Prismatic- square bases 25 mm span 15-20 mm
iii. Beam- rectangular cross section 3 × 8 mm span 15-20 mm
direction
Brazilian test 0.5-0.6 >10 10- Both 2𝑃
50kN/min directions 𝑇𝑆 =
𝜋×𝐿×𝐷
One
directions
Shear test 3-3.5 >5 _ - 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑃
= 𝑛
𝐴
- 𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠
𝐴
11 | P A G E
Triaxial 2.5 >5 0.5-1 - 𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
compressive MPa/sec 𝐴0
-
Test (in Pa)
Point load Diametrical >10 _ - 𝐷𝑒 0.45
strength index test ratio >1 𝐼𝑠 = ( ) × 𝐼𝑠
50
Axial test -
ratio 0.3-1
3) ISRM Standards for Testing of Rock Specimens in Laboratory (Ref: phyco mechanical properties PPT)
(a) Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.0-3.0
and a diameter preferably of not less than NX core size, approximately 54 mm. The diameter of
the specimen should be related to the size of the largest grain in the rock by the ratio of at least
10:1.
(b) The ends of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and shall not depart from perpendicularity
to the of the specimen by more than 0.001 radian (at 3.5 mm) or 0.05 mm in 50 mm.
(c) The sides of the specimen shall be smooth free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within
0.3 mm over the lull length of the specimen.
(d) The use of capping materials or end surface treatments other than machining is not permitted.
(e) The diameter of the test specimen shall be measured to the nearest 0.1 mm by averaging two
diameters measured at right angles to each other at about the upper-height, the midheight and the
lower height of the specimen. The average diameter shall be used for calculating the cross-
sectional area. The height the specimen shall be determined to the nearest 1.0 mm.
4) Important terms ( Ref: phyco mechanical properties PPT)
Moisture Content (M): It is the ratio of weight of water in the voids to the weight of dry solids
in the rock sampleM = Ww / Ws, where M = Moisture Content, Ww = Weight of water, andWs
= Weight of Solids
Degree of saturation (S): It is defined as the volume of water in the void to the total volume of
voids in the rock sample S = Vw / Vv, where Vw = volume of water, and Vv = volume of voids.
The rockmass having higher porosity has higher degree of saturation
Permeability (k): The ability of porous material to allow a liquid to pass through its pores, units:
cm/sec, or m/sec
Q=kiA
Q= discharge through area, i= hydraulic gradient
Swelling: It is an increase in volume of the mass due to suction of water or due to contact of
water for a long-time Swelling is more in weaker type rocks
Anisotropy: Properties of the elements of the rock mass are not similar in every direction, due to
sequence of rock formation, i.e., due to existence of bedding planes, etc. Anisotropic material has
some weakness in a particular direction. Sedimentary rocks have high degree of anisotropy.
OR
12 | P A G E
When the properties of a material vary with different crystallographic orientations, the material is
said to be anisotropic.
Isotropy: When the properties of a material are the same in all directions, the material is said to
be isotropic and this property of rock is known as isotropy.
Durability: It is the resistance to destruction. If rock is more durable means it will last for a
longer period when put into use. It depends upon the nature of environment against which the
rock is going to be used. Swelling index or slake durability test is used to describe nature of
weathering
5) References
International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 113 to 114.
ASTM Standard Test Method D2938-80
13 | P A G E
Practical No. 2
Aim: Determination of uniaxial Compressive strength of rock sample
Standard test procedure for the determination of unconfined compressive strength of rock
material.
2) Test procedure
- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a
diameter preferable of not less than 54mm. The diameter of the specimen should be at least 10
times larger than the average grain size.
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five. If the
sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of
minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as
perpendicular to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens are available various
intermediate angles can also be tested.
The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.02 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen axis
within 0.250 (0.25mm in 50mm). During the test capping of the samples is not permitted (see
appendix 1).
14 | P A G E
The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within
0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1mm by taking two
perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder
shall be determined to the nearest 0.1mm.
- Preferably specimens should be tested at their natural water content. Precautions have to be
taken that this water content is preserved during storage and specimen preparation.
- The load on the specimen shall be applied continuously at a constant stress rate such that failure
will occur within 5 to 10 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong rock a stress rate
between 0.5 and 1Mpa/sec. The maximum load on the specimen shall be recorded in Newton
with an accuracy of 1%.
2.1) Diameter measurement of Sample
With UTM, the axial displacement w.r.t. load is to be recorded manually with thehelp of proving
ring, while lateral deformation recorded using dial gauges orstrain gauges coupled to LVDT,if
provided.With Instran machine Displacement between Loading Platens will give
axialdisplacement of the specimen under loading and directly get recorded inconnected
computer. Lateral displacement will be recorded in computer using the special attachmentshown
below or manually recorded using strain gauges coupled to LVDT
This equipment is used for determining unconfined compressive strength of intact rock core
specimens. The rock sample is cut to length and the machined flat. The specimen is placed in a
loading frame and if required heated to the desired test temperature. Axial load is continuously
increased on the specimen until peak load and failure are obtained.
The equipment consists:
Load frame AIM-065
Capacity 200KN
Speed 12
Proving Ring 100KN-AIM-275
Platens, Spherical Seating/Rigid Seating- As per ASTM-2938 requirements
15 | P A G E
3) Calculation
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Uniaxial compressive strength(U. C. S) =
𝐷 2
𝜋 (2 )
In this formula Pmax is the maximum load on the specimen (in N) and D is the average specimen
diameter (in m). The uniaxial compressive strength is expressed in Mpa.
16 | P A G E
4) Reporting
The report shall include the following information:
(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Sketch of the mode of failure
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Description of the testing machine and the stress rate used.
- A table listing of all the specimens that the values of unconfined compressive strength
determined and the orientation of weakness planes (if present) with respect to the specimen axis.
- The average value of unconfined compressive strength for all specimen, when necessary
grouped together for the same orientation of their plane of weakness.
5) Remarks
An important part of this testing procedure is essentially identical with parts of the tests for the
determination of the rock elastic modulus and the Poisson ratio. Often the test is executed for the
three purposes simultaneously.
6) References
International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 113 to 114.
ASTM Standard Test Method D2938-80
17 | P A G E
Practical no. 3
Aim: Determination of Tensile strength of a rock sample
A) Direct testing:-
18 | P A G E
‘ft’ be the applied tensile force
‘D’ is outer diameter
‘d’ is inner diameter
L is length of specimen
1) Determination of shear strength under condition without normal stress
a) Single shear strength
b) Double shear strength
c) Punch test
2) Determination of shear strength without but under compression
a) Testing by inclined dies
b) Cylindrical specimen
c) Prismatic specimen
3) Testing irregular specimen by tension
a) Without constraint
b) With constraint
4) Determination of shear strength under confinement in triaxial cell
The result of comparative study of shear strength by different methods generally gives
consistence results.
