Mayank Goyals Maths Class 9

VEDIC MATHEMATICS
DEFINITION Ekadhik (one more)

Ekadhik means "one more than itself". It is denoted by a dot above the number.
Ex. 5˙=5+1=65˙=5+1=6
DEFINITION Ekanyun (One Less)
Ekanyun means "one less than itself". It is denoted by a dot below the number.
Ex. 13.=13−1=1213.=13−1=12
DEFINITION
Purvena (Before)
Purvena is the digit that appears before it in the given number.
Ex. Purvena of digit 33 in 14−3214_32 is 44.
The purvena of digit 11 in 13(0−13)13(0_13) is 00.
DEFINITION
Param mitra ank (Complementary Digit)
If the sum of two digits is equal to 1010, then they are mutually called param mitra or friendly numbers.
Ex. Param mitra ank of 2=10−2=82=10−2=8
Param mitra ank of 6=10−6=46=10−6=4
DEFINITION
Extreme digit
Extreme digit of any number is its digit at the unit's place.
Ex. Extreme digit of 847−847_ is 77
Extreme digit of 21−21_ is 11
DEFINITION
Nikhilam digit
Nikhilam digits of a number are the digits that the number is comprised of.
Ex. Nikhilam digits of 123123 are 1,21,2 and 33
Nikhilam digits of 9494 are 99 and 44.
DEFINITION
DeviationIn Vedic mathematics, 1010 and powers of 1010, i.e, 100,1000,...100,1000,... are considered as Bases. The difference between the
given number and the base is termed as Deviation. Deviation may be positive or negative.
Ex. For 1515 on base 1010, deviation is 15−10=+515−10=+5
For 99 on base 1010, deviation is 9−10=−19−10=−1
DEFINITION
Vinculum (Inverse)
To show how much a number is smaller than the base, we use the negative or Vinculum (Inverse) of its param mitra ank. To show negative form
of a number, we put a line over it.
Ex. Vinculum of 8=10−2=10+2¯¯¯=12¯¯¯8=10−2=10+2¯=12¯. Here, −2−2 is written as +2¯¯¯+2¯
Vinculum of 7=10−3=10+3¯¯¯=13¯¯¯7=10−3=10+3¯=13¯. Here, −3−3 is written as +3¯¯¯+3¯
DEFINITION
Ekadhikena Purvena of a digit
Ekadhikena Purvena of a digit simply means: one added to the previous digit.
Ex: Ekadhikena Purvena of 55 in number 15=1˙5=2515=1˙5=25
Ekadhikena Purvena of 66 in number 63=0˙63=16363=0˙63=163
DEFINITION Ekanyunena Purvena
Ekanyunena Purvena of a digit means: one subtracted from the previous digit.
Ex: Ekanyunena Purvena of 55 in 45=4.5=3545=4.5=35
Ekanyunena Purvena of 11 in 2710=271.0=27002710=271.0=2700
EXAMPLE Addition by Ekadhikena Purvena

Example:
346346
+1˙73+1˙73
+0˙7˙8˙2+0˙7˙8˙2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
13011301
Steps:
1. Start adding the unit's place digit, 6+3+2=116+3+2=11. Since the sum crossed 1010 after adding 22, mark the sign of one more
on 88 (Purvena of 22) and write 11 at the unit's place of answer.
2. Now start adding the digits at the ten's place, 4+7=114+7=11. Since the sum crossed 1010 after adding digit 77, mark the sign of one more
on the digit 11 (Purvena of 77) and continue adding, 1+8˙=101+8˙=10. Again mark the sign of one more on 77 (Purvena of 88) and
write 00 in the ten's place of the answer.
3. Continue in the same manner for the digits at the hundred's place. 3+1˙+7˙=133+1˙+7˙=13. Write 33 at the hundred's place of the answer
and mark the sign of one more on 00 (Purvena of 77)
4. Write 0˙=10˙=1 at the thousand's place of the answer.
5. 13011301 is the answer.
EXAMPLE Subtraction by Ekanyunena Purvena
Example:
7.1.287.1.28
−3460−3460
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
36683668
Steps:
1. Start from the unit's place, 8−0=88−0=8. Write 88 in the unit's place of the answer.
2. At the ten's place, we cannot subtract 66 from 22. So we add the param mitra ank (complementary digit) of 66, i.e, 44 to 22 and mark the sign
of one less (dot below the digit) on purvena of 22, i.e, 11. Write 2+4=62+4=6 at the ten's place of answer.
3. At the hunderd's place, we have 1.−4=0−41.−4=0−4. This is again not possible and we add the complementary digit of 44,
i.e., 66 to 1.=01.=0. Write 0+6=60+6=6 at the hundred's place of the answer and mark the sign of one less on the purvena of 11, i.e., 77.
4. At the thousand's place, we have 7.−3=6−3=37.−3=6−3=3. Write 33 at the thousand's place of the answer.
5. 36683668 is the answer.
SHORTCUT Multiplication by NIkhilam formula (sub-base)
Steps:
1. Choose a multiple of 1010 as base for the numbers.
2. Find the deviation of the numbers and write them in line with the numbers.
3. Multiply the deviations on the right side.
4. In the left side, add one number and the deviation of another number. Multiply the sum by the subbase digit.
5. Append the numbers obtained in steps 33 and 44.
EXAMPLE Multiplication Tables using Vinculum
Steps:
1. Write the inverse of the number to the nearest base of power of 1010.
2. Let the number be abab (where aa and bb are the digits of the number). Then write abab in place of ab×1ab×1.
3. Let cd¯¯¯cd¯ be the inverse of abab. Then the units place of the multiplication table will
be b+d¯¯¯,b+2d¯¯¯,b+3d¯¯¯,...b+d¯,b+2d¯,b+3d¯,...
4. The ten's place of the multiplication table will be a+c,a+2c,a+3c,...a+c,a+2c,a+3c,...
SHORTCUT Multiplication by 1010
To multiply a number by 1010, just add a 00 at the end of the number.
Example: 6×10=60−6×10=60_
3759×10=37590−3759×10=37590_
SHORTCUT Multiplication by 5
In order to multiply a number by 55, half the given number and multiply it by 1010.
Example: 26×5=262×10=13×10=13026×5=262×10=13×10=130
19×5=192×10=9.5×10=9519×5=192×10=9.5×10=95
SHORTCUT Multiplication of a number by 9
In order to multiply a number by 99, put a zero after that number and subtract the number itself from that.
Example: 22×9=220−−22=19822×9=220_−22=198
1432×9=14320−−1432=128881432×9=14320_−1432=12888
Steps:
1. Write down the starting and the ending digit of the number at their respective places.
2. Add the consecutive pairs of digits till you reach the last two digits.
3. Keeping in mind that all the places except the first one should have a single digit number, do the carry forward as required.
4. Append all the numbers to get the answer.
In order to multiply a number by 9999, put two zeroes after that number and subtract the number itself from that.
Example: 132×99=13200−−−132=13068132×99=13200_−132=13068
3256×99=325600−−−3256=3223443256×99=325600_−3256=322344
SHORTCUT Multiplication using Urdhwtirgbhyaam formula
Steps:
1. Create groups of numbers. The first group contains the first digits of the numbers, the second group contains first two digits, third contains first
three digits and so on till all the digits are included. Then go on decreasing one-one digit from the start till you reach the last digit. (For example,
for multiplication of 321321 and 156156, the groups will be (3,1),(32,15),(321,156),(21,56),(1,6)(3,1),(32,15),(321,156),(21,56),(1,6)
2. In each group, multiply the first digit with the last digit, second digit with the second last digit and so on, and add all the products.
3. Keeping in mind that all the places except the first one should have only one digit, carry over as required.
4. Append the numbers to obtain the answer.
SHORTCUT Multiplication of three numbers using Nikhilam formula
Steps:
1. Select a multiple of 1010 as a common base. Write the deviations of the numbers beside the numbers.
2. The answer is divided into 33 parts. In the rightmost part, multiply all the deviations.
3. In the middle part, multiply two deviations in pairs and add the products. If the base is 2020, multiply the sum by 22.
4. In the leftmost part, add a number and the deviations of the two remaining numbers. If the base is 2020, multiply by 2222.
5. Keeping in mind that the rightmost and middle part should contain only one digit, carry forward as required. The resulting number is the
answer.
SHORTCUT
Cube of a number by Nikhilam
Step 1) Identify a base and write deviations of all three numbers.
Step 2) Take cube of the deviation and write on the rightmost part.
Step 3) In the middle part, products of three and the square of deviation will come.
Step 4) In the leftmost part, addition of the number and twice the deviation will come.
Step 5) Consolidate and rearrange them by operation.
Example: Cube of 1515:
Base: 1010
Deviation: 55
153=15+2×5 / 3× 52 / 53 153=15+2×5 / 3× 52 / 53
=15+10 /75 / 125=15+10 /75 / 125
=25 / 75 / 125=25 / 75 / 125
After carry over operations:
=33 / 7 / 5=33 / 7 / 5
=3375=3375
EXAMPLE Division by Paravartya Yojayet
Steps:
1. Identify the closest base (power of 1010) to the divisor. Write the digits of the divisor except the first digit as a Vinculum (1¯¯¯2¯¯¯)(1¯2¯).
2. Divide the dividend into two parts such that the 2nd2nd part contains the same number of digits as the number of zeros in the base.
3. Take down the first digit 33 as it is, and multiply it by the Vinculum (1¯¯¯2¯¯¯)(1¯2¯) which gives 3¯¯¯6¯¯¯3¯6¯. Add
the 3¯¯¯3¯ to 55 as per the rules of adding Vinculum numbers.
4. Multiply the result obtained from the 3rd3rd step above (22) to 1¯¯¯2¯¯¯1¯2¯ to get 2¯¯¯4¯¯¯2¯4¯. Add 2¯¯¯2¯ to the previous
numbers obtained in that place.
5. Multiply the answer obtained in 4th4th step above (11) to 1¯¯¯2¯¯¯1¯2¯. Repeat the above process till you reach the last number,
6. The number on the left hand side of // is the quotient and on the right hand side is the remainder.
SHORTCUT Compare fractions using cross-multiplication method
Step 1: Find new numerators of fractions by cross multiplying them with the opposite denominators.
Step 2: Find new denominators of fractions by multiplying them with the other denominator.
Step 3: Now when the denominators of both fractions are same, compare numerators. The fraction having larger numerator is larger.
Example: To compare 3434 and 1212
Multiply the numerator of first fraction with 22 and numerator of second fraction with 44 and compare.
3×23×2 and 1×41×4
6>46>4
∴32>12∴32>12
SHORTCUT Addition and Subtraction of fractions with common denominator
Simply add/subtract the numerators, and denominator will be same as the common denominator.
Example: 35+45=3+45=7535+45=3+45=75
SHORTCUT Addition and Subtraction of fractions using cross-multiplication method
Simply multiply crosswise and add/ subtract them respectively to get numerator of the answer and multiply bottom (denominators) of two
fractions to get the bottom of answer.
Example: 53+74=5×4+7×33×4=20+2112=411253+74=5×4+7×33×4=20+2112=4112
53−74=5×4−7×33×4=20−2112=−11253−74=5×4−7×33×4=20−2112=−112
SHORTCUT Multiplication of fractions