The result of double shear with prismatic specimen inclined dips with cylindrical
specimen and triaxial.
Standard procedure for the determination of rock material indirect tensile strength by the
Brazilian test
- A suitable testing machine, capable to load to the rock specimen at the required speed (see test
procedure) and measure the applied load with the required accuracy. - Loading platens of
hardened steel between which the rock specimen is compressed.
19 | P A G E
- ASTM procedure is based on flat platens
- ISRM procedure uses specially designed loading jaws (see figure 1 of the ISRM suggested
method) to reduce premature cracking due to high stress concentrations. If such loading jaws are
used, then the spherical seat of the testing machine must be kept in a locked position.
The following test procedure is based on the use of flat platens. To reduce stress concentrations,
cardboard with a thickness of 0.5 mm can be used between the specimen and the loading platens.
- Double thickness (0.2 to 0.4 mm) adhesive paper strip (masking tape) with a width equal or
slightly greater than the specimen thickness.
2) Test procedure
- The test specimen must have the form of a cylinder, with end faces perpendicular to the axis.
The cylindrical surface must be free from obvious tool marks and any irregularities across the
thickness of the specimen should not exceed 0.25 mm. The end faces must be flat to within 0.25
mm and square and parallel to within 0.250. At least ten specimens should be taken from one
sample to obtain a meaningful average.
If the sample rock is anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes or preferred orientation
of minerals, the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well
as perpendicular to such planes can be tested (axis of the cylinder parallel to the plane).
- The specimen diameter shall preferably be not less than NX core size (54 mm), or at least 10
times the average grain size. The thickness/diameter ratio should be 0.5 to 0.6.
- The specimen must be wrapped with the extra thick masking tape around it. If masking tape is
not available cardboard can be used to prevent stress concentrations.
- The load on the specimen must be applied continuously at a constant rate such that failure
occurs within a few minutes. The actual loading rate depends on the strength of the material and
the size of the specimen and may vary from 10 to 50 kN/minute
3) Calculation
The splitting tensile strength of the specimen can be determined with the following formula:
2𝑃
(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡)𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = (𝑖𝑛𝑀𝑝𝑎)
𝜋×𝐿×𝐷
20 | P A G E
In this formula P is the maximum load at failure (in MN);
L is the length of the specimen (in m) and D is the specimen diameter (in m).
4) Reporting
The report shall include the following information:
(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, sample number, co-ordinates, depth below terrain (in case of borehole),
date of sampling.
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed), sample dimensions.
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content.
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Type of the testing machine used, loading rate
- Sketch of then mode of failure
- The indirect tensile strength of each specimen, together with the average result for the sample.
If the sample is anisotropic separate figures should be given for the directions parallel and
perpendicular to planes of weakness.
5) References
International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 119 to 121.
ASTM Standard Test Method D3967-81
21 | P A G E
Practical no. 4
Standard test procedure for the determination of the shear strength of rock material in
direct shear
1) Scope of the test
The objective of this test is to determine the shear strength of discontinuity planes or weak
horizons in rock as a function of the stress perpendicular to the sheared plane. Peak and residual
strength are distinguished.
2) Apparatus used
- A mould to set the test specimen at the required orientation and position in the filling material
(plaster or cement), leaving the shear plane free. This mould must have exactly the same form as
the shear box, to ensure perfect fitting when sample plus filler material are placed in the shear
box.
- Testing equipment (shear box) consisting of the following parts:
- System to apply the normal load perpendicular to the plane to be tested. The resultant load
should pass through the centre of the area tested. The loading system must be capable to
maintain and measure the normal force to within 2% of the selected value during the whole
duration of the test.
- System to apply and measure the shear force to the specimen. The force must be directed
parallel to the shear plane and act through its centre. The system should enable shear
displacements of the order of magnitude of 10% of the length of the shear plane in the direction
of sliding. The shear force must be capable of increase at constant rates and of measuring the
shear force with an accuracy of 2%.
- Micrometer dial gauges for the measuring of shear and normal displacements with an accuracy
of 0.05 mm. Shear and normal displacement measurements must be possible up to 5mm with an
accuracy better than 0.05 mm
22 | P A G E
2.1) Direct Shear Apparatus, hand operated for rocks
Ref standard ASTM D-5607-95
The equipment is used for direct shear laboratory test in rock samples. The test measures peak
and residual direct shear strength as a function of stress normal to the sheared plane. The
equipment can be used for testing core, lumps specimens.
3) Test procedure
- Test specimens can be taken from borehole cores or from block samples which are cut or bored
in the laboratory. Extreme care must be taken that during sample taking in the field, transport and
storage and during the preparation of the specimen for the test, the weakness plane is not
damaged or disturbed. For this purpose the sample can be protected against failure by metal
wiring and against drying out by wax or special foam material. No specific requirements exist for
the form of the sample as long as it fits in the shear box, is deep enoughenclosed in the filling
material, and the shear plane is parallel to the shear direction of the shear box. The number of
specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five, each one at a different
level of confining stress.
- After placing the hardened filler with the enclosed rock specimen in the shear box, the normal
displacement and shear displacement measurement gauges are installed. A zero reading is taken
on the dial gauges and then the normal force is applied by the vertical hydraulic jack. The normal
load is increased gradually but continuously in such a way that the selected normal stress on the
plane to be tested isreached in a few minutes. The normal deformation during this process of
consolidation is recorded at regular time intervals. The binding wire connecting both halve of the
sample may now be cut. The normal stress must now be kept at a constant level during the
remaining part of the test.
- After the displacement gauges have reached a steady value (less than 0.05mm displacement in
10 minutes), indicating that the consolidation process has come to an end, the shear load can be
applied in steps as to allow the various readings to be made. Approximately 10 readings should
be taken before the peak strength is reached. The rate of shear movement should not reach values
higher than 0.2 to 0.5 mm per minute. The shear load should be recorded continuously so as not
to miss the peak value. After reaching the peak strength readings of all displacement gauges
should be taken every 0.5 to 1 mm of displacement.
23 | P A G E
24 | P A G E
If at least four consecutive readings give not more than 5% of variation in shear stress over a
displacement of more than 0.5mm, it can be concluded that the residual shear strength value has
been reached.
- After a shear displacement of not more than 10% of the length of the shear plane in shear
direction, the shear load can be reduced to zero. The shear direction can now be reversed
(without decreasing the normal load) if residual values of shear strength for large amounts of
shear displacements are requested. If not, or if residual strength has already been reached, the
normal load can also be released, the specimen removed from the shear box and the shear plane
inspected and described.
- An important observation is if the shear plane has coincided with the shear direction of the
shear box. If this is not the case, a correction must be made for the inclination of the shear plane
when normal and shear stress are determined.
4) Calculation
- The displacement readings are averaged, when several normal and shear displacement gauges
are used. The normal and shear stresses are calculated as follows:
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑠
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = , 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴 𝐴
In these formulas Pn is the total normal force, Ps is the total shear force and A is the area of
contact of both parts of the specimen, corrected for a decrease of this area due to shear
displacement.
- For each test specimen graphs are plotted for shear stress against shear displacement and for
normal displacement against shear displacement. In these graphs the value of normal stress
should be annotated for each test. The values for peak and residual shear strength and the normal
stresses, shear displacements and normal displacements at which these occur can be read from
the graphs.
25 | P A G E
- Graphs of peak and residual shear strength versus normal stress are plotted from the combined
results for all test specimens. The peak and residual shear strength parameters of cohesion and
angle of friction can so be determined.
5) Reporting
The report shall include the following information:
(a) Data on the sampling:
Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
- Water content of the shear plane during testing.
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Testing equipment used and loading rates during the test, sketch of specimen shear plane after
the test.
- For each specimen the graphs of shear stress and normal displacement versus shear
displacement and the graph of shear stress versus normal stress.
- Table with specimen number, normal stress and the corresponding values for peak andresidual
shear strength with the corresponding values for shear displacement and normaldisplacement. -
Shear stress versus normal stress graph for the values obtained from all testspecimens. Table
with the concluded values of cohesion and angle of friction for peak and residual shear strength
6) Remarks
The levels of normal stress at which the shear test is executed shall be started at a low level and
be increased on the basis of the results from the lower level shear strength.
7) References
International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 135 to 137.
ASTM Standard Test Method D2664-80
26 | P A G E
Practical No. 5
Aim: Determination of triaxial cell
Standard test procedure for the determination of the strength of rockmaterial in triaxial
compression
The objective of this test is to determine the strength of cylindrical rock specimens subjected to
triaxial compression. From the results of this test the values of internal friction and cohesion of
the rock material can be calculated.
2) Apparatus used
- A triaxial cell body in which the specimen may be placed in order to apply the confining
pressure.
- Both bearing plates shall be equipped with a spherical seat. The centres of curvature of the
spherical seats must coincide with the centres of the end faces of the specimen.
- A flexible jacket to prevent the hydraulic fluid from entering the specimen. It shall be
sufficiently rigid, so as not to enter surface pores.
- A testing machine of sufficient capacity and capable of applying controlling and measuring the
axial load at a rate conforming to the requirements described in the test procedure. The steel
platens with which the specimen is loaded shall consist of hardened steel (specifications see
ASTM and ISRM) and be at least as large, but preferably not more than two mm larger than the
diameter of the specimen. The spherical seating of the testing machine (if present) shall be
removed or placed in a locked position.
- A hydraulic pump and oil pressure gauge, able to maintain and measure the confining oil
pressure with an accuracy of 2%.
These cells are designed to withstand a lateral pressure of 150 bar (150 kg/cm2 ). Four no-volume
change valves are fitted to the base for measurement of pore pressure , top drainage , bottom
drainage and entries / exit of cell pressure. The cell is nickel platted and completely rust proof ,
hardened and ground pedestals are provided with radial grooves . the top loading pad is provided
with spherical seating . Two port holes are provided to observe the sample during the assembly
stage.
27 | P A G E
AIM 211 Triaxial Cell
For testing samples of 35 mm and 50 mm diameter.
The apparatus is designed to provide confining pressure upto 160 bar to triaxial cells.
The system consists of an oil pump, continuously driven by an electric motor during the entire
process of operation to maintain the desired pressure.
The unit provides continuous variable pressure upto 160 bar which can be increased or
decreased, simply by turning a control knob.
Supplied complete with pressure gauge. Flow valves and connecting pressure hose.
28 | P A G E
This double channel electronic outfit is designed for direct reading of load and pore pressure in
rock samples. This plug-in transducer module system facilitates easy installation and quick
observation of readings.
29 | P A G E
AIM 211 Triaxial Cell
AIM 213 Constant Pressure System
AIM 214 Electronic Instrumentation
30 | P A G E
31 | P A G E
3) Test procedure
- Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders having a height to diameter ratio of 2.5 and a
diameter preferable of not less than NX core size (54mm). The diameter of the specimen should
be at least 10 times larger than the average grain size.
The number of specimens from one sample to be tested shall preferably be at least five, each one
at a different level of confining stress. For the determination of cohesion and friction also the
results from specimen(s) tested in unconfined compression can be used. If the sample rock is
anisotropic due to the presence of weakness planes and/or preferred orientation of minerals, the
specimens should be prepared in such a way that both directions parallel as well as perpendicular
to such planes can be tested. If enough testing specimens can be prepared from the available
sample, various intermediate angles could also be tested.
- The end faces of the specimen shall be flat to 0.025 mm and be perpendicular to the specimen
axis within 0.250 (0.25 mm in 50 mm). During the test, capping of the samples is not permitted.
The sides of the cylinder shall be smooth and free of abrupt irregularities and straight to within
0.5 mm over the full length of the specimen. (Methods for the check of specimen from
requirements are described in appendix 1.
- The diameter of the specimen shall be recorded to the nearest 0.1 mm by taking two
perpendicular measurements at three different heights of the cylinder. The height of the cylinder
shall be determined to the nearest 0.1 mm.
- Moisture can have a significant effect on the triaxial strength of the test specimen. When
possible the natural water content shall be preserved until the time of the test. The moisture
condition shall be reported in accordance with test nr. 2 in this handbook.
- The cell must be assembled with the specimen aligned between the steel platens and
surrounded by the jacket. The specimen, the platens and the spherical seats shall be accurately
aligned so that each is coaxial with the others.
The cell is placed into the testing machine. The confining stress and axial load are increased
simultaneously and in such a way, that axial stress and confining pressure are approximately
equal, until the predetermined level of confining pressure is reached. Subsequently, the confining
pressure shall be maintained to within 2% of the prescribed value.
- The axial load on the specimen shall then be increased continuously at a constant stress rate
such that failure will occur within 5 to 15 minutes of loading. This means for relatively strong
rock a stress rate between 0.5 and 1 Mpa/sec.
- The maximum axial load and the corresponding confining pressure of the specimen shall be
recorded.
32 | P A G E
4) Calculation
- The maximum axial load is converted to axial stress in the following way:
𝑃
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎)
𝐴0
In this formula P is the maximum axial load (in Newton), A0 is the cross sectional area of the
specimen at the start of the test.
- Construct Mohr circles for the test results from the unconfined compressive strength test and
the triaxial compressive strength tests at the different values of confining pressure.
5) Reporting
The report shall include the following information:
(a) Data on the sampling:
- Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form, dimensions and weight of all specimens
Density and water content during testing.
Mohr diagram with plotting of the Mohr circles resulting from unconfined and triaxial test. From
the failure envelope the values for cohesion and friction can be determined (ASTM).