Multiply the numerator and denominator of the fractions separately to obtain the resulting numerator and denominator. Then cancel out any
common factors in the resulting fraction.
Example: 23×215=2×213×5=4215=14523×215=2×213×5=4215=145
EXAMPLE Product of Mixed Fractions using Vilokanam formula
Write the mixed fractions as sum of the Nikhilam digits and the fractional parts. Use distributive property to calculate.
Example: 712×812712×812
=(7+12)×(8+12)=(7+12)×(8+12)
=7×8+7×12+8×12+12×12=7×8+7×12+8×12+12×12
=56+72+4+14=56+72+4+14
=60+154=60+154
=60+3+34=60+3+34
=6334=6334
SHORTCUT Square of a number having unit digit 5
In order to square a number ending in 55, take the digits before 55 and multiply it with the next number. Append 2525 at the end of this number
to obtain the answer.
Example: 352=(3×4)|25=12|25=1225352=(3×4)|25=12|25=1225
SHORTCUT Square of a 3 digit number having 25 in the end
Take the digit on the hundredth place, append 55 to this digit and multiply by the itself to get the L.H.S part of the answer. R.H.S part will always
be 625625
Example: 1−252=(15−×1)625=156251_252=(15_×1)625=15625
2−252=(25−×2)625=506252_252=(25_×2)625=50625
EXAMPLE Other methods of squaring
Example: (132)2(132)2
13−−2×13−−2=169/52/413_2×13_2=169/52/4
=17424=17424
Steps:
1. Square the digit at the unit's place, 22=422=4. Write 44 at the unit's place of the answer.
2. Take the number except the unit's place digit, 1313, multiply it to the unit's place digit, 13×2=2613×2=26 and multiply it
by 22, 26×2=5226×2=52
3. Square the number except the unit's place digit and write in the leftmost part, 132=169132=169.
4. Keeping in mind that the second and third places should only contain one digit, carry forward as
required. 169/52/4=174/2/4169/52/4=174/2/4
5. Append the numbers. 1742417424 is the answer.
SHORTCUT Number of digits in a square root.
If the number of digits in the square is even, number of digits in the square root is half of it. If the number of digits in the square is odd, number of
digits in the square root is half of one more than it.
Example:
Number of digits in the square root of 6464 is 22=122=1
Number of digits in the square root of 100100 is 3+12=23+12=2
SHORTCUT
Identification of a perfect square
1. Unit's place digit of a perfect square number is either of 0,1,4,5,60,1,4,5,6 and 99.
2. Number of zeros in the last places of a perfect square number is even and the number on the left hand side of zeros should be a
square number.
3. If the sum of the digits in a number is 2,3,5,62,3,5,6 or 88, it can't be a perfect square.
NUMBER SYSTEM
EXAMPLELarge number in exponent form
Express 43,900,000,000,000 using exponent form:
Step 1: Get the decimal between the 4 and 3.
4.3,900,000,000,0004.3,900,000,000,000
Step 2: Count the number of moves from the end to between the 4 and 3.
4.3,900,000,000,0004.3,900,000,000,000. We would have to move 13 times.
Step 3: Write the answer.
4.39×10134.39×1013
EXAMPLE
Standard Form of Small Numbers
1) 0.000084=8.4×10−50.000084=8.4×10−5
2) 0.0000000000567=5.67×10−110.0000000000567=5.67×10−11
EXAMPLE Small numbers in standard form
Express 0.000000002910.00000000291 in standard form
Step 1: Move the decimal between the 22 and 99.
0.000000002.910.000000002.91
Step 2:Count the number of moves from one decimal to the other.
0.000000002.910.000000002.91. There are 99 moves.
Step 3: Write the new number.
2.91×10−92.91×10−9
04
SHORTCUT
Baudhayan and his contributions
Baudhayana essentially belonged to Yajurveda school and hence, most of his work on mathematics was primarily for ensuring that all sacrificial
rituals were performed accurately.
Some of his contributions to mathematics are:
1. He gave us the theorem that became known as Pythagorean Theorem.
2. He gave us the method of circling a square.
3. He also gave us the method of finding the square root of 22.
05
EXAMPLE
Three digit number from given three digits
Example: Find the smallest three digit number from the given digits 7,8,37,8,3.
Solution: Arrange the given digits in ascending order(as smallest three digit number) we have 3<7<83<7<8, hence the required number
is 378378, choosing the digits of the resultant number in ascending order.
06
EXAMPLE
Three digit number from given three digits
Example: Find the smallest three digit number from the given digits 0,7,80,7,8.
Solution: Arrange the given digits in ascending order(as smallest three digit number) we have 0<7<80<7<8, now as the number is a three digit
number hence we cannot choose the first digit of the resultant number to be 00 as it will make number a two digit number(say 078), hence the
required number is 708708
07
EXAMPLE
Three digit number from given four digits
Example: Find the smallest three digit number from the given digits 0,7,8,90,7,8,9.
Solution: Arrange the given digits in ascending order(as smallest three digit number) we have 0<7<8<90<7<8<9, now as the number is a three
digit number hence we cannot choose the first digit of the resultant number to be 00 as it will make number a two digit number(say 078), hence
the required number is 708708, keeping the choice of the digits in ascending order
08
EXAMPLE
Three digit numbers with given four digit
Example: Find the smallest three digit number from the given digits 9,7,8,49,7,8,4.
Solution: Arrange the given digits in ascending order(as smallest three digit number) we have 4<7<8<94<7<8<9, hence the required number
is 478478 as we are choosing the digits of the resultant number in ascending order
09
EXAMPLE
Four digit number from given four digits
Example: Find the greatest four digit number from the given digits 5,7,8,65,7,8,6
Solution: Arranging the digits in descending order we get 8>7>6>58>7>6>5, Hence the resultant number is 87658765, choosing the digits of
the resultant number in descending order.
10
EXAMPLE
Four digit number from given four digits
Example: Find the greatest four digit number from the given digits 0,7,8,60,7,8,6
Solution: Arranging the digits in descending order we get 8>7>6>08>7>6>0, Now the resultant number is a four digit number hence we cannot
choose the first digit of the resultant number to be 00. Hence the resultant number is 87608760, choosing the digits of the resultant number in
descending order.
11
DEFINITION
Reverse Three Digit Number
The difference between a 3-digit number and a number obtained by reversing its digits is always divisible by 1111.
Let a 3-digit numbers is =xyz=100x+10y+z=xyz=100x+10y+z
Reversing the order of digits =zyx=100z+10y+x=zyx=100z+10y+x
On substraction,
If x>zx>z then difference between the numbers is →(100x+10y+z)−(100z+10y+x)→(100x+10y+z)−(100z+10y+x)
→100x+10y+z−100z−10y+x→100x+10y+z−100z−10y+x
→99x−99z→99x−99z→99(x−z)→99(x−z)
If z>xz>x then the difference between the numbers is

→(100z+10y+x)−(100x+10y+z)→(100z+10y+x)−(100x+10y+z)
→100z+10y+x−100x−10y−z→100z+10y+x−100x−10y−z
→99z−99x→99z−99x
→99(z−x)→99(z−x)
If x=zx=z then difference is 00.

12
DEFINITION
Place Value of a Digit
The value of where the digit is in the number.
Example:
In 352352, the 55 is in the "tens" position, so it shows a value of 5050.
In 17.59117.591, the 99 is in the "hundredths" position, so it shows a value of 0.090.09.
13
EXAMPLE
Define and identify face value of digits of a number
Face value of a digit is the value of that digit in a number.
For eg:- The number 2,36,8942,36,894 has 66 digits
Now, face value of 99 at tens place is 99.
Similarly, face value of 66 is 66.
Face value of 33 is 33.
14
DEFINITION
Absolute Value of a Number
Absolute Value is the Distance of Number from Zero on Number line.
Absolute Value cannot be Negative.
Example: Absolute Value of −5−5 is 55
15
DEFINITION
Conversion of length
The different units of length conversion charts and their equivalents are given here:
1 kilometre (km)= 1000 m
1 Hectometre (hm) = 100 m
1 Decametre (dcm)=10 Metres (m)
1 Metre (m) = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 decimeter = 0.1 meter
1 Centimetre (cm)=10 Millimetres (mm)
1 centimeter = 0.01 meter
1 millimeter = 0.001 meter

16
DEFINITION
Conversion of weight units
The standard weight units are gram, kilogram, milligram etc.
Now, let's learn about the basic conversion of mass units from one into another.
Some basic conversion of one unit into another is given by :
1 kg=1000 g1 kg=1000 g
1 g=100 mg1 g=100 mg
11 quintal =100 kg=100 kg
11 metric ton =1000 kg=1000 kg
11 metric ton =10=10 quintal
17
DIAGRAM
Represent natural/whole numbers on number line
Natural numbers start from right of 00 and increases from left to right.
Whole numbers starts from 00 and then increases towards right.
18
DEFINITION
Natural Numbers, Whole Numbers, Integers on Number line
A number line starting from 11 and marks 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, at equal distances on the right hand side of 11 is called a number line
representing natural numbers .
A number line starting from 00 and marks 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, at equal distances on the right hand side of 00 is called a number
line representing whole numbers.
Integers ={..,−5,−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4,5,..}={..,−5,−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4,5,..}, therefore, the number line, marked 00 anywhere on it

with positive numbers 1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5, marked on the right-hand side of 00 at equal distances and also with negative
numbers −1,−2,−3,−4,−5,...−1,−2,−3,−4,−5,... marked on the left-hand side of 00 at the same equal distances, is said to represent integers.
19
EXAMPLE
Closure property with reference to natural/whole numbers
For example:- Take two numbers 33 and 99
Now, 3+9=123+9=12 which is a natural/whole number
Hence, NN/WW is closed under addition.
For subtraction :-
3−9=−63−9=−6 which is not a natural/whole number i.e. −6∉N−6∉N
Hence, NN/WW is not closed under subtraction.
For multiplication :-
3×9=273×9=27 which is a natural number
Hence, NN/WW is closed under multiplication.
For division:-
3×9=39=3×13×3=133×9=39=3×13×3=13 which is not a natural number
Hence, NN/WW is not closed under division.
20
DEFINITION
Closure property with reference to natural/whole numbers
Closure property says that if for any two natural/whole numbers aa and bb, a∗ba∗b is also a natural/whole number then the set of natural/whole
numbers is closed under ∗∗
where ∗∗ represents +,−,×+,−,× or ÷÷
Take any two natural/whole numbers aa and bb, add them
So, we get a+b∈Na+b∈N/WW.
21
DEFINITION
Closure Property with reference to Whole Numbers
System of whole numbers under Addition:
Addition of two whole numbers always results in a whole number.
Eg:
7+4=11,7+4=11, Result is a whole number.
Therefore, system is closed under addition.
System of whole numbers under Subtraction:

Subtraction of two whole numbers does not always results in a whole number.
Eg:
7−4=3,7−4=3, Result is a whole number, but
2−4=−2,2−4=−2, Result is not a whole number.
Therefore, system is not closed under subtraction.
System of whole numbers under Multiplication:

Multiplication of two whole numbers always results in a whole number.
Eg:
7×4=28,7×4=28, Result is a whole number.
Therefore, system is closed under Multiplication.
System of whole numbers under Division:

Division of two whole numbers does not always results in a whole number.
Eg:
8÷4=2,8÷4=2, Result is a whole number, but
7÷4=74,7÷4=74, Result is not a whole number.
Therefore, system is not closed under division.
22
RESULT
Commutative property of numbers
Take aa and bb as two numbers and subtract them i.e. a−ba−b.
Now, subtract aa from bb i.e. b−ab−a.
Are they same?
No, they are not equal.
For example:- 2−3=−1≠3−22−3=−1≠3−2
So, commutative property does not hold for subtraction.
23
DEFINITION
Commutative property of numbers
Take any two numbers aa and bb in your mind. Now add aa and bb, comes as a+ba+b.
Add bb and aa, comes to be b+ab+a.
Aren't they the same?
Yes, they are equal.
This is because of commutative property.
Commutative Property of numbers says that we can swap the numbers and still we get the same answer.
24
EXAMPLE
Associative Property in reference to natural/whole numbers
What about subtraction and division ?
Let's take three numbers 2,32,3 and 44
Now, 2−(3−4)=2−(−1)=2+1=32−(3−4)=2−(−1)=2+1=3 and
(2−3)−4=−1−4=−5(2−3)−4=−1−4=−5
Thus, 2−(3−4)≠(2−3)−42−(3−4)≠(2−3)−4
Also, Now, 2÷(3÷4)=2÷(34)=2×43=832÷(3÷4)=2÷(34)=2×43=83 and
(2÷3)÷4=(23)÷4=23×4=13×2=16(2÷3)÷4=(23)÷4=23×4=13×2=16
Thus, 2÷(3÷4)≠(2÷3)÷42÷(3÷4)≠(2÷3)÷4.
Hence, associative property does not hold for subtraction and division.
25
EXAMPLE
Associative property of numbers
Example:-
We know that, 2×(3×4)=24=(2×3)×42×(3×4)=24=(2×3)×4 and 2+(3+4)=9=(2+3)+42+(3+4)=9=(2+3)+4
So, 2,32,3 and 44 satisfy associative property of addition and multiplication.
26
DEFINITION
Associative property of numbers
Definition:- The associative property holds for atleast 33 or more than 33 numbers and it says that the numbers can be added or multiplied
regardless of how they are grouped(Group means how we put the brackets).
For any binary operation ∗∗, associative property states that
a∗(b∗c)=(a∗b)∗ca∗(b∗c)=(a∗b)∗c
Assume any three numbers a,ba,b and cc in your mind. Add aa and bb and then add cc to the sum you got i.e. (a+b)+c(a+b)+c.
Now, add bb and cc and then add aa to the sum you got i.e. to get a+(b+c)a+(b+c)
Now, we can see that a+(b+c)=(a+b)+ca+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
Also, a×(b×c)=(a×b)×ca×(b×c)=(a×b)×c
Hence, associative property holds for addition and multiplication.
27
DEFINITION
Define and identify additive identity for natural/whole numbers
Additive identity of any natural/whole aa is a number bb which when added to aa, leaves it unchanged.
When we add 00 to any natural/whole number aa, we get
a+0=aa+0=a
Hence, 00 is the additive identity for natural/whole numbers.
28
DEFINITION
Additive Identity
The additive identity of a set which is equipped with the operation of addition is an element which, when added to any element xx in the set,
yields xx.
If 00 is added to a number, it keeps its identity.
Therefore 00 is an additive identity.
29
DEFINITION
Multiplicative inverse for natural/whole numbers
Multiplicative identity of any natural/whole aa is a number bb which when multiplied to aa, leaves it unchanged.
When we multiply 11 to any natural/whole number aa, we get
a×1=aa×1=a
Hence, 11 is the multiplicative identity for natural/whole numbers.
30
DEFINITION
Distributive property of numbers over addition and subtraction
Take A and B as two friends, suppose they have 44 and 55 toffees respectively. What is the total no. of toffees they have together ?
Is it 4+5=94+5=9 ?
Now, if you have 3 times the no. of toffees with A and B, then how many toffees do you have ?
Then, by using distributivity
3×4+3×5=3×(4+5)=3×9=273×4+3×5=3×(4+5)=3×9=27
31
EXAMPLE
Distributive property of numbers over addition and subtraction
Definition:- Distributive property is an algebra property which is used to multiply a single term with two or more terms inside the set of
parentheses.
i.e. a×(b+c)=a×b+a×ca×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
For any three numbers a,ba,b and cc, distributive property over addition is given by :
a×(b+c)=a×b+a×ca×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
For example :- 2×(3+2)=10=2×3+2×22×(3+2)=10=2×3+2×2
Similarly, for any three numbers a,ba,b and cc, distributive property of multiplication over subtraction is given by :
a×(b−c)=a×b−a×ca×(b−c)=a×b−a×c
32
DEFINITION
Additive inverse of integers
Additive inverse of any integer aa is the number bb, which when added to aa gives the result as 00.
For eg:-
When we add 22 and −2−2, we get
2+(−2)=2−2=02+(−2)=2−2=0
So, −2−2 is an additive inverse of 22.
Also, we can say that 22 is an additive inverse of −2−2.
Thus, we can conclude that the additive inverse of any integer aa is −a−a.
33
DEFINITION
Additive Inverse
For any integer xx the additive inverse of xx is given by −x−x such that when we add xx with −x−x we get 00.
Example: Let 55 be a given integer then the additive inverse of 55 is −5−5 as 5+(−5)=5−5=05+(−5)=5−5=0
34
SHORTCUT
Addition
2)Addition:
1 2, 7 8 0
+ 2 3, 6 0 8
3 6 3 8 8
Add:12,780+23,60812,780+23,608
Arrange the numbers as in shown and add
:
35
EXAMPLE
Subtracion
Substract :4428−21654428−2165
36
EXAMPLE
Addition of two natural/whole numbers
If you have 1515 chocolates and your friend have 99 chocolates. Then, the total no. of chocolates is ?
Solution:-
To find the total no. of chocolates, add 1515 and 99
Arrange he numbers in columns starting from right.
55 and 99 in one column
So, we have 5+9=145+9=14 i.e. 11 tens 44 ones
Carry 11 ten to the tens columns as shown
Now add tens place i.e. 1+1=21+1=2
11 ←← carry
11 55
++ 99
________
22 44
Hence, 15+9=2415+9=24.
37
EXAMPLE
Subtraction of two natural/whole numbers
Let's subtract two natural numbers 2424 and 99.

Arrange the given numbers in columns
i.e. 44 and 99 in one column
We can subtract two numbers, if bottom number is smaller.
But here, 99 is greater than 44
So, we borrow one from 22 i.e. we get 2−1=12−1=1 and 44 as 1414
Now, we can subtract 99 from 1414 and we get 14−9=514−9=5
In tens column, we get 11.
Hence, we get 24−9=1524−9=15.
38
EXAMPLE
Division of two natural/whole number
Take a natural number 6363 and divide it by 33.

Let's see how to perform division.
Since, 3×2=63×2=6
So, we have 6÷3=26÷3=2
Similarly, 3×1=33×1=3
⇒3÷3=1⇒3÷3=1
Hence, 63÷3=2163÷3=21
39
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of two natural/whole numbers
Take two natural/whole numbers 1414 and 33

Let's see how to multiply them i.e to find 14×314×3
Take the first digit from right i.e. 44
So, 3×4=123×4=12
Write 22 as it is and carry one above 11.
Now, 3×1=33×1=3 and 3+13+1 carry =4=4
So, we have 14×3=4214×3=42.
40
EXAMPLE
Multiplication
1 2 3
x 5 6
7 3 8
+6 1 5 x
6 8 8 8
41
EXAMPLE
Definition of calculator, its types and uses
Definition:-
A calculator is a device which performs arithmetic operations of numbers like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Some of the more sophisticated calculators can handle trigonometric functions, exponential, roots, logarithms and hyperbolic functions.
Types of calculators:
1. Hand-held (Basic) calculators
2. Printing calculators
3. Scientific calculators
4. Fraction Calculator
5. Graphing calculator
6. Business and financial calculator
Uses
Calculators are used to do some basic calculations faster than doing it manually.
Also, it is used to perform some complex calculations.
Some of the calculators are used to show graphs.
42
DEFINITION
Identification of keys
Digit keys:-
There are 1010 digit keys on a calculator. To enter any digit, press one digit at a time.
Decimal point key:-

You must press dot key, to enter a decimal point.
Four function keys:-

It has four keys for basic math operations like : addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
To perform an operation, you must press the key containing the sign of that operator like +,−,×,÷+,−,×,÷.
Equal key:-
To carry out a basic operation, you must press the equal key i.e. ==
Clear keys:-
Key containing the alphabet CC, clears the display and everything else, accept memory.
Key containing CECE, clears only the last entry.
CE/CCE/C clears the last entry if pressed once and press two times to start over.
ON/CON/C is used to 'on' the calculator. Once calculator is on, it works like CE/CCE/C.
CACA clears everything, including the memory.
43
EXAMPLE
Subtract two or more numbers using calculator
Let's subtract 66 from 1515 using calculator
1) Enter the first number 1515 by pressing 11 and 55 and then press subtraction key (−)(−).
2) Enter second number as you entered first number.
3) Press equal to key (=)(=) and we get the result as 99.
44
DEFINITION
To add two or more numbers using calculator
Take two numbers 55 and 99. How would you add them ?
Will you do like this 5+95+9 ?
It is very simple to find 5+95+9. But when you asked to find 12+33+54+26+19+14+4512+33+54+26+19+14+45, it will take time and
sometime we can make mistakes.
So, let's use calculator by following some steps :
1) Enter the first number by pressing that number key and then press addition key (+)(+).
2) Enter second number as you entered first number and press addition key (+)(+).
3) Continue in this way till you reach the last number.
4) Press equal to key (=)(=) and we get the result.
Follow the same process to subtract the numbers. Press minus key (−)(−), instead of addition key (+)(+).
45
EXAMPLE
Divide two or more numbers using calculator
Let's see how to divide two or more numbers using calculator
For eg:- Divide 2891228912 by 5252
1) Enter the first number 2891228912 using number keys.
2) Press division key(÷)(÷).
3) Enter second number 5252 using number keys and press equal to key.
And we get the result as 556556.
46
EXAMPLE
Multiply two or more numbers using calculator
Choose a number aa. Now, 55 times the number you chosen will be ?
5×a5×a, which is easy to find.
But if I am choosing 45747384574738 and you choose a number which is 6345437163454371 times the number I have chosen. What would
be your number ?
Since, the number is too big let's use calculator to do so :
1) Enter the first number 45747384574738 and then press multiplication key (×)(×).
2) Enter second number i.e. 6345437163454371.
3) Press equal to key (=)(=) and we get the result.
47
DEFINITION
General Form of a Number
Two digit numbers:
If the number is abab then in general form, it can be written as
ab=10×a+1×b=10a+bab=10×a+1×b=10a+b
where, aa is a ten's place digit and bb is an unit's place digit
Three digit numbers:
If the number is xyzxyz then in general form, it can be written as
xyz=100×x+10×y+1×z=100x+10y+zxyz=100×x+10×y+1×z=100x+10y+z
where, xx is a hundredth place digit, yy is a ten's place digit and zz is an unit's place digit.
48
DEFINITION
Prime Numbers
Numbers having factors 11 and number itself are known as prime numbers.
As for example, take number 1111 .
Factors of 1111 are 11 and 1111
Therefore, 1111 is a prime number.
49
DEFINITION
Composite Numbers
Composite numbers are numbers which have at least one factor other than number itself and 11.
Examples of composite number are 88 , 1010 , 1212 .
Factors of 88 are 1,2,81,2,8
50
DEFINITION
Twin Primes
Prime Numbers which differ by 22 are called Twin Primes
Example: (3,5)(3,5) , (5,7)(5,7)
51
DEFINITION
Prime Triplets
A prime triplet is a set of three prime numbers of the form (p,p+2,p+6)(p,p+2,p+6) or (p,p+4,p+6)(p,p+4,p+6), with the exceptions
of (2,3,5)(2,3,5) and (3,5,7)(3,5,7), this is the closest possible grouping of three prime numbers.
52
DEFINITION
Co- Prime Numbers
If two numbers have their greatest common divisor to be 11 then those numbers are said to be co-prime.
In number theory, two integers aa and bb are said to be relatively prime, mutually prime, or coprime (also spelled co-prime) if the only positive
integer that evenly divides both of them is 11. That is, the only common positive factor of the two numbers is 11. This is equivalent to their
greatest common divisor being 11.
Example: 1212 and 1717 are co-primes to each other.

53
EXAMPLE
Prime factors of given numbers
Take a number say aa.
Find the numbers which divide aa and call them factors of aa.
Now, the factors which are prime numbers are called prime factors.
For eg:-
6=2×36=2×3
So, prime factors of 66 are 22 and 33
54
DEFINITION
Recap of Natural Numbers, Whole Numbers, Integers and Rational Numbers
Natural Numbers: The numbers that can be
counted. The set of natural numbers is 1,2,3,4...1,2,3,4... etc. There are infinitely
many natural numbers.
N={1,2,3,4....}N={1,2,3,4....}
Whole Number: The set of natural numbers
including 00 are called whole numbers.
W={0,1,2,3....}W={0,1,2,3....}
Integers: An integer is a whole number that can
be positive, negative or zero. The set of integers are I={−2,−1,0,1,2....}I={−2,−1,0,1,2....}
Rational Numbers : The numbers that can be
expressed in the form pqpq, where p,qp,q are integers and q≠0q≠0 are known as rational numbers.
For example 25,525,5 are rational
numbers.
DEFINITION
Define and give examples of rational numbers
The numbers that can be expressed in the form pqpq, where p,qp,q are integers and q≠0q≠0 are known as rational numbers.
pp is called numerator and qq is the denominator.
For example:
12,4712,47
Also, we can express any integer aa as a1a1, where aa and 11 are integers.
So, aa is a rational number.
56
DEFINITION
Distributive property of numbers
Distributive property states that the product of the sum or difference of two numbers is same as the sum or difference of their products.
i.e. for any three elements(numbers) a,ba,b and cc we have
a×(b+c)=a×b+a×ca×(b+c)=a×b+a×c and a×(b−c)=a×b−a×ca×(b−c)=a×b−a×c
For eg:- For 3,53,5 and 99
3×(5+9)=3×(14)=423×(5+9)=3×(14)=42 and 3×5+3×9=15+27=423×5+3×9=15+27=42
Also, 3×(5−9)=3×(−4)=−(3×4)=−123×(5−9)=3×(−4)=−(3×4)=−12 and 3×5−3×9=15−27=−123×5−3×9=15−27=−12
Hence, 3×(5+9)=3×5+3×93×(5+9)=3×5+3×9 and 3×(5−9)=3×5−3×93×(5−9)=3×5−3×9
57
DEFINITION
Closure property with reference to Rational Numbers
Closure property states that if for any two numbers aa and bb, a∗ba∗b is also a rational number, then the set of rational numbers is closed under
addition.
∗∗ represents +,−,×+,−,× or ÷÷
For eg:- 1212 and 3434
12+34=1×4+3×22×4=4+68=108=5412+34=1×4+3×22×4=4+68=108=54 is a rational number
12−34=1×4−3×22×4=4−68=−28=−1412−34=1×4−3×22×4=4−68=−28=−14 is a rational number
12×34=1×32×4=3812×34=1×32×4=38 is a rational number
1234=1×42×3=1×21×3=231234=1×42×3=1×21×3=23 is a rational number

Hence, set of rational number is closed under +,−,×+,−,× and ÷÷.
58
EXAMPLE
Commutative property of rational numbers
What about subtraction and division ?
Given two rational numbers 5353 and 1414
53−14=5×4−1×33×4=20−312=171253−14=5×4−1×33×4=20−312=1712
14−53=1×3−5×43×4=3−2012=−171214−53=1×3−5×43×4=3−2012=−1712
So, 53+14≠14+5353+14≠14+53
For division :
53÷14=5×43×1=20353÷14=5×43×1=203
14÷53=1×34×5=32014÷53=1×34×5=320
Hence, 53÷14≠14÷5353÷14≠14÷53
Hence, subtraction and division does not satisfy commutative property.
59
DEFINITION
Commutative Property with reference to Numbers
Commutative Property states that for any two numbers aa and bb, we have
a∗b=b∗aa∗b=b∗a, where ∗∗ represents addition and multiplication
Eg:- Given two rational numbers 5353 and 1414
53+14=5×4+1×33×4=20+312=231253+14=5×4+1×33×4=20+312=2312
14+53=1×3+5×43×4=3+2012=231214+53=1×3+5×43×4=3+2012=2312
So, 53+14=14+5353+14=14+53
For multiplication :
53×14=5×13×4=51253×14=5×13×4=512
14×53=1×54×3=51214×53=1×54×3=512
Hence, 53×14=14×5353×14=14×53
60
EXAMPLE
Associative property of rational numbers
Given numbers be 5,−6,235,−6,23 and their two groups are as follows:
Group (i):(5−6)+23:(5−6)+23
=−1+23=−13=−1+23=−13
Group (ii) :5+(−6+23):5+(−6+23)

=5−163=−13=5−163=−13
As, in both the groups the sum is same.