33 | P A G E
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
- Testing equipment used (loading frame, triaxial cell equipment to create and measure confining
pressure)
- Loading rate during the test, sketch of failure
- Table with specimen number, specimen height, specimen diameter, confining pressure and the
corresponding axial strength
- Mohr diagram with the Mohr circles from unconfined and triaxial strength tests
- Angle of internal friction and cohesion as determined graphically from the Mohr diagram
6) Remarks
The levels of confining pressure at which the triaxial test is executed shall be determined on the
basis of the result of the unconfined compressive strength testing plotted in the Mohr diagram.
7) References
1)International Society for Rock Mechanics Suggested Methods "Rock Characterisation, Testing
and Monitoring" Editor E.T. Brown, Pergamon Press 1981, pages 254 to 127)
ASTM Standard Test Method D2664-80
2) Rock testing per ISRM
34 | P A G E
Practical No. 6
Aim: Determination of point load strength index
Standard test procedure for the determination of the point load strength of rock material
2) Apparatus used
- The standard testing machine for point load testing, according to the specifications listed in the
"suggested method for determining point load strength" issued by the International Society for
rock mechanics.
- A calliper to measure the width W of the specimens and the diameter D of core samples.
Accuracy 0.1 mm.
AIM 206-I Point Load Index Tester (Ref Standard – IS: 8764)
Point load index tester, is used for determining the diametral point load strength index of rock
cores and irregular lumps which can be tested
Point Load Index Tester, is used for determining the Point Load Index of rock cores and irreguler
lumps which can be tested without any treatment. The Point Load Test is primarily an index test
for strength classification of rock materials. This instrument is mainly intended for field
measurements on rock specimen but it can also be used in the laboratory. The results of the test
may balso be used to predict the uniaxial compressive strength of rock from correlations. The
apparatus is light and portable. It can be used in the laboratory as well as in the field.
Features:
35 | P A G E
Equipments is light and portable.
Rock core specimens can be tested without any preperation.
The instrument can be used in laboratory as well as at the drilling site.
The results of the test may also be use to predict the uniaxial compressive strength of
rock.
With this instrument, a wide range of core sizes can be tested.
The frame has adequate adjustments to align perfectly the loading axis passing through
the centre of the bearing plates and loading platens at positions of the ram of the
hydraulic jack.
A test sample is defined as a number of rock specimens of similar strength for which a single
Point Load Strength value is to be determined (preferably 10 specimens at least are tested from 1
sample).
For diametrical tests the specimens should have a ratio of length to diameter which is greater
than 1.0.
For axial tests the core specimens should have a ratio length/diameter between 0.3 and 1.0.
For block tests and for irregular lump tests the shape requirements are illustrated in figure 2.7.2.
(c) and 2.7.2.(d). The ratio D/W should be between 0.3 and 1.0, preferably close to 1.0.
For all types of samples the size limits are 15mm<D<85mm, however it is preferred that the D
size of the specimens is as close as possible to 50mm, which is the size at which the standard
index is defined.
For routine testing and classification, specimens should be tested either fully water-saturated or
at their natural water content.
36 | P A G E
2.2.1) Test procedure for diametrical test
- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact
along a core diameter, ensuring that the distance L between the contact points and the nearest
free end is at least 0.5 times the core diameter (fig. 2.7.2.a).
-The distance D is recorded +/- 2%.
- The load is steadily increased such that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the failure
load P is recorded. The test should be rejected if the failure surface passes through only one
loading point (see fig 2.7.3).
- The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens in the sample.
2.2.2) Test procedure for the axial test
- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine and the platens are closed to make contact
along a line which is perpendicular to the core end faces. In case of isotropic rock this is usually
parallel to the core axis, but for anisotropic rock see figure 2.7.3.
- The distance D between the platen contact points is recorded +/- 2%. The specimen width W,
perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%.
- The load is steadily increased in such a way, that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds, and
the failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes
through only one loading point see fig. 2.7.3.
37 | P A G E
Figure 2.7.2.:Specimen shape requirements for (a) the diametrical test; (b) the axial test; (c)
the block test; (d) the irregular lump test
Figure 2.7.3.: Typical modes of failure for valid and invalid tests. (a) valid diametrical test; (b)
valid axial tests: (c) valid block tests; (d) invalid diametrical test; (e) invalid axial test
38 | P A G E
Figure 2.7.4.: loading directions for test on anisotropic rock.
The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens of the sample.
- The specimen is inserted in the testing machine, assuring that the distance L (see fig. 2.7.2(c)
and 2.7.2(d)) is at least 0.5 W. The specimen must be inserted in such a way that D is the
smallest dimension of the specimen and that the platens are in contact with the specimen away
from edges and corners.
- The distance D between the platens is recorded +/- 2%. The smallest specimen width W
perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded +/- 5%. If the sides are not parallel, the W is
calculated as (W1 + W2)/2 as shown in fig. 2.7.2(d). This smallest width is used for further
calculation. It does not depend on the actual mode of failure.
- The load is steadily increased in such a way that failure occurs within 10 to 60 seconds and the
failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture surface passes
through only one loading point.
- The procedures above shall be repeated for the remaining specimens of the sample.
3.1) Testing of anisotropic rock
- When a rock is shale, bedded, schistose or otherwise anisotropic due to a clearly developed
splitting direction, it should be tested in directions which give the lowest and highest strength
values, which are in general parallel and perpendicular to the planes of anisotropy.
- If the sample consists of core drilled through the weakness planes, a set of diametrical test may
be completed first, spaced at intervals which will yield pieces which can then be tested axially.
- Best results are obtained when the core axis is perpendicular to the planes of weakness, so that
when possible the core should be drilled in this direction (this is possible when the cores are
bored in the laboratory from a large block of rock). The angle between the core axis and the line
perpendicular to the weakness planes should preferably not exceed 300.
39 | P A G E
- For measurement of the Is value in the directions of least strength, care should be taken to
ensure that load is applied along a single weakness plane. Similarly when testing for the Is value
in the direction of greatest strength, care should be taken to ensure that the load is applied
perpendicularly to the weakness planes (see fig. 2.7.4.).
- If the sample consists of blocks or irregular lumps, it should be tested as two sub-samples, with
load applied firstly perpendicular to, then along the observable planes of weakness. Again, the
required minimum strength value is obtained when the platens make contact along a single plane
of weakness.
4) Calculation
Uncorrected Point Load strength
2
The uncorrected point load strength Isis calculated as P/De , where De (the equivalent core
diameter) is given by:
2 2
De = D for diametrical tests
= 4A/π, for axial, block and lump tests and
A = W * D = minimum cross sectional area of a plane through the platen contact points
5) Size correction
- It varies as a function of D in the diametrical test, and as a function of De in axial, block and
irregular lump tests, so that a size correction must be applied.
- The size corrected Point Load Strength Index Is (50) of a rock specimen or sample is defined as
the value which would have been measured by a diametrical test with D = 50 mm.
- The most reliable method of obtaining Is (50), is to conduct diametrical tests at or close to D = 50
mm. Size correction is then either unnecessary (D=50mm) or introduces a minimum of error.
This is the case, for example, for diametrical tests on NX core (D=54mm). Most point load
strength tests, however, are executed using other sizes or shapes of specimen. In such cases the
size correction as below must be applied.
- The most reliable method of size correction is to test the sample over a range of D or De values
2
and to plot graphically the relation between P and De . If log-log plotting is used the relation is
usually a straight line (see fig. 2.7.5). Points that deviate substantially from the straight line may
be disregarded (although they should not be deleted). The value P 50 corresponding to
2 2
De =2500mm can then be obtained by interpolation, if necessary by extrapolation, and the size
2
corrected Point Load Strength Index calculated as P 50 /50 .
- When this method is not practical, for example when testing single sized core at a diameter
other than 50 mm or if only a few small specimens or lumps are available, size correction may be
accomplished by using the formula:
𝐷𝑒 0.45
𝐼𝑠(50) = ( ) × 𝐼𝑠
50
40 | P A G E
- It has been found, that the size correction procedures specified above are not influenced by the
degree of anisotropy Ia and the direction of loading with respect to planes of weakness; a result
that greatly enhances the usefulness of this test.
7) Reporting
The report shall include the following information:
(a) Data on the sampling:
Project name, location, date of sampling, sample number, depth below terrain (in case of
borehole)
- Type of sample (core, block, disturbed, or other), sample dimensions
- Lithology, weathering grade, grain size, natural water content
- Sample transport and storage conditions
(b) Data on the specimens:
- Form and dimensions of all specimens
- Density and water content during testing
(c) Data on the testing procedure:
Results for diametrical tests, axial tests, block tests and irregular lump tests, and for tests
perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness should be tabulated separately.
- For every specimen tested, it must be indicated which direction with respect to planes of
weakness in the rock (if recognisable) was tested.
2
A tabulation of the values of P, D, (W, De and De if required), Is, (F if required) and Is(50) for
each specimen in the sample.
For all isotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values.
For all anisotropic samples a summary tabulation of mean Is(50) values for sub-samples tested
perpendicular and parallel to the planes of weakness, and of the corresponding Ia(50) values.
41 | P A G E
8) Remarks
For a thorough discussion about the principles of the test and about the practical application of its
results see the "notes" on the pages 57 to 60 of the publication about the Suggested Method by
ISRM.
9) References
ISRM - Commission on testing Methods. Working Group on Revision of the Point Load Test
Method. "Suggested Method for Determining Point Load Strength", Int. Journal Rock Mech.
Min. Sc. Vol.22, No.2, pp.51
42 | P A G E
Practical no. 7
Aim: - Determination of protodykonov strength index.
1) Protodyakonov Impact Strength Test
Protodyakonov Impact Strength Index (PSI) is a way of characterizing coal strength, which has
immense possibility for practical implementation in coal cutting and drilling. It also gives an idea
about the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock.
2) Method
Impact strength index test is first discovered by Protodyakonov to put forward an idea about the
Rock’s strength properties, cuttability and brittleness, then is improved by Evans & Pomeroy
(1966)
This technique is based upon the crushability of rock under standard experimental
condition.
This test is performed by a vertical cylinder apparatus which is 30cm - 48 cm in height
and has a steel plunger.
100 gm of sample is taken of size 4.75 mm to + 3.35 mm is taken in the cylinder.
50 gm of sample is taken if the sample is coal.
A plunger is dropped from a height of 65 cm into the cylinder in which the sample is
kept.
The weight of the plunger taken is around 2.4 kg.
The plunger is dropped 20 times in the cylinder if the sample is rock and 15 times if the
sample is coal.
The crushed sample is collected and is sieved through 0.5 mm sieve.
The -0.5 mm sample is collected and filled in the volumeter.
The height “h” in the volumeter is measured.
Protodyakonov impact strength index is found out by using the following formulae.
43 | P A G E
P.S.I = (20 x n)/h
Where
P.S.I = Protodyakonov strength index
n = no of blows
h = height in the volumeter
Volumeter
Method of Calculation
44 | P A G E
Protodyakonov test table for coal samples
SERIAL No WEIGHT NUMBER HEIGHT OF P.S.I AVERA
OFSAMPLE OFBLOWS FINES IN GE
VOLUMETER(M P.S.I.
M)
1 50 15 32 9.375
2 50 15 34 8.823 9.291
3 50 15 31 9.677
The protodyakonov strength index was found out be ranging between 8.823- 9.677. The average
of the strength indices was found out which came to be 9.291.
The number of blows given to sandstone sample was 20. Due to less available sandstone samples
2 tests were done for determining the protodyakonov impact index.
Protodyakonov test table for sandstone samples
SERIAL WEIGHT NUMBER HEIGHT OF FINES P.S.I AVERAGE
NO. OF OF BLOWS IN P.S.I.
SAMPLE VOLUMETER(MM)
1 100 20 16 25 23.6
2 100 20 18 22.2
The heights in the volumeter was found to be 16 and 18 mm, while the protodyakonov impact
index was found to be average of 25 and 22.2 ,that is 23.6.
On comparing the values of the sandstone samples and coal samples, the sandstone samples
show high values. This may be due to the high silica content in the sandstone which increases the
resistance to the sudden impacts given by the plunger weighing 2.4 kg.
Ref:
DETERMINATION OF ROCK STRENGTH FROM SLAKE DURABILITY TESTS,
PROTODYAKONOV IMPACT TESTS AND LOS ANGELES ABRASION RESISTANCE
TESTS
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Mining Engineering
By:- CHINMOY SWAIN
10605009
Department of Mining Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela-769008
2010
45 | P A G E
Practical no. 8 (Instrumentation)
1) STRATA MECHANISM:
Host rock geometry in coal mining is represented by stratified rock masses of relative weaker
strength. Such stratifications are compound and unite in their virgin state before any kind of
mining. Mining underneath (Both development and depillaring) tend to develop strain along
weaker bedding planes generating bed separation, called as Dilation. By the action of gravity,
the dilated mass / stratums are supposed to sag along its span within the mining voids / openings,
subsequently reducing the gap between the floor and roof of workings, called as Convergence.
Sagging of stratums from the roof under the influence of Dilation and subsequent convergence
tend to exert certain Load on the support system and remaining pillar sides either static or
dynamic. Dilation / Bed separation causes change in stress from its in-situ state, which in turn is
propagated in the rocks around. Such induced effect of stress can be revealed in the workings
with the help of instrumentation, aiding apprehension of strata movement and subsequent
assessments.