61
DEFINITION
Associative Property in reference to Numbers
Take three rational numbers a,ba,b and cc in your mind.
Add aa and bb and then add cc to the sum i.e. (a+b)+c(a+b)+c.
Now, again add bb and cc and then add aa to the sum i.e. a+(b+c)a+(b+c)
Are a+(b+c)a+(b+c) and (a+b)+c(a+b)+c same ?
Yes and this is how associative property works.
It states that you can add or multiply numbers regardless of how they are grouped.
62
DEFINITION
Multiplicative inverse for rational numbers
The multiplicative inverse of a number xx is the number yy, which when multiplied with xx, yields multiplicative identity one.
i.e. x×y=1=y×xx×y=1=y×x
For eg:-
Take x=49x=49
Then, 49×(149)=49×94=149×(149)=49×94=1
Thus, 9494 is the multiplicative inverse of 4949.
Hence, multiplicative inverse of any rational number pqpq is qpqp.
63
DEFINITION
Additive inverse for rational numbers
The additive inverse of a number xx is the number yy which when added to xx, yields additive identity zero. i.e. x+y=0=y+xx+y=0=y+x
This number is also known as the opposite (number), sign change, and negation.
For eg:-
Take x=37x=37
Then, 37+(−37)=37−37=3−37=037+(−37)=37−37=3−37=0
Thus, −37−37 is the additive inverse of 3737.
Hence, additive inverse of any rational number xx is −x−x.
64
DEFINITION
Additive identity for rational numbers
Additive identity of a number aa is a number bb which when added to aa leaves it unchanged. i.e a+b=aa+b=a
We know that, when we add 00 to any rational number aa it remains unchanged.
i.e. 0+a=a=a+00+a=a=a+0
For eg:-
15+0=1515+0=15
Hence, 00 is the additive identity for rational numbers.
65
DEFINITION
Multiplicative identity for rational numbers
Multiplicative identity of a number aa is a number bb which when multiplied with aa leaves it unchanged. i.e a×b=aa×b=a
We know that, when we multiply 11 with any rational number aa it remains unchanged.
i.e. a×1=a=1×aa×1=a=1×a
For eg:-
23×1=23=1×2323×1=23=1×23
Hence, 11 is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
66
DEFINITION
Multiplicative Inverse
A multiplicative inverse or reciprocal for a number xx, denoted by 1x1x or x−1x−1, is a number which when multiplied by xx yields
the multiplicative identity, 11.
The multiplicative inverse of a fraction abab is baba.
67
EXAMPLE
Distributive property of rational numbers
Suppose you painted 1212 of the first wall of the room and your brother painted 1414th of the other wall of the same room.
Then, how much portion of the room will be painted if you both paint twice ?
Is it 3838 portion of the room ?
Let's see
As you painted twice, so painted portion will be
2×12+2×14=1+12=322×12+2×14=1+12=32
or
2×(12+14)=2×(34)=322×(12+14)=2×(34)=32
i.e. 3232 of one wall
i.e. 3838th of the room.

Then, we can say that 2×12+2×14=2×(12+14)2×12+2×14=2×(12+14)
The above property is called distributive property.
68
RESULT
Distributive property of rational numbers
Distributive property states that for any three numbers x,yx,y and zz, we have
x×(y+z)=(x×y)+(x×z)x×(y+z)=(x×y)+(x×z)
69
EXAMPLE
Ordering of rational numbers
Find the smallest among −12−12, 2323, and 7878.
We know that every negative rational is less than every positive rational.
Since, −12−12 is negative and other two are positive.
So, −12−12 is the smallest number compare to other two.
70
EXAMPLE
Ordering of rational numbers
Eg:- Find the greatest number among 5757 and 2525
The denominators of 5757 and 2525 are different
So, make it equal by multiplying and dividing with the same number
i.e. 5757 = (5×5)(7×5)(5×5)(7×5) = 25352535
2525 = (2×7)(5×7)(2×7)(5×7)= 14351435
From the above,numerator of 14351435 is less than the numerator of 25352535
Hence, 25352535 is greatest.
71
SHORTCUT
Comparison of rational numbers
Points to keep in mind while comparing rational numbers
1. Every negative rational number is less than 00
2. Every positive rational number is greater than 00
3. Any positive rational number is greater than every negative rational number.
If the denominators of rational numbers are equal, then compare there numerator.
If the numerator is greater, then the number is greater.
72
EXAMPLE
Subtraction of two rational numbers
We know 6−4=26−4=2 ?
Now, 82=482=4 and 61=661=6.
So, we have 61−82=261−82=2
How do we get this ?
By cross multiplying, we get
61−82=6×2−8×12×1=12−82=42=261−82=6×2−8×12×1=12−82=42=2
Then, we can conclude that for any two rational numbers pqpq and abab,
pq−ab=pb−qaqbpq−ab=pb−qaqb
73
EXAMPLE
Addition of two rational numbers
Can you find 4+64+6 ?
Of course, the answer is 1010.
Now, 82=482=4 and 61=661=6.
We know that, 82+61=1082+61=10
How do we get this ?
By cross multiplying, we get
82+61=8×1+2×62×1=8+122=201=1082+61=8×1+2×62×1=8+122=201=10
Then, we can conclude that for any two rational numbers pqpq and abab,
pq+ab=pb+qaqbpq+ab=pb+qaqb
74
RESULT
Operations on rational numbers
Various operations such as Addition, subtraction, multiplication , division ,etc can be performed on rational numbers. The order of operation
follows BODMAS rule.
75
EXAMPLE
Fractions
How many pieces of 19.519.5 metres can be cut from a cloth of 546546 metres ?
Number of pieces =546m19.5m=5460195=28=546m19.5m=5460195=28
76
DEFINITION
Simple Fraction
Simple/vulgar fractions are fractions abab, whose numerator and denominator are integers i.e. aa and bb are integers.
For eg:- 3535 , 8787 and 911911 are simple/vulgar fractions.
77
DEFINITION
Fraction
Fractions represents part of a whole.
It consists of Numerator and Denominator
i.e. Fraction =NumeratorDenominator=NumeratorDenominator
Example: 2323
78
DEFINITION
Proper fractions
Proper fractions are simple fractions of the form abab, whose numerator is smaller than its denominator i.e. a<ba<b.
For eg:- 2323 and 1313 are proper fractions because 2<32<3 and 1<31<3.
79
DEFINITION
Improper fractions
Fractions of the form abab, where numerator is greater than the denominator i.e. a>ba>b, are known as improper fractions.
For eg:- 7575 and 8585 are improper fractions, because 7>57>5 and 8>58>5.
80
DEFINITION
Mixed fractions
Mixed fraction is a whole number and a proper fraction combined together.
For eg:- 312312 is a mixed fraction since it includes 33 as a whole number and 1212 as a proper fraction.
81
DEFINITION
Complex fractions
Complex fractions are fractions whose numerator and denominator or both contain a fraction.
For eg:- 124,527124,527 and 4351143511 are complex fractions.
82
EXAMPLE
Convert to equivallent fractions
To convert the fraction 4545 equivalent to denominator 20.
45=4×45×4=162045=4×45×4=1620
To convert the fraction equivalent with numerator 12.
45=4×35×3=121545=4×35×3=1215
83
EXAMPLE
Convert into equivalent fractions
We can make the fractions equivalent by cancelling the same number from numerator and denominator if any.
Or by dividing or multiplying numerator and denominator by the same number.
Let's see how to make the fractions 4545 and 20252025 equivalent.
As 2025=4×55×52025=4×55×5
The common number in numerator and denominator of 20252025 is 55
So, multiply and divide 4545 by 55 and we get
45=45×55=202545=45×55=2025.
84
EXAMPLE
Identifying equivalent fractions
Are the fractions 6969 and 6810268102 equivalent ?
Let' solve them
69=2×33×369=2×33×3
=23=23 ..... [Cancelling 33 from numerator and denominator]
Also, 68102=2×2×172×3×1768102=2×2×172×3×17
=23=23 ....... [Cancelling 22 and 1717 from numerator and denominator both]
Hence, the fractions 6969 and 6810268102 are equivalent.
What about 4848 and 20302030 ?

Because 48=42×4=1248=42×4=12 and 2030=2×103×10=232030=2×103×10=23
Hence, 4848 and 20302030 are not equivalent.

85
DEFINITION
Equivalent fractions
Fractions which look different but have same value after simplification are called equivalent fractions.
Eg:- For 1212 and 2424
2424 can be rewritten as 1×22×2=121×22×2=12
So, after simplification we get 24=1224=12
Hence, 1212 and 2424 are equivalent.
86
EXAMPLE
Reduce fractions to lowest form
If numerator and denominator have no common factor, then the fraction is in lowest form.
For eg:- In 2323, 22 and 33 do not have any common factor.
Let's see how to reduce a fraction into lowest form
Let's take a fraction 48364836
4836=48÷236÷24836=48÷236÷2 .... Since 22 is a factor of both numerator and denominator
=2418=24÷218÷2=2418=24÷218÷2 ....... Since 22 is a factor of both numerator and denominator
=129=12÷39÷3=129=12÷39÷3 ...... Since 33 is a factor of both numerator and denominator
=43=43
There is no common factor of 44 and 33.
Hence, 4836=434836=43.
87
EXAMPLE
Subtraction of like fractions
Take two like fractions of the form abab and cbcb
Now, let's see how to subtract them
ab−cbab−cb
Since the denominators are same, we will directly subtract the numerators
i.e. ab−cb=a−cbab−cb=a−cb
For eg:-
316−716=3−716=−416=−14316−716=3−716=−416=−14
88
EXAMPLE
Addition of like fractions
Fractions which have same denominator are called as like fractions.
For eg:- 316316 and 716716
Let's see how to add them :
316+716316+716
Since the denominators are same, we will directly add the numerators and we get
316+716=3+716=1016=5×28×2=58316+716=3+716=1016=5×28×2=58
89
EXAMPLE
Addition of unlike fractions
Unlike fractions are the fractions which do not have same denominator i.e. they have different denominator.
Eg:- 2828 and 2525
Let's see how to add these two :
i.e. 28+2528+25
Since, the denominators are not same. Cross multiply the numbers as shown
i.e. 2×5+2×88×52×5+2×88×5
=10+1640=2640=10+1640=2640
=1320=1320.
90
EXAMPLE
Subtraction of unlike fractions
Take two unlike fractions 2828 and 2525
Let's see how to subtract the above two unlike fractions
i.e. 25−2825−28
=2×8−2×58×5=2×8−2×58×5 ....... Cross multiplying the numbers
=16−1040=16−1040
=640=640 =320=320
91
EXAMPLE
Conversion of vulgar fraction into mixed fraction
Let's see how to convert vulgar fractions into mixed fractions.
Take any fraction abab, where a>ba>b
Write aa in the form of bb i.e. a=mb+ca=mb+c where mm is a natural number
So, ab=mb+cb=mbb+cb=m+cb=mbcab=mb+cb=mbb+cb=m+cb=mbc
which is in the form of mixed fraction.
So, we can convert any vulgar fraction abab, where a>ba>b into mixed fraction.
Let's take an example of a fraction 596596
Now, as 5454 is a greatest multiple of 66 less than 5959.
Then, 596=54+56=9×6+56=9×66+56=956596=54+56=9×6+56=9×66+56=956
92
EXAMPLE
Convert mixed fraction into vulgar fraction
When whole number and fraction are combined together, they form a mixed fraction.
Eg:- 413413
This can be simplified further as follows
Multiply the whole number by denominator.
Add it to the numerator
i.e. 413=4×3+13=12+13=133413=4×3+13=12+13=133
Since, vulgar fractions are simple fractions i.e of the form abab where aa and bb are integers.
So, the fraction we got i.e. 133133 is a simple or vulgar fraction.
So, in this way we can convert any mixed fraction into vulgar fraction.
93
EXAMPLE
Multiply a fraction by whole number
Take a whole number aa.
Let's take 2323 rd part of aa
This will be 23×a23×a i.e. multiplying a fraction by whole number
Now, 23×a=23×a123×a=23×a1
Since, aa and 22 are in numerator so multiply them
Similarly, multiply denominators i.e. 33 and 11
So, we get 23×a=2×a323×a=2×a3
For eg:-
513×26=5×2613=5×21=10513×26=5×2613=5×21=10
94
EXAMPLE
Multiply a fraction by whole number
37×5=3×57=15737×5=3×57=157
95
EXAMPLE
Multiply a fraction by a fraction
Take two fractions abab and cdcd
Let's see how to multiply them :
For multiplication, we follow a rule that the numerators are multiplied together and denominators are multiplied together
i.e. ab×cd=a×cb×dab×cd=a×cb×d
because aa and cc are in numerator and bb and dd are in denominator.
For eg:- Multiply 613613 and 124124
So, 613×124=6×1213×4613×124=6×1213×4
=6×313=1813=6×313=1813
96
EXAMPLE
Multiply a fraction by a fraction
58×67=5×68×7=305658×67=5×68×7=3056
97
DEFINITION
Reciprocal of a number
When we divide a number aa by 11, then that number becomes reciprocal of aa.
For eg:- Let's take a number 1212, then 112112 is the reciprocal of 1212.
98
EXAMPLE
reciprocal of number
Def: Reciprocal of aa is written as 1a1a.
Eg. 1) Reciprocal of 33 is 1313
2) Reciprocal of −43−43 is −143−143
3) Reciprocal of 342342 is 423423
99
EXAMPLE
Divide a fraction by a whole number
457÷5=457×15=97457÷5=457×15=97
100
EXAMPLE
Divide a fraction by a whole number
Take a fraction abab and divide it into cc equal parts.
The way of doing this is
abcabc
So, cc will be multiplied with denominator and then solve it.
For eg:- If we divide 4545 by 66, then we get
456=45×6=2×25×2×3=215456=45×6=2×25×2×3=215
101
EXAMPLE
Divide a fraction by a fraction
Fractions are the part or portion of something.
Take two fractions of the form abab and cdcd
Let's see how to divide abab by cdcd
i.e. abcdabcd
Numerator of second fraction will be multiplied with denominator of first fraction.
And denominator of second fraction will be multiplied with numerator of first fraction.
i.e. ab×dcab×dc
=a×db×c=a×db×c
For eg:- 3234=32×43=3×42×3=42=23234=32×43=3×42×3=42=2
102
EXAMPLE
Divide a whole number by a fraction
5÷57=5×75=75÷57=5×75=7
103
EXAMPLE
Divide a whole number by a fraction
Let's take a whole number aa and divide it by a fraction bcbc
i.e. abcabc
Now, as cc is in the denominator, it will be multiplied with numerator while division.
And bb will be in denominator.
So, we get abc=a×cbabc=a×cb
For eg:- Divide 66 by a fraction 103103
i.e. 6103=6×310=2×3×32×5=956103=6×310=2×3×32×5=95
104
DEFINITION
BODMAS Principle
B - Brackets first (parentheses)
O - Of (orders i.e. Powers and Square Roots, Cube Roots, etc.)
DM - Division and Multiplication (start from left to right)
AS - Addition and Subtraction (start from left to right)
105
DEFINITION
Round Off Decimal Numbers
1) Find the place value you want (the "rounding digit") and look at the digit just to the right of it.
2) If that digit is less than 55, do not change the rounding digit but drop all digits to the right of it.
3) If that digit is greater than or equal to 55, add one to the rounding digit and drop all digits to the right of it.
For example:-
Round off 4.5673434.567343 upto 22 decimal places.
To round off upto 22 decimal places, look at the third digit after decimal i.e. 77
Since, 7>57>5
Add 11 to 66 i.e. 6+1=76+1=7 and drop all the digits to the right of 66.
Hence, after rounding off 4.5673434.567343 upto two decimal places we get 4.574.57
106
DEFINITION
Define, identify and give examples of decimal fractions
Decimal fraction is a fraction, whose denominator is 1010 or higher power of 1010 and numerator is expressed by decimal number.
For eg:- 0.34100.3410 and 0.521000.52100
107
EXAMPLE
Define and give examples of decimal number
Let's learn about decimal number :
A number which contains a decimal point, that separates the whole number and the fractional part is a decimal number.
For eg:- 1.2,−4.531.2,−4.53 are decimal numbers
Here, 11 and −4−4 are whole numbers
22 and 5353 are the fractional parts.
108
EXAMPLE
Write decimals in expanded form
Let's see how to write a decimal number in expanded form:
For eg:- 764.2764.2
The number which is left to the decimal point is 764764
77 is at hundreds place, 66 is at tens place and 44 is at units/ones place
So, we write 764=7764=7 hundreds + 6+ 6 tens + 4+ 4 ones
As 22 is to the right of decimal, we write it as 22 tenths
Then, we have 764.2=7764.2=7 hundreds + 6+ 6 tens + 4+ 4 ones + 2+ 2 tenths
=700+60+4+210=700+60+4+210
Hence, 764.2764.2 is written in expanded form as 700+60+4+210700+60+4+210
109
EXAMPLE
Express rational numbers in decimal form
Let's see how to express a rational number in decimal form
For eg:- Take a rational number 7474
1. When you divide 77 by 44, you will get a quotient as 11 and remainder as 33
2. As 3<43<4
Add 00 after remainder i.e. 33 so that it becomes 3030 and add decimal point after quotient i.e. 11
3. Now, when you divide 3030 by 44, the quotient will be 77 and remainder will be 22
So, you will get 1.71.7
4. Again as 2<32<3, add 00 after 22 so that you get 2020.
Note that, we can add decimal point only once.
5. Now divide 2020 by 44, the quotient will be 55 and remainder 00
As the remainder is 00
So, we have 74=1.7574=1.75
110
EXAMPLE
Subtraction of irrational numbers
Example:Let the two irrational numbers be 2√2 and 1−3√1−3
Then 2√−2− (1−3√1−3) = 2√−1+3√2−1+3
Example: let 3√3 and 1−3√1−3
Then 3√−3− (1−3√1−3) = 23√−123−1
111
EXAMPLE
Addition of irrational numbers
Example:Let the two irrational numbers be 2√2 and 1−3√1−3
Then 2√2 + 1−3√1−3 = 1−3√+2√1−3+2
Example: let 3√3 and 1−3√1−3
Then 3√3+ 1−3√1−3 = 3√−3√+1=13−3+1=1
112
EXAMPLE
Division of irrational numbers
Let 3√3 and 5√5
Then 3√5√=3√×5√5√×5√35=3×55×5 [Rationalizing] = 3√×5√5=15−−√53×55=155
113
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of irrational numbers
Example: Let 3√3 and 2√2 be two irrational numbers then:
3√×2√=6√3×2=6
Example: Let 6√6 and 6√6 be two irrational numbers then:

6√×6√=66×6=6
114
DEFINITION
Irrational Numbers
Numbers which can't be expressed in pqpq form are irrational numbers.
3√,5√3,5 are examples of irrational numbers
115
DEFINITION
Additive inverse of irrational numbers
The additive inverse of an irrational number a is -a since a+(-a) = 0. The set of irrational numbers is invertible with respect to addition.
116
RESULT
Additive identity
The set of irrational number does not satisfy the additive identity because we can say that, the additive inverses of rational numbers are 0. Because
zero is not an irrational number, therefore the additive inverse of irrational number does not exist.
117
DEFINITION
Additive identity definition
The additive identity property says that if we add a real number to zero or add zero to any real number, then we get the same real number back
as an answer. The number zero is known as the identity element for the set of real numbers, or the additive identity.
118
EXAMPLE
irrational numbers are not closed under subtraction
subtraction of the irrational number may be rational or irrational.
Example: a) 2√−2√=02−2=0 is a rational number
b)2√−18−−√2−18= 2√−3×2√2−3×2= −2×2√−2×2 is an irrational number
119
EXAMPLE
irrational numbers are closed under addition
Sum of the two irrational numbers is irrational
Example: 2√+2√=2×2√2+2=2×2
22√22 is the irrational number.
120
DEFINITION
Explain closure property and apply it in reference to irrational numbers
Closure property says that a set of numbers is closed under a certain operation if when that operation is performed on numbers from the set, we
will get another number from the same set.
where operations are +,−,×+,−,× or ÷÷
121
EXAMPLE
Explain closure property and apply it in reference to irrational numbers
For example:- 2√,−2√2,−2 and 3√3 are irrational numbers
For addition:-
Then, 2√+(−2√)=2√−2√=02+(−2)=2−2=0 is not an irrational number
For subtraction:-
3√−3√=03−3=0 is not an irrational number
For multiplication:-
Take 3√3 and 27−−√27 as two irrational numbers
3√×27−−√=3×27−−−−−√=81−−√=93×27=3×27=81=9 is not an irrational number
For division:-
3√3√=133=1 is not an irrational number
Hence, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under for any of the operations.
122
EXAMPLE
irrational numbers are not closed under division
An irrational number divided by an irrational number equals rational or irrational number.
Example: 1)2√2√22 = 11, and we know that 11 is the rational number.
b) 2√3√23 is an irrational number
123
EXAMPLE
Irrational numbers are Not closed under multiplication
The product of two irrational numbers may be rational or irrational.
Example: 1)(√2)(2) is irrational,
2√∗2√=22∗2=2
22 is a rational number
2) (214)×(214)(214)×(214) = 212212= 2√2 ,so, here two irrational numbers multiply to give an irrational number.
124
DEFINITION
Definition of closure property
A set of numbers is said to be closed under an operation if and only if the operation on two elements of the set produces another element of the
set, however if an element outside the set is obtained, then the set of numbers under that operation is not closed.
125
EXAMPLE
commutative property for irrational numbers
2√2 and 3√3 are two irrational numbers then:
2√2 ×× 3√3 = 6√6 = 3√3 ×× 2√2
Hence irrational numbers are commutative under multiplication
Now, let us verify commutative law for addition:
Consider 2√2 and 52√52 be two irrational numbers

Then 2√+52√=6×2√2+52=6×2
62√62 is the irrational number.
and 52√+2√=62√52+2=62
Hence irrational numbers commute under the addition
Let us verify for subtraction :
Consider 3√3 and 23√23 be two irrational numbers:
Then 3√−23√=−3√3−23=−3
How ever 23√−3√=3√23−3=3
Since −3√≠3√−3≠3 hence irrational numbers are not commutative under subtraction.
Let us check commutative property for division:;
Consider 25√25 and 5√5
Then 25√5√=2255=2
How ever 5√25√=12525=12
Since 12≠212≠2 hence irrational numbers are not commutative under division
126
DEFINITION
commutative property
Suppose that we have aa and bb as two numbers and any mathematical operation(*) is applied to them, then they are said to be commutative
if a∗b=b∗aa∗b=b∗a
127
DEFINITION
Associative property
Suppose we have three irrational numbers say aa,bb, cc. Then we have
a+(b+c)=a+(b+c)a+(b+c)=a+(b+c) [Associative property with respect to addition]
and (a×b)×c=a×(b×c)(a×b)×c=a×(b×c) [Assocative property with respect to multiplication]
128
DEFINITION
Distributive property
Suppose we have 33 irrational numbers say a,b,ca,b,c then
a×(b+c)=(a×b)+(a×c)a×(b+c)=(a×b)+(a×c)
129
EXAMPLE
Real number by Magnification
Find the number 3.7653.765 by magnification.

Sol: We will initially look at 3.6 and 3.73.6 and 3.7, after magnifying we are see at various sub-divisions like 3.76 and3.773.76 and3.77,
which later on breaks into 3.7653.765
130
DEFINITION
Definition of factors of given numbers
Take a number say aa.
Find the numbers which divide aa.
Now, the numbers which divide aa are called factors of aa.
Take another number bb.
Find the factors of bb.
Now, factors which appear both in aa and bb are called common factors.
Factors of a prime number are 11 and itself.
For eg:-
6=2×36=2×3 and 4=2×24=2×2
So, common factors of 66 and 44 is 22.
Factors of 1111 are 11 and 1111.
131
EXAMPLE
Factors of given numbers
For the numbers 1212 and 1515.
The factors of 1212 are 1,2,3,4,6,121,2,3,4,6,12 or 12=1×2×2×312=1×2×2×3
The factors of 1515 are 1,3,5,151,3,5,15 or 15=1×3×515=1×3×5
The common factors are 11 and 33.
132
DEFINITION
Perfect Numbers
Perfect numbers are positive integers that is exactly equal to the sum of its perfect positive divisors i.e. sum of positive divisors excluding the
number itself.
For example :-
Divisors of 66 are 1,2,31,2,3 and 66
Perfect divisors of 66 are 1,21,2 and 33
And 6=1+2+36=1+2+3
So, 66 is a perfect square.
133
EXAMPLE
Common Factors of Number
Example: Find the common factors of 2424 and 4848
Sol: The factors of 2424 are 1,2,3,6,8,12,241,2,3,6,8,12,24 and the factors of 4848 are 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,16,481,2,3,4,6,8,12,16,48.
Therefore the common factors are 1,2,3,6,8,121,2,3,6,8,12
134
EXAMPLE
Find HCF by long division method
To find the H.C.F. of the given number we will follow the following steps:
1. We divide the bigger number by smaller one.