2) OBJECTIVE:
Objective of the study is to identify, assess and co-relate the parameters of Strata mechanism
such as Dilation, Convergence, Load, Axial Loadingand Stress etc. by instrumentation so as
to provide a basis for the design of support system to prevent or control the collapse or failure of
the roof, floor and ribs both safely and economically.
4.1 Dilation
This is the width of gap generated due to bed separation, between twoconsecutive stratums. This
can be monitored by installation and function of,
(i) Tell Tale
(ii) Multi Point Bore Hole Extensometer
(iii) Magnasonic Extensometer
I)Tell Tale:-
46 | P A G E
With conventional free standing support such as props, there is obvious indication when they are
carrying excessive load, the greater the load the greater the deformation. Roof bolts however
give no visual indication of load increase and therefore no indication of how close either the
individual bolts or the system is to ultimate failure tell tale multi spring wire extensometer will
detect any unstable trends in the strata so that timely remedial action can be taken by the
management.
Tell tale is strata- extensometer. It provide pre-emptive warning of roof-falling. The dual-height
tell tale provides an immediate visible warning, distinguishing between movement above and
below rock-bolted height. It was first developed by British coal in early 1990’s. Subsequent to
that many permutations and improvements in the basic design has been developed to suit
different mining conditions. A brief outline of the different types of tell tales and their
application is given below-
It comprises a strata movement indicator usually with colour bands and/or graduations. As its
simplest a mechanical tell tale consist of a strata movement indicator positioned in the mouth of
a drilled hole and attached to an anchor installed up the hole. The earliest tell tale where simply
longer bolts, point anchored above the support bolt horizon, and left protruding from the roof to
indicate movement with the bolted horizon. These suffered from the disadvantages of limited
monitored height and false readings caused by roof shear, which can result in the tell tale bolt
being trapped along its length and pulled down with the roof. A typical single height tell tale now
consists of a reference tube, an indicator tube, a stainless steel wire and a spring anchor
positioned at twice the bolted height as shown in figure-
I.2.1) Introduction
Dual height tell tale is designed to be installed for monitoring the bolted strata. They have two
versions- one for dry drilled holes and other for watery drilled holes. This is designed to be
installed following the installation of the roof bolt reinforcement. The general assembly is shown
in figure-
47 | P A G E
48 | P A G E
I.2.2) Installation
1. Drill hole, using appropriate bit to at least twice the bolt length.
2. Insert top anchor, attached to smallest indicator ‘B’, to top of hole. Used purpose-
designed insertion rods graduated to confirm anchor position. Check for firm anchorage.
3. Insert lower anchor attached to large indicator ‘A’, 0.3m below the top of the
reinforcement height using purpose graduated insertion rods.
4. Secure reference tube.
5. Position indicator ‘A’, top of green band to be level with bottom of reference tube. Align
to scale. Crimp ferrule in position.
6. Position indicator ‘B’ top of green band to be level with bottom of indicator of ‘A’. Align
to scale. Crimp ferrule in position.
7. Record details: At all tell tale sites a sign must be placed bearing a unique reference code
for identification purpose giving the type of tell-tale, its position date and time of
installation and anchor height. This information should be passed to relevant officials, eg.
The safety officer or manager.
1. By colour
Report whole and part bands visible e.g
‘A’: Green, Yellow, Red
‘B’: ¾ Green Yellow, Red
2. By Scale
Report measurement, in millimetres, lining up with reference mark for each anchor.
Reference for ‘A’ is bottom of reference tube.
Reference for ‘B’ is bottom of indicator ‘A’.
Scale has millimetre divisions, with centimetre marks
I.2.4) Interpretation
1 Movement of ‘A’ relative to its reference (bottom reference tube) is equal to the strata
expansion within the bolted reinforcement height.
2 Movement of ‘B’ relative to its reference (bottom of A) is equal to the strata expansion of the
top of bolt reinforcement height .
It is an improvement on this basic design of dual height tell tale. It is advocated where a
combination of roof bolts and long tendons are installed at the face.
49 | P A G E
Since the adoption of the mechanical tell tale, many permutations and improvements on the basic
design have been developed and applied to suit different mining circumstances. The triple height
tell tale has been developed where 1-8m full column bolts and long tendon bolts of 3.6m height
are used. As its name suggests, the triple height tell tale has an additional concentric indicator
when compared to the dual height tell tale. The A indicator (nearest roof) is anchored 0.3m
below the top of rock bolts, the B indicator ( middle) is anchored 0.5m below the top of the
longer bolts and C indicator (lowest) is anchored a minimum of 5m above the roof horizon or 1m
above the longer bolt. This allows the miner personnel and particularly the support engineer to
easily determine whether any measured roof dilation is occurring within the bolted height (A
indicator), in the roof zone reinforced by longer bolts alone ( B indicator ) or above the
reinforced height ( C indicator ) and hence allows the most appropriate type of remedial support
to be applied where required.
50 | P A G E
I.5) ROTARY TELL TALE
Mechanical tell tales installed in the roadways are difficult to read where the height is more. This
problem has been overcome for single height tell tale by developing the rotary tell tale. The
device converts roof movement into the rotation of a pointer round a dial and magnifies the
movement by a factor of fifteen. It is easy to read, easy to install, accuracy is better than one mm
and is of low cost. Small movement can be read easily with the reading visible from below even
in a 5 metre high roadway. The dial is subdivided into coloured bands corresponding to chosen
action levels.
I.5.1) Installation
2. Insert anchor of suspension cable to the top of hole. Use graduated purpose insertion rod to
conform anchor position. Tug wire to seat anchor.
3. Keeping the suspension cable under tension, the reference tube can now be inserted into the
bottom of the hole.
4. Position tube fitted with indicator to the lowest point and crimp ferrule.
5. Rotate and loosen positioning nut, rotate 12 sided scale disc and align pointer to 0 mark on
scale.
7. Now the extension meter is ready for working. Movement on the roof will be transferred to the
reference tube. Pointer position on scale will indicate the strata expansion in mm.
51 | P A G E
I.6) AUTO WARNING TELL TALE
This provides a warning of impending goafing in depillaring operations via high visibility
flashing LED’s. Intended applications include pillar extraction areas in room and pillar workings
to give warning of impending goafing. It has the potentiality of saving many miners’ lives during
the depillaring operation. This is based on the premise that goafing events are recorded by
smaller scale roof dilation which will be detected by the tell tale. The tell tale design includes a
low volt alkaline primary cell supply and LED configuration housed within the existing tell tales
plastic drip dry molding. The auto warning electronic module powers the LEDs in a flashing
sequence when a pre-set level of tell tale movement is reached. A minimum of two LEDs are
employed. The flasher module has an operational ‘flashing’ life of over a week. The auto
warning tell tale is currently being used in the first fully mechanised pillar extraction board and
pillar mines in ECL, SECL, WCL and SCCL. Tell tales are being installed in each junction and
roadway midpoint prior to extraction operation. The tell tales used are single height types with
the anchor position at 10 m into the roof and a trigger level of 5 mm. This combination of large
monitored height and low trigger level is intended to insure that the tell tale warning is triggered
prior to the major goafing event.
I.6.1) Installation
2. Pre set the auto warning tell tale to the desired scale where auto warning is to trigger.
3. Insert anchor of suspension cable to the top of the hole. Use graduated purpose insertion rod to
conform anchor position. Tug wire to seat anchor.
52 | P A G E
4. Keep the suspension cable under tension, the reference tube can now be inserted into the
bottom of the hole. The reference tube should be pushed fully into the hole.
5. Position tube fitted with indicator to the lowest point and crimp ferrule.
6. Now the extension meter is ready for working. Movement on the roof will be transferred to the
reference tube. When the roof movement reaches the preset scale auto warning LED will glow
and start blinking.
53 | P A G E
It can be fixed in the side walls of the pillar or gallery to monitor.
Pillar spalling or sloughing and cracks development is pillars
Can be fixed in the roof either from surface or from upper seam (300m) or from the working
seam (24m) to monitor strata dilation as well as caving behaviour of roof rocks
54 | P A G E
II.3.1.2) Features-
Quick, easy installation and readout
1. Portable, reusable sonic probe and sensor
2. Remote electronic readout
3. reads inter-anchor strains directly
4. Up to 20 anchors in one borehole
5. High accuracy and sensitivity
55 | P A G E
II.3.2.2) Features
1. Reliable, accurate and simple to read.
2. Any number of points can be monitored.
3. Probe is portable and can be used at many locations; only the access
4. Tubes and magnets are permanently installed.
5. Options available on type of probes, access tubes and magnet assemblies.
6. Low cost, rugged and easy to install.
date shift time Readings (mm) from change / Day Heading remarks
anchors (mm) position (m)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 S H
Where,
S = Straight line distance
H = Distance covering gallery path
III.2) Installation –
Usually a vertical bore hole of about 8m depth is drilled and the multiple sensors are locked at
predefined horizons. These anchors are magnetically connected to the transducer at the mouth of
the hole. Change in reading due to dilation at any of such horizons may be measured through
Read out Unit connected to transducer by wire.
56 | P A G E
III.3) Documentation & Monitoring –
Initial documentation can be done as follows.
Date Shift Time Left Mid Right Cum. Change Rate of Change Remarks
Hand roof hand (mm) (mm)
Rib rib 1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4 N
III.4) Analysis –
Following basic observation can be drawn from such documentations.
• Total roof movement at a place of instrumentation at different time or stages of face advance.
• Total movement at individual anchor horizon plotted against time or stages of face advance.
4.2 Convergence
This is the closure of vertical gap between roof & floor, created either due to downward
movement of roof or upward bulging of floor or both. This is a phenomena, generally occurs
during Dynamic Loading. This is an indicative parameter deciding extent of advance support
during extraction.
This can be inculcated by installation and analysis of comes out of
(I) Telescopic Convergence Indicators
(II) Remote Convergence Indicators.
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I.1) Principle: It is a simple instrument consisting of a graduated rod fitted in a pipe.It has a least
count of 0.5 to 1 mm, and the telescopic movement is for a length of 2 to 4 m. The measuring
points ("reference stations") are metal rods grouted in the roof and floor.
I.2) Procedure: Measurements are taken by simply stretching the telescopic rodbetween the
reference points, and reading the graduations on the rod. Theseindicators are useful for
understanding the roof to floor closure in the advancegalleries at various stages of extraction
Anchors placed in Roof and floor vertically in a straight line Distance between anchors is
measured with convergence rod Sometimes hooks are placed in the both sides of the gallery in
the pillars to facilitate measurement of roof convergence as well as floor heaving.
Anchors placed in Roof and floor vertically in a straight line Distance between anchors is
measured with convergence rod Sometimes hooks are placed in the both sides of the gallery in
the pillars to facilitate measurement of roof convergence as well as floor heaving
I.3) Documentation – Shift wise, even hourly documentation may be done in the mentioned
format.
Date Shift Place of Time Cum. Rate of change Position Remarks
monitoring Convergence in of
(mm) convergence(m working
m/shift or hour) place
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(II) Remote Convergence Indicator
The RCI consists of two telescopic tubes whose ends arefixed in the roof and the floor. It has a
potentiometerconnected to the top sliding telescopic tube, and a sliderfixed to the bottom tube.
Due to the movement of theroof, the slider moves on the resistance coil, resulting inchange in
resistance, which is directly proportional tothe amount of convergence or divergence. The
change inresistance is measured with the help of a batteryoperatedread out unit. The RCIs were
installed at thejunctions in the middle of the panel.
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II.2) Installation –
The instrument is made fixed and vertical between roof and floor by the help of base pipe and
extension rod in the position of stretched spring load. Any closure in roof and floor makes the
spring load displaced, causing change in frequency / resistance and ultimately giving electronic
reading of convergence through wire from a safe and predetermined distance.
II.3) Documentation –
Shift wise, even hourly documentation may be done in the mentioned format.
Date Shift Place of Time Cum. Rate of Position Remarks
monitoring Convergence change in of
(mm) convergence( working
mm/shift or place
hour)
II.4) Analysis –
Analysis may be carried out with the drawn parameters of Convergence, Rate of change of
convergence vis. a. vis Time lag for roof falls vis. a. vis Area of exposure vis. a. vis Distance
from goaf edge to land with TLV and apprehension of roof fall for safe withdrawal of men and
material. It is absolutely mine and place specific in nature.
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Solid load cell: - Solid style cells incorporate 3 vibrating wire strain sensing elements mounted
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the cell. Optical spherical platens are available to enhance
alignment to the load axis.
Annular load cell:- annular cells incorporate 3-6 vibrating strain sensors, mounted parallel to
the longitudinal axis, equidistant around circumference.
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5. This frequency is measured by a digital read-out unit, and is converted into load using
calibration charts. Efficacy and adequacy of the support system can be inferred on the
basis of these load cells.
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IV) Hydraulic load cell
Hydraulic Load cells are constructed from stainless steel. The load is distributed equally over the
loading area of the cell by a thick, machined steel distributed plate. The load, when applied to the
cell, causes a pressure increase in the hydraulic fluid, and this change in pressure may be
measured via a bourdon tube gauge or a variety of electrical transducers.
Two design are available. An annular cell and a solid cell for the measurement of compressive
force. Both design are available with the following readout methods:
1. A bourdon tube gauge. This is the most simple method but if directly connected requires
access or visibility. The gauge can be mounted a short distance away and connected to
the cell by a flexible hose.
2. Various types of electrical transducers, allowing for remote readout and data acquisition,
are also available
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4.4) Stress
Stresses are the ground pressure associated with every location in the stratum. Principally these
originate from the mechanism of dual equilibrium of forces due to spinning actions of the Earth
around the Sun and around its own axis. Knowledge of magnitude and direction is important for
safe strata management. These are derived from several sources.