2. Divide smaller number in step 1 with remainder obtained in step 1.
3. Divide divisor of second step with remainder obtained in step 2.
4. We will continue this process till we get remainder zero and divisor obtained in end is the required H.C.F.
135
EXAMPLE
HCF/GCD using common factor method.
Do you remember, how to find factors of a number ?
Well, factors of a number aa are those which divide aa.
Take aa and find its factors.
Take another number bb and find its factors.
Now, take out the common factors of aa and bb.
The, highest common factor will be HCF/GCD.
For eg:-
12=2×2×312=2×2×3 and 8=2×2×28=2×2×2
Factors of 1212 are 1,2,3,4,6,121,2,3,4,6,12
Factors of 88 are 1,2,4,81,2,4,8
Highest common factor of 1212 and 88 is 44.
So, HCF/GCD of 1212 and 88 is 44.
136
EXAMPLE
HCF using Fundamenal Theorem
Find the HCF of 66 and 2020 by the prime factorization method.
We have : 6=2×36=2×3
20=2×2×520=2×2×5
20=2×2×520=2×2×5.
Common factors of 66 and 2020 are 22 11 and 22 22
So for HCF take the common number with lowest exponent.
HCF =2×1=2=2×1=2
137
FORMULA
HCF and LCM of Fractions
HCF =HCF of NumeratorsLCM of Denominators=HCF of NumeratorsLCM of Denominators
LCM =LCM of NumeratorsHCF of Denominators=LCM of NumeratorsHCF of Denominators

138
DEFINITION
Lowest Common Multiple
LCM of two numbers is the smallest whole number which is a multiple of both the numbers.
The lowest common multiple is found by multiplying all the factors which appear in either (prime) factor list of both numbers.
Multiples of 1212 are 12,24,36,48,60,72,84,96...12,24,36,48,60,72,84,96... or 12=1×2×2×312=1×2×2×3
Multiples of 1616 are 16,32,48...16,32,48... or 16=1×2×2×2×216=1×2×2×2×2
The LCM of 1212 and 1616 is 4848 or 1×24×3=481×24×3=48.
139
DEFINITION
LCM by long division method
As you know, LCM is least common multiple and there are three methods to find LCM :
1. Prime factorisation method
2. Least multiple method
3. Long division method
Can you find the LCM of 340340 and 612612 using first 2 methods ?
If we use 1, it'll take time to find the factors of both the numbers.
If we use 2, you need to find multiples of both numbers which is not so easy.
So, it's better to use some other method i.e. 3.
By long division method, we get
LCM of 340340 and 612612 is 2×2×17×5×9=30602×2×17×5×9=3060
140
DIAGRAM
LCM by long division method
141
DEFINITION
LCM by prime factorisation method
Do you know, how to find the factors of a number ?
Well, factors of a number aa are the numbers which divide aa.
So, take two numbers aa and bb and express them as multiple of prime factors.
Take the common prime factors out and then take the prime factors which are not common.
Multiply all of them.
The number which we get is called the least common multiple or LCM of aa and bb.
And this method is called as prime factorisation method, as we are using prime numbers.
Now, can you find the LCM of 1010 and 1212 ?
The answer is 6060.
Let's see how ????
10=2×510=2×5 and 12=2×2×312=2×2×3
The common prime factor is 22.
The uncommon prime factors are 5,25,2 and 33.
Then, LCM =2×5×2×3=60=2×5×2×3=60.
142
EXAMPLE
Common Multiples of Numbers
Example: Find the first two common multiples of 1212 and 66
Solution: We can see that the multiples of 1212 are 12,24,36,48......12,24,36,48...... and the multiples
of 66 are 6,12,18,24,30,36..........6,12,18,24,30,36...........First two common multiples of 1212 and 4646 are 12,2412,24
143
EXAMPLE
Find HCF and LCM of decimals
Find HCF and LCM of 1.201.20 and 22.522.5
Converting each of the following decimals into like decimals we get;
1.201.20 and 22.5022.50
Now, expressing each of the numbers without the decimals as the product of primes we get
120=2×2×2×3×5=23×35120=2×2×2×3×5=23×35
2250=2×3×3×5×5×5=2×32×532250=2×3×3×5×5×5=2×32×53
Now, H.C.F. of 120120 and 2250=2×3×5=302250=2×3×5=30

Therefore, the H.C.F. of 1.201.20 and 22.5=0.3022.5=0.30 (taking 22 decimal places)
L.C.M. of 120120 and 2250=23×32×53=90002250=23×32×53=9000

Therefore, L.C.M. of 1.201.20 and 22.5=90.0022.5=90.00 (Taking 22 decimal places)
PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

01
DEFINITION
Solving letters for digits
In this we have puzzles in which letters takes the place of digit in arithmetic sum and the problem is the to find out which letter represents which
digit; there are two rules we follow while doing such puzzles:-
1. Each letter in the puzzle must stand for just one digit. Each digit must be represented by just one letter.
2. The first digit of a number cannot be zero. Thus, we write the number sixty three as 6363, and not as 063063, or 00630063.
02
DEFINITION
Introduction to divisibility
A divisibility rule is a shorthand way of finding ut whether a given number is divisible by a fixed divisor without performing the division of the
number.
Example: 250 is divisible by 2 as its last digit is zero.
03
DEFINITION
Define quotient
When one number (dividend) is divided by another number (divisor), the result obtained is known as Quotient.
Example : When 15 is divided by 2 then the quotient is 7
04
DEFINITION
Remainder
Remainder is the amount left over after division when one divisor does not divide the dividend exactly.
Example: when 25 is divided by 4 we get 1 as remainder
05
DEFINITION
Divisibility Test by 2
If the ones digit or unit's place digit of a number is either 0,2,4,6,0,2,4,6, or 88 then the number is said to be divisible by 22.
Or in other terms, if the number is even then it is always divisible by 22.
06
DEFINITION
Divisibility Test by 3,9
A number is divisible by 33 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 33.
A number is divisible by 99 if the sum of the digits are evenly divisible by 99.
07
DEFINITION
A number is divisible by 44 if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 44.
08
DEFINITION
A number is divisible by 55 if the last digit is either 00 or 55.
09
DEFINITION
Since 66 is a multiple of 22 and 33, the rules for divisibility by 66 are a combination of the rule for 22 and the rule for 33.
In other words, a number passes this divisibility test of 66 only if it passes the test for 22 and test for 33.
10
DEFINITION
Test 1:
Take the digits of the number in reverse order, from right to left, multiplying them successively by the digits 1,3,2,6,4,51,3,2,6,4,5, repeating
with this sequence of multipliers as long as necessary. Add the products. If the sum is divisible by 77 then it passes the divisibility test of 77.
Eg: Is 16031603 divisible by seven?
3(1)+0(3)+6(2)+1(6)=213(1)+0(3)+6(2)+1(6)=21 is divisible by 77, so 16031603 is.
Test 2:
Double the last digit and subtract it from the remaining leading truncated number. If the result is divisible by 77, then so was the original number.
Apply this rule over and over again as necessary.
Eg: Is 16031603 divisible by seven?
160−2(6)=154160−2(6)=154 is divisible by 77, so 16031603 is.
11
LAW
A number passes the test for 88 if the last three digits form a number is divisible 88.
12
DEFINITION
A number passes the test for 1010 if its final digit is 00.
13
DEFINITION
Subtract the last digit from the remaining leading truncated number. If the result is divisible by 1111, then so was the first number. Apply this
rule over and over again as necessary.
Eg:
19151→1915−1=1914→191−4=18→18−7=1119151→1915−1=1914→191−4=18→18−7=11, so yes, 1915119151 is divisible
by 1111.
14
SHORTCUT
Divisibility test of higher numbers
A number is divisible by 1313 if the number obtained by subtracting 99 times the last digit from the remaining digits of the number is divisible
by 1313.
A number is divisible by 1717 if the number obtained after subtracting 55 times the last digit from the rest is divisible by 1717.
For composite numbers, if a number is divisible by all the factors of the divisor(composite number) then it is completely divisible by that divisor.
For example, if a number is divisible by 22 and 66(which are the factors of 1212), then the number/dividend is divisible by 1212
15
EXAMPLE
Problem on Divisibility Test
Let x=163+173+183+193x=163+173+183+193 then x divided by 70 leaves a remainder of?
Solution: Using the identity a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)
163+193+173+183=(16+19)(162−16×19+192)+(17+18)(172−17×18+182)=35[2(somenumber)]...(theinnerproductisdivisibleby2
ascanbeseenfromtheunit′sdigitaftercalculation)=70k163+193+173+183=(16+19)(162−16×19+192)+(17+18)(172−17×18+182)=3
5[2(somenumber)]...(theinnerproductisdivisibleby2ascanbeseenfromtheunit′sdigitaftercalculation)=70k where k belongs to the set of
integers
So, Remainder = 00
16
SHORTCUT
Sum of all n-digits number formed using the n given digits
Sum of all n-digits number that can be formed using the n given digits 1,3,4...k when repetition is not
allowed =(n−1)!(1+3+4+...+k)(10n−19)=(n−1)!(1+3+4+...+k)(10n−19)
=(n−1)!(=(n−1)!(sum of all n-digits)(10n−19))(10n−19)
17
SHORTCUT
Sum of the digits in the unit place (or any place) of all the numbers formed using n given digits
Sum of digits in the unit place of all the numbers formed with the help of n digits taken all at a time =(n−1)!×(=(n−1)!×(sum of all n-digits))
Example:
Sum of the digits in the unit place of all the numbers formed with the help of 2,3,1,42,3,1,4 taken all at a
time =(4−1)!×(2+3+1+4)=60=(4−1)!×(2+3+1+4)=60
18
FORMULA
Properties of factorial
1. 0!=10!=1
2. n!=n⋅(n−1)!n!=n⋅(n−1)!
3. (n+1)⋅n!=(n+1)!(n+1)⋅n!=(n+1)!
19
SHORTCUT
Exponent of Prime p in n!
Let exponent of prime pp in n!n! is denoted by Ep(n!)Ep(n!) where p is a prime number and n is a natural number.
Then, Ep(n!)=[np]+[np2]+[np3]+....Ep(n!)=[np]+[np2]+[np3]+.... where [[ ]] denotes greatest integer.
SQUARE AND SQUARE ROOTS

01
LAW
Squares by direct multiplication
We can find the square of a number by multiplying it by itself.
⇒(a)2=a×a⇒(a)2=a×a
Example:
To find the square of 1212 by direct multiplication we multiply it by 1212.
(12)2=12×12=144.(12)2=12×12=144.
02
LAW
Square of rational number
When we square a rational number abab, we first factorize each number and then we square the number.
So for square of a rational number, each prime factor has an even exponent.
(ab)2=(a2b2)(ab)2=(a2b2)
Example:
To find the square of 16251625
First we factorize each number:
⇒(2×2×2×25×5)2⇒(2×2×2×25×5)2
⇒(2452)2=2854⇒(2452)2=2854
03
EXAMPLE
Finding square of a decimal number
Square of a decimal number is same as finding square of any integer number.
But what about decimal point ?
The decimal places will be double after squaring a decimal number.
For eg:-
Find square of 4.54.5
First we find the square without taking decimal point i.e. the square of 4545
Now, 452=45×45=2025452=45×45=2025
Since, 4.54.5 have 11 decimal place i.e. 11 digit after decimal point
So, square of 4.54.5 will have 22 decimal places i.e. 22 digits after decimal point.
Hence, 4.52=20.254.52=20.25
04
DEFINITION
Decimal Places
Decimal places is same as the number of digits after decimal point.
For eg:- 4.54.5 have 11 decimal place
2.3452.345 have 33 decimal places
05
DEFINITION
Adding triangular number
In triangular number dot pattern can be arranged as a triangle like 1,3,6,10,151,3,6,10,15. If we combine two consecutive triangular number
we get a square.
Example -
1+3=4=221+3=4=22
3+6=9=323+6=9=32
6+10=16=426+10=16=42
06
LAW
Adding consecutive odd numbers
If we add consecutive odd number starting from 11, then their sum is always a perfect square.
Example
1+3=4=221+3=4=22
1+3+5=9=321+3+5=9=32
1+3+5+7=16=421+3+5+7=16=42 etc.
07
LAW
Sum of consecutive natural numbers
A square number is always the sum of consecutive natural numbers.
Example =32=9=4+5=32=9=4+5
92=81=40+4192=81=40+41
08
DEFINITION
Patterns in square numbers
Square numbers follows some patterns.
Example:
11=111=1
111=121111=121
1111=123211111=12321
11111=1234321111111=12343211
111112=123454321111112=123454321
1111112=123456543211111112=12345654321 so on.
09
LAW
Product of two consecutive odd or even numbers
Product of two consecutive odd or even number can be expressed as
(a+1)(a−1)=a2−1(a+1)(a−1)=a2−1
Where,
a=x+y2a=x+y2
x,yx,y are two consecutive odd or even numbers.
Example:
9×11=(10−1)(10+1)=102−1=999×11=(10−1)(10+1)=102−1=99
8×10=(9−1)(9+1)=92−1=808×10=(9−1)(9+1)=92−1=80
10
LAW
Squares using algebraic identities
We can find the square of a number using algebraic identities like (a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2(a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2
Example:
Find the square of 2525
252=(20+5)2252=(20+5)2
⇒(20)2+2×20×5+52⇒(20)2+2×20×5+52
⇒400+200+25=625⇒400+200+25=625
11
DEFINITION
Pythagorean Triplets
Pythagorean triplets are the set of integers a,ba,b and cc that satisfy the Pythagorean's theorem
a2+b2=c2a2+b2=c2
Example:
(1) 3,43,4, and 55 are Pythagorean triplets
32+42=5232+42=52
9+16=259+16=25
(2) 5,125,12 and 1313 are Pythagorean triplets.