1. In situ Stress – It is the inherent and prevalent stress instratum, before mining
operations.
2. Induced Stress – It is the Stress created due to induced effect of mining operations.
Direction of Stresses:
1. Horizontal Stress – Stress active in horizontal direction, originated due to lateral
release of energy with in stratum, is called Horizontal Stress.
2. Vertical Stress – It is the component of stress due to gravity loading of the stratum.
Stress can be inculcated by installation and analysis of comes out of Stress Meters.
I. Stress Cell
II. Stress Cell – 3 Dimensional Measurement
III. Earth Pressure Cell
IV. Pillar Strain Meter
V. Crack Meter
VI. Rock bolt Strain Gauge
VII. Continuous Pressure Chart Recorder
I) Stress Cell
I.1) Principle: These are used for measuring unidirectional stress change in the pillar. It consists
essentially of a wire tensioned across a steel cylinder (38 mm diameter). As the stress within the
rock/coal changes, the cylinder deforms, causing tension in the wire to change.
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I.2) Procedure: A bore hole of 38 mm diameter is required for installing the stress meters,
preferably at mid height of the pillar either horizontally or slightly rising/dipping according to
dip of the seam. The stress meter along with wedge and platen assembly is set in the borehole
with the help of special installation tools, at a depth of about 4 to 9 m.
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It is connected to a vibrating-wire pressure transducer where the oil pressure is converted
to an electrical signal which is transmitted through a signal cable to the readout unit.
The vibrating-wire based pressure cell has the advantage of long-term stability and
remote monitoring with cables.
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V) Crack Meter
Monitoring joints for unexpected movement to provide early warning of performance
problems.
Monitoring joints and cracks in structures that may be affected by nearby excavation and
construction activities.
Monitoring cracks in structures that have experienced seismic activity.
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Rock bolt strain gauge can be fixed in roof, sides, surface slopes, embankments, etc.
Wireless local reading or remote hard-wire reading up to two kilometers away are
available.
Normally, for the 22 mm diameter bolts, the bolt loads should not exceed 25 t (250kN),
which is the yield strength of the bolt steel.
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Sr. Instrument Parameter Measured Accuracy
No.
1. Telescopic Convergence Roof to floor Convergence 0.5 to 1 mm
Indicator
2. Remote Convergence Roof to floor Convergence 0.5 mm
Indicator
3. Load Cell load over the support or 0.001 tonne
Rockbolt load
4. Stress Cell Change in stress over pillar or 3D 0.5% of Full Scale
stress
5. Earth Pressure cell or Stress over pillar 1%
Borehole Pressure Cell
6. Rockbolt Strain Gauge Load profile of Rockbolt -
7. Tell Tale Extensometer Convergence & Bed Separation 1 mm
in the immediate roof
8. Multi Point Borehole Bed separation, Caving behavior ±0.1 mm
extensometer (Goaf)
(Sonic or Magnetic)
9. Pillar strain meter or Deformation of pillar or crack 0.5 mm
Crack meter growth
10. Continuous Pressure Monitoring leg pressure of chock 1.5%
Chart Recorder shield
References:
U.SivaSankar
Project Planning
by:- J.P.Goenka (C.E.O.) Bsc. ( min. Engg.) Hons A.I.S.M; F.C.C. F.I.E., M.M.G.I.) Vikash
Jain A.M.G.I.
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Practical no 9
1.3 Beam Building: Where no self- in the next category) that have been most
supporting bed is within reach, the bolts troublesome for design.
must tie the roof together to create a
“beam”. The bolts act by maintaining
friction on bedding planes, keying together
blocks of fractured rock, and controlling the
dilation of failed roof layers (5, 10). In
general, roof bolts have to work much
harder in beam building than in suspension,
and higher densities of support are required.
However, it is these applications (and those
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1.4 Supplemental Support: Where the roof
is extremely weak, and/or the stress
extremely high, roof bolts may not be able
to prevent roof failure from progressing
beyond a reasonable anchorage horizon
(figure 1d). In these cases, cable bolts, cable
trusses, or standing support may be
necessary to carry the dead-weight load of
the broken roof, and the roof bolts act
primarily to prevent unraveling of the
immediate roof (11).
Thread size 24 mm 25 mm
Unit size 32 mm 32 mm
Recommended size 31-33 mm (series-11) 31-33 mm (series-11)
Grade of steel IS 226-1969 IS 226-1969
Length 300-3000 mm 600-3000 mm
Minimum yield load of bolt 10860 kg 11780 kg
shank
Minimum breaking load of 19000 kg 20160 kg
bolt shank
Weight in kg/metre 3.55 3.85
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Installation
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2.2)Perfro bolts
Installation
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2.3) Expansion shell bolts
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Thread size 16 mm 20 mm 22 mm
Unit size 32 mm 35 mm 32 mm 35 mm 38 mm 43 mm
Recommende 31-33 mm 34-36 mm 31-33 mm 34-36 mm 37-39 mm 40-43 mm (electric
d hole dia. (series-11) (series-31) (series-11) (series-31) (series-12) drill)
Grade of steel IS:1570-1961 C-40 IS-226-1969 IS-1570-1961 C- IS: 226- IS:1570-
40 1969 1961 C-
40
Minimum 6410 kg 8170 kg 10020 kg 9120 kg 12120 kg
yield load of
bolt shank
Minimum 11660 kg 13200 kg 18210 kg 15960 kg 22040 kg
breaking load
of bolt shank
Length 600-3000 mm 600-3000 mm 600-3000 mm
Weight in 1.58 2.47 2.98
kg/metre
Installation
1. Drill hole of recommended diameter at right angles to bearing surface, to a depth larger than
bolt to be used. Make the hole clean and free from cuttings.
3. Insert in hole until washer and bolt heads are against mouth of hole.
4. Apply torque as per recommendation. this expands the serrated shell against the wall of hole.
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2.4) Resin bolts
Thread size 20 mm 22 mm
Unit size 32 mm 43 mm 43 mm
Bore hole size 30-33 mm 39-43 mm 39-43 mm (Electric Drill)
(series-11) (Electric Drill)
Grade of steel IS:226-1969 IS:226-1969 IS:226-1969
Minimum yield load of bolt 8170 kg 9120 kg
shank
Minimum breaking load of 13200 kg 15960 kg
bolt shank
Length 600-3000 mm 600-3000 mm
Resin capsule 300 mm long 300 mm long × 300 mm long × 36 mm O.D.
× 28 mm O.D. 36 mm O.D.
Weight on kg/metre 2.47 2.98
N.B. Alternatively Bolts in Torsteel to IS-1786-1966 may also be provided.
InstallationRequisites:
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VII. Put plate and nut over bolt and tighten up.
REFERENCES
2) NMC
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