52+122=13252+122=132
25+144=16925+144=169
12
DEFINITION
Square root
A number which multiplied by itself to produce the original number is called the square root of that original number.
Example:
Square root of 1616 is =16−−√=4=16=4
∵4×4=16∵4×4=16
13
LAW
Square root through prime factorisation
To find the square root of the given number through prime factorization method we follows the following steps:
(i) First we divide the given number in to its prime factor.
(ii) Make the pair of similar factors such that the both factors in each pair are equal.
(iii) Take one factor from pair.
(iv) Find the product of factor that obtained by taking one factor from each pair.
That product is the square root of the given number.
Example:
To find the square root of 256256.
Solution:
First we make the prime factor of 256256
256=2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2256=2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2
Now, making pairs
⇒2×2−−−−×2×2−−−−×2×2−−−−×2×2−−−−⇒2×2_×2×2_×2×2_×2×2_
Take one factor from each pair and find the product.
⇒2×2×2×2=16⇒2×2×2×2=16
∴256−−−√=16∴256=16
14
LAW
Square roots for non-perfect square
To find the square roots of a number which is not a perfect square we follows the following steps-
(i) First we factor the given number completely.
(ii) We make pair of the same number.
(iii) The number that is in the pair are perfect square and the that left are remain in square root.
Example:
20−−√=2×2×5−−−−−−−√=25√20=2×2×5=25
15
LAW
Square roots by long division method
To find the square by long division method we follow the following steps:
(i) First we make the pair of the digits starting from the digit's at one's place.
For making the pair place a bar over every pair of digits.
If the number of digits in it odd, then the left-most single digit will have a bar.
(ii) Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under the extreme left bar.
Take this number as the divisor and the number under the extreme left bar as dividend.
Divide and get the remainder.
(iii) To the right of the remainder place the number that is under the next bar.
(iv) Now double the divisor and enter it with blank on its right.
(v) Think a largest possible digit to fill the blank which will also become the new digit in the quotient such that when the new divisor is multiplied
to the new quotient the product is less than or equal to the dividend.
(vi) Repeat these steps till get the remainder 00 and no digits are left in the given number.
Example:
Find the square root of 529529 by long division method.
16
LAW
Square roots of decimal numbers by division method
To find the square root of decimal numbers by long division method we follow the following steps:
(i) First we make the pair of the digits of the integral part and decimal part by placing the bar of each pair.
(ii) Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under the extreme left bar.
Take this number as the divisor and the number under the extreme left bar as dividend.
Divide and get the remainder.
(iii) To the right of the remainder place the number that is under the next bar.
(iv) Now double the divisor and enter it with blank on its right.
(v) Think a largest possible digit to fill the blank which will also become the new digit in the quotient such that when the new divisor is multiplied
to the new quotient the product is less than or equal to the dividend.
(vi) Repeat these steps till get the remainder 00 and no digits are left in the given number.
Example:
Find the square root of 12.2512.25
17
EXAMPLE
Finding square root of a non perfect square number by division
Let's see how to find square root of a non perfect square number by division
For eg:- Let's find square root of 529529 using division
1. Place a bar over every pair of digits starting from right. If the number of digits is odd, then the left-most single digit too will have a bar. i.e we
have 5¯¯¯ 29¯¯¯¯¯5¯ 29¯
2. Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under the left most bar.
3. Take this number as the divisor and the quotient, with the number under left-most bar as dividend(5)(5).
4. Divide the number and get the remainder, 11 in this case.
5. Bring down the number under the next bar to the right of remainder. And the new dividend is 129129.
6. Double the quotient and enter it with a blank on its right.
7. Find the largest digit to fill the blank which also becomes new digit in the quotient, such that the multiplication of new divisor and new quotient
is less than or equal to the divisor.
8. Since, 43×3=12943×3=129. We choose the new digit as 33. Get the remainder.
9. Since, the remainder is 00. We get 529−−−√=23529=23.
18
LAW
Square root through repeated subtraction
In this method given number is subtracted by successive odd number starting from 11 till we get 00 at the end.
The number of steps use in this gives the square root of the given number.
Example: 64−−√64
(i) 64−1=6364−1=63
(ii) 63−3=6063−3=60
(iii) 60−5=5560−5=55
(iv) 55−7=4855−7=48
(v) 48−9=3948−9=39
(vi) 39−11=2839−11=28
(vii) 28−13=1528−13=15
(viii) 15−15=015−15=0
Hence, from 6464 we have subtracted successive odd numbers starting from 11 and got 00 at 8th8thstep.
∴64−−√=8∴64=8
19
LAW
Square root by inverse operation of squaring
We can find the square root of a number by doing inverse (opposite) operation of squaring.
The square of a number is the number that we obtain by multiplying the number by itself.
Example:
32=932=9
∴∴ Square root of 99 is 33
20
LAW
Square roots of a fraction
To find the square root of a fraction first we reduce the fraction in to lowest form.
Than we find the square root of numerator and denominator.
Example:
18−−√50−−√=9√25−−√=3×3−−−−√5×5−−−−√=351850=925=3×35×5=35
21
LAW
Estimating square roots
We can find the square roots of the non-perfect square by estimate the answer by finding the nearest perfect square.
For example:
If we find the square root of 250250.
First, we find the nearest perfect square that is 152=225152=225 and 162=256162=256
∴15<250−−−√<16∴15<250<16
Here, 256256 is much closer to 250250 than 225225
∴250−−−√∴250 is approximately 1616.
22
EXAMPLE
Finding the nearest integer to the square root of a given number
1. Find the nearest integer to the square root of the number 232
We have, 152=225152=225 and 162=256162=256.
We know, 225 < 232 < 256
152<232<162152<232<162
Square root of 232 is nearest to 15
CUBE AND CUBE ROOTS

01
DEFINITION
Cubes and cube numbers
Cubes: A cube is a three dimensional solid figure which has all its sides equal.
Cube numbers: When a number is multiply by itself three times, then the formed is a cube number.
For eg:-
3×3×3=273×3×3=27
∴27∴27 is a cube number.
02
EXAMPLE
Finding cube of a number
Finding cube of a number is same as multiplying the same number three times.
For eg:- Cube of 22 is
23=2×2×2=823=2×2×2=8
Also, (−4)3=(−4)×(−4)×(−4)=−64(−4)3=(−4)×(−4)×(−4)=−64.
03
LAW
Cube number by adding consecutive odd numbers
We can find cube number by adding consecutive odd numbers, if we find the cube of a number nn, then we add the nn number of consecutive
odd number.
Example:
23=3+5=823=3+5=8
33=7+9+11=2733=7+9+11=27
04
LAW
Patterns in unit digit of cube number
If a cube number has its units place digit as aa then its cube will end with the unit digit of the multiplication of a×a×aa×a×a
The cube of all numbers that end with 22 has its unit digit as 88, the cube of all numbers that end with 33 has its unit digit 77 and the cube of all
number that end with 1,4,5,61,4,5,6 and 99 are the number that has same unit digit.
Examples:
(i) Cube root of 33753375 has 55 as unit digit.
(ii) Cube root of 7408874088 has 22 as unit digit.
05
LAW
Smallest multiple to make a number a perfect cube
To find the smallest multiple to make a number a perfect cube we follows the following steps-
(i) First we find the prime factorization of the given number.
(ii) We group the factor in to triads of equal factors.
(iii) If all the factors can be grouped ,then the given number is a perfect cube.
If any number is left over then it is not a perfect cube.
(iv) If all the factors can not be grouped then multiply the left over factor with the same number to make it as a group of triple.
Example:
Find the smallest number by 864864 is multiplied to get a perfect cube.
Prime factorization of 864=2×2×2×2×2×3×3×3864=2×2×2×2×2×3×3×3
Now we group the prime factor in triad of equal factor
⇒2×2×2−−−−−−−×3×3×3×3−−−−−−−−−−−×2×2⇒2×2×2_×3×3×3×3_×2×2
Here the factor of 864864 cannot be grouped in to equal factors as the factors 2×22×2 is left over.
To make the number perfect cube we multiple the left over factor by 22 to make it as a group of triple.
Hence, 22 is the smallest multiple that make 864864 a perfect cube.
06
EXAMPLE
Finding the smallest divisor to make a number a perfect cube
When the number is not a perfect square, we need to either multiply or divide it with some number.
Let's see how to make a number a perfect cube by finding the smallest divisor
For eg:-
Make 2424 a perfect cube.
As we know, 24=2×2×2×3=23×324=2×2×2×3=23×3
Here, power of 22 is 33.
So, 2323 is a perfect cube.
But 33 is not a perfect cube.
So, divide 2424 by 33 to get the perfect cube.
07
EXAMPLE
Cube of two digit number using identity (a+b)^3
The identity for finding cube of a number is given by
(a+b)3=a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3(a+b)3=a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3
Find cube of 1212 using the identity (a+b)3(a+b)3
Solution:-
123=(10+2)3123=(10+2)3
=103+3×102×2+3×10×22+23=103+3×102×2+3×10×22+23
=1000+600+120+8=1728=1000+600+120+8=1728
Hence, 123=1728123=1728.
08
LAW
Cube root of a fraction
To find the cube root of a fraction first we reduce the fraction in to lowest form.
Then we find the cube root of numerator and denominator .
Example:
2764−−−√3=27−−√364−−√327643=273643
=3×3×3−−−−−−−√34×4×4−−−−−−−√3=3×3×334×4×43 =34=34
09
EXAMPLE
Finding cube of a fraction/decimal number
Let's take abab as a fraction
Then, cube of abab is (ab)3=a3b3(ab)3=a3b3
For eg:- Cube of 1212 is
(12)2=1323=18(12)2=1323=18
If we take 1212 as decimal number, then 12=0.512=0.5
And cube of 0.50.5 is 0.53=0.5×0.5×0.5=0.1250.53=0.5×0.5×0.5=0.125.
10
EXAMPLE
Find cube root of a decimal number
Cube root of a decimal number is same as finding cube root of whole number.
But, the difference is decimal point.
So, the cube root will have 1313rd of the decimal places as the original decimal number.
For eg:- Find cube root of 0.0080.008
0.008=81000=8×10−30.008=81000=8×10−3
=2×2×2×10−3=23×10−3=2×2×2×10−3=23×10−3
Then, cube root of 0.0080.008 will be
(0.008)13=(23×10−3)13=2×10−1=210=0.2(0.008)13=(23×10−3)13=2×10−1=210=0.2
Hence, cube root of 0.0080.008 is 0.20.2.
11
DEFINITION
Cube root
Cube root of a number is a number that when multiply three time by itself gives that number.
The symbol √33 denote cube root.
Example:
Cube root of 6464 is 44.
∵4×4×4=64∵4×4×4=64
12
LAW
Cube root through prime factorisation method
To find the square root of the given number through prime factorization method we follows the following steps-
(i) First we divide the given number in to its prime factor.
(ii) Group the factor in 33 in such a way that each number of the group is same
(iii) Take one factor from each group.
(iv) Find the product of factor that obtained by taking one factor from each group.
That product is the cube root of the given number.
Example:
To find the cube root of 6464.
Solution:
First we make the prime factor of 6464
64=2×2×2×2×2×264=2×2×2×2×2×2
Now make group
⇒2×2×2−−−−−−−×2×2×2−−−−−−−⇒2×2×2_×2×2×2_
Take one factor from each group and find the product.
⇒2×2=4⇒2×2=4
∴64−−√3=4∴643=4
13
LAW
Estimating cube root
Estimating cube root of a number we follows the following steps:
(i) First we take any cube number and start making group of three digits starting from the rightmost digit of the number.
(ii) The unit digit of the first group will decide the unit digit of the cube root.
(iii) Find the cube of number between which the second group lie.
(iv) We take one's place of the smaller number as the ten's place of the required cube root.
Example:
Find the cube root of 1757617576 by estimation
First we make group of three starting from the rightmost digit.
First group is 576576 and another group is 1717.
First we take first group: 576576
The digit 66 is its unit digit.
As we know 66 comes at the unit place of a number only when it's cube root ends with 66.
So we get 66 at the unit place of the cube root.
Take the another group: 1717
Cube of 22 is 88 and cube of 33 is 2727.
Then 1717 lie between 88 and 2727.
The smallest number between 22 and 33 is 22.
The one's place of 22 is 22 itself.
Than 22 is the ten's place of the cube root.
∴17576−−−−−√3=26∴175763=26
14
EXAMPLE
Find cube root of negative numbers
As you know, if we multiply a negative number twice it will give positive number.
But when we multiply a negative number thrice, we get a negative number.
So, it is clear that the cube root of a negative number will be a negative number.
For eg:- Find cube root of −8−8
We know that, 8=2×2×2=238=2×2×2=23
Cube of 22 is 88, so cube root of 88 is 22.
Then, −8=(−2)×(−2)×(−2)=(−2)3−8=(−2)×(−2)×(−2)=(−2)3
So, cube of −2−2 is −8−8
Hence, cube root of −8−8 is −2−2.
POLYNOMIALS
01
DEFINITION
History and Origin of Algebra
Algebra is a mathematical system that is a generalisation of arithmetic in symbolic form; it uses l.etters or symbols to represents numbers. The
word "algebra" is derived from the Arabic word al-jabr,
02
DEFINITION
Constant
A constant is a term which has a fixed value.
Example: 5,12,−25,12,−2, etc.
03
DEFINITION
Variable
A variable is an alphabetical character representing a number and whose value is unknown.
Example:
x+5=12+yx+5=12+y
Here, xx and yy are variables.
04
DEFINITION
Algebraic Expressions
Algebraic Expression is an expression built from numerical constants, variables and algebraic operators
Example:
2x+y2x+y is an algebraic expression
05
DEFINITION
Formula
It is a type of equation that shows the relation between different variables.
Example:
Area of a rectangle =l×b=l×b
Where ll is the length and bb is the breadth.
06
DEFINITION
Framing a formula
We frame the formula by converting mathematical statements using symbols and signs to a formula.
Example:
Half of a number is added to 1010 to give 2020
x2+10=20x2+10=20
07
DEFINITION
Changing the subject of a formula
Subject of a formula is the variable mostly on the left of the equal to (=)(=) sign.
Example:
v=u+atv=u+at
Here, vv is the subject.
To make tt the subject of formula, we can rearrange it.
v−u=atv−u=at
⇒v−ua=t⇒v−ua=t
08
EXAMPLE
Substitution in a formula
When we replace letters in a formula by numbers, it is called substitution.
Example :
K= oC+273K= oC+273
So, to find the value of 6 oC6 oC
K=6+273K=6+273
K=279K=279
So, 6 oC=273 K6 oC=273 K
09
DEFINITION
Subject of a formula
It is a variable which can be read in terms of other variables involved in the formula.
Example:
In y=x+4,yy=x+4,y is the subject.
10
EXAMPLE
Simplification of Algebraic Expression by BODMAS
BODMAS means Bracket Open Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction in order
Example:
5(3[2x−2]+3)5(3[2x−2]+3)
First Bracket Open
5[6x−6+3]5[6x−6+3]
=5[6x−3]=5[6x−3]
=30x−15=30x−15
11
EXAMPLE
Addition and Substraction of Algebric Expressions
Rule: Apply operations on Coefficients of Like Terms
Example:
3x3+4x+2x2+17x−3x2−14x33x3+4x+2x2+17x−3x2−14x3
Arranging like terms
3x3−14x3+4x+17x+2x2−3x23x3−14x3+4x+17x+2x2−3x2
Now adding and subtracting
−11x3+21x−x2−11x3+21x−x2
12
EXAMPLE
Value of Expression / Polynomial
Find the value of polynomial q(y)=2y3−4y+11−−√q(y)=2y3−4y+11 at y=1y=1.
Solution:
Given, q(y)=2y2−4y+11−−√q(y)=2y2−4y+11
We need to find value of polynomial at y=1y=1
Put the value y=1y=1 in the given polynomial, we get
q(y)=2(1)2−4(1)+11−−√q(y)=2(1)2−4(1)+11
⇒q(y)=2−4+11−−√⇒q(y)=2−4+11
⇒q(y)=2−4+3.32⇒q(y)=2−4+3.32
⇒q(y)=1.32⇒q(y)=1.32
Therefore, q(y)=1.32q(y)=1.32
13
DEFINITION
Homogeneous Expression
Homogeneous expressions are expressions in which every term has same degree.
For example : 5x4+2x3y5x4+2x3y
The degree of each term is 4.
14
DEFINITION
Symmetric Expressions
A expression is said to be symmetric when the expression remains unaffected by interchanging x to y and y to x.
Example : ax2+bxy+ay2ax2+bxy+ay2
15
DEFINITION
Cyclic Expression
An expression f(x,y,z)f(x,y,z) is said to be cyclic if f(x,y,z)=f(y,x,z)f(x,y,z)=f(y,x,z) .
Example x(y+z)+y(z+x)+z(x+y)x(y+z)+y(z+x)+z(x+y) is an cyclic expression.
16
DEFINITION
Zero Polynomial
A Zero Polynomial is a polynomial in which all variable coefficients are all equal to zero.
It is a constant polynomial with value 0.
17
DEFINITION
Degree of Polynomial
Degree of Polynomial is highest degree of its terms when Polynomial is expressed in its Standard Form.
It is sum of exponents of the variables in term.
Example:
x3y+x2+yx3y+x2+y
x3yx3y has degree 44 (3(3 for xx and 11 for y)y)
x2x2 has degree 22
yy has degree 11
So highest degree is 44, thus polynomial has degree 44
18
DEFINITION
Constant Polynomial
A Constant Polynomial is a polynomial whose value is constant.
P(x)=cP(x)=c, for some constant cc
Example:
3x2+x=153x2+x=15
19
DEFINITION
Linear Polynomial
Linear Polynomial is s polynomial whose degree is 11.
Linear Polynomial have exactly one Root.
Example:
3x+53x+5, y−3y−3, x+8x+8 are Linear Polynomials
20
DEFINITION
Quadratic Polynomial
Quadratic Polynomial is a polynomial whose Degree is 22.
It has only two roots.
Example:
x2+y+5x2+y+5
y2+2y+1y2+2y+1
21
DEFINITION
Cubic Polynomial
A Cubic Polynomial is polynomial of degree 33.
Example:
x3−1x3−1
22
DEFINITION
Standard Form of Polynomial
Standard form of a Polynomial is the polynomial written with the highest degree first.
Example:
3x2−7+4x5+x33x2−7+4x5+x3
So highest degree is 55
Thus, the standard form of polynomial is 4x5+x3+3x2−74x5+x3+3x2−7
23
EXAMPLE
Coefficient and index form
Consider x3+3x5+6+x+x2x3+3x5+6+x+x2. We write it in the standard form i.e. descending powers of x
as 3x5+x3+x2+x+3x5+x3+x2+x+. In this form the term containing x4x4 is missing. We insert this missing term and write it as
3x5+0x4+x3+x2+x+6.........(1)3x5+0x4+x3+x2+x+6.........(1)
Now we express this as ( 3, 0, 1, 1, 1, 6 ). where each one is the coefficient of the each of the powers present. This form is known as
the "coefficient form" of the polynomial and the polynomial in (1) is in its index form.
24
DEFINITION
Terms
Terms are elements separated by plus or minus sign in an algebraic expression.
Example:
x+2y=6x+2y=6
xx, 2y2y and 66 are terms.
25
DEFINITION
Coefficient of Polynomial
Coefficient is a multiplicative factor in some term of polynomial.
A polynomial term contains both a number and a variable, the number part is called Coefficient.
Example:
3x3+43x3+4
Here, 33 is a Coefficient of x3x3.
26
DEFINITION
Like Terms of Polynomial
Terms of a Polynomial is called Like Terms when their Variable and Degree are same.
Example:
x3x3 and 3x3x are not Like Terms
3x23x2 and 3y23y2 are not Like Terms
x2x2 and 5x25x2 are Like Terms
27
DEFINITION
Unlike Terms of Polynomial
Terms of a Polynomial is called Unlike Terms when their Variable and Degree are not same.
Example:
x3x3 and 3x3x are Unlike Terms
3x23x2 and 3y23y2 are Unlike Terms
x2x2 and 5x25x2 are Like Terms
28
DEFINITION
Monomial
A Monomial is an algebraic expression consisting of only one term.
Example:
13,3x,5x213,3x,5x2 are monomials.
29
DEFINITION
Binomial
A Binomial is an algebraic expression having two terms.
It can also be considered as a sum of two monomials.
Example:
4x−2y,x2−3y4x−2y,x2−3y are binomials
30
DEFINITION
Trinomial
A Trinomial is an algebraic expression having three terms.
It can also be considered as a sum of three monomials.
Example:
x2+2x+1,3x2−4x+10,2x+3y+2x2+2x+1,3x2−4x+10,2x+3y+2 are trinomials
31
DEFINITION
Polynomial
Polynomial is algebraic expression having more than one terms.
Example:
x2+2x,3x3+4x2+5x+6x2+2x,3x3+4x2+5x+6 are Polynomials.
32
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Monomials
Multiply 3x3x and 5x2y5x2y
First group Coefficient and Variables
(3×5)(x×x2)(y)(3×5)(x×x2)(y)
Apply Exponential Law
15x1+2y15x1+2y
15x3y15x3y
33
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Three or more Monomials
Multiply x3,6x2y,5xy3x3,6x2y,5xy3
Arrange Coefficients and Variables
(6×5)(x3x2x)(yy3)(6×5)(x3x2x)(yy3)
=30x6y4=30x6y4
34
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Monomial by a Binomial
Multiply 3x3x by (x+4)(x+4)
(3x×x)+(3x×4)(3x×x)+(3x×4)
3x2+12x3x2+12x
35
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Monomial by a Trinomoial
Multiply 3x3x by 5x2+4xy+65x2+4xy+6
=(3x×5x2)+(3x×4xy)+(3x×6)=(3x×5x2)+(3x×4xy)+(3x×6)
15x2+12x2y+18x15x2+12x2y+18x
36
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Polynomial and Monomial
Multiply x4+x2+x+y+7x4+x2+x+y+7 and 3x3x
(3x×x4)+(3x×x2)+(3x×x)+(3x×y)+(3x×7)(3x×x4)+(3x×x2)+(3x×x)+(3x×y)+(3x×7)
=3x5+3x3+3x2+3xy+21x=3x5+3x3+3x2+3xy+21x
37
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Binomial by a Binomial
Multiply 3x+43x+4 and 4x+74x+7
=3x×(4x+7)+4×(4x+7)=3x×(4x+7)+4×(4x+7)
Now, it become the Multiplication of Monomial and Binomial
12x2+21x+16x+2812x2+21x+16x+28
=12x2+37x+28=12x2+37x+28
38
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Binomial by a Trinomial
Multiply 3x+23x+2 and x3+5x+6x3+5x+6
3x×(x3+5x+6)+2×(x3+5x+6)3x×(x3+5x+6)+2×(x3+5x+6)
=3x4+15x2+18x+2x3+10x+12=3x4+15x2+18x+2x3+10x+12
=3x4+15x2+28x+2x3++12=3x4+15x2+28x+2x3++12
39
EXAMPLE
Multiplication of Polynomial and Polynomial
Multiply polynomials 3x6+2x5+53x6+2x5+5 and 5x+25x+2
Distributing we get
5x×(3x6+2x5+5)+2×(3x6+2x5+5)5x×(3x6+2x5+5)+2×(3x6+2x5+5)
Again distribute and solve
15x7+10x6+25x+6x6+4x5+1015x7+10x6+25x+6x6+4x5+10
Simplify
15x7+16x6+4x525x+1015x7+16x6+4x525x+10
40
EXAMPLE
Division of Monomial by a Monomial
Divide: 25y425y4 by 5y35y3
Divide Numerical Coefficient by Numerical Coefficient and Variable by Variable, so we get
255.y4y3255.y4y3
=5.y4−3=5.y4−3
=5y=5y
41
EXAMPLE
Division of Polynomial by a Monomial
Divide 6x4−8x3+12x−46x4−8x3+12x−4 by 2x22x2
Split the Terms in Numerator by Dividing each Terms in Numerator by Denominator
6x42x2−8x32x2+12x2x2−42x26x42x2−8x32x2+12x2x2−42x2
Simplify
3x2−4x+6x−2x23x2−4x+6x−2x2
42
DEFINITION
Complete Factorisation
Follow these steps to Factorise Completely:
1) Take out the common Factor
2) Factor a Trinomial if possible
3) Factor a Difference Between Two Squares as many times as possible
Example:
x4−1x4−1
Step 1) It has only 11 as a Common Factor, so it remains x4−1x4−1
Step 2) Since it has only Two Terms we cannot apply Trinomial Factorization
Step 3) Factorization of Difference Between Two Squares
x4−1=(x2)2−12x4−1=(x2)2−12
=(x2+1)(x2−1)=(x2+1)(x2−1)
=(x2+1)(x+1)(x−1)=(x2+1)(x+1)(x−1)
43
DEFINITION
Identity
Identity is an equality relation A=BA=B such that AA and BB contains same Variables.
Example:
(a−b)(a+b)=a2−b2(a−b)(a+b)=a2−b2
44
FORMULA
Standard Identities on Binomials
Square of Binomial:
(a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2(a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2
(a−b)2=a2−2ab+b2(a−b)2=a2−2ab+b2
Difference of Square:
a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)
45
EXAMPLE
Application of Standard Identities on Binomials
Find the value of 25−3625−36
We have 25−3625−36
=52−62=52−62
Apply Identity a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)
=(5+6)(5−6)=(5+6)(5−6)
=−11=−11
46
FORMULA
Identity of a Square of a Trinomial
(a+b+c)2=a2+b2+c2+2ab+2bc+2ca(a+b+c)2=a2+b2+c2+2ab+2bc+2ca
Example:
(x+y+3)2(x+y+3)2
=x2+y2+9+2xy+6y+6x=x2+y2+9+2xy+6y+6x
47
DEFINITION
Identities on Cubes of Binomial and Polynomials
Cube of Bionomial:
(a+b)3=a3+b3+3a2b+3ab2(a+b)3=a3+b3+3a2b+3ab2
(a−b)3=a3−b3−3a2b+3ab2(a−b)3=a3−b3−3a2b+3ab2
Example:
(x+3)3(x+3)3
=x3+27+9x2+27x=x3+27+9x2+27x
48
EXAMPLE
Factorisation of Sum or Difference of Two cubes and Cube Terms
Factorisation of Sum or Difference of Two cubes we use
a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)
a3−b3=(a−b)(a2+ab+b2)a3−b3=(a−b)(a2+ab+b2)
Example:
x3−8x3−8
=x3−23=x3−23
=(x−2)(x2+2x+4)=(x−2)(x2+2x+4)
49
FORMULA
Conditional Cubic Identities
a3+b3+c3−3abc=(a2+b2+c2−ab−bc−ac)(a+b+c)a3+b3+c3−3abc=(a2+b2+c2−ab−bc−ac)(a+b+c)
If a+b+c=0a+b+c=0, then a3+b3+c3=3abca3+b3+c3=3abc
Find the product using appropriate identity:

(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)
Solution:
We know the identity (a+b+c)(a2+b2+c2−ab−bc−ca)=a3+b3+c3−3abc(a+b+c)(a2+b2+c2−ab−bc−ca)=a3+b3+c3−3abc
Using the above identity taking a=xa=x, b=−2yb=−2y and c=−zc=−z, the
product (x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx) can be computed as follows:
(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)=x3+(−2y)3+(−z)3−(3x×−2y×−z)=x3−8y3−z3−6xyz(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)=x3
+(−2y)3+(−z)3−(3x×−2y×−z)=x3−8y3−z3−6xyz
Hence, (x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)=x3−8y3−z3−6xyz(x−2y−z)(x2+4y2+z2+2xy−2yz+zx)=x3−8y3−z3−6xyz
50
EXAMPLE
Problems on cubic identity a^3+b^3
Factorise: 27x3+127x3+1
Here, 11 can be regarded as having been raised to any power we like, so (3x)3+13(3x)3+13
27x3+1=(3x)3+1327x3+1=(3x)3+13
=(3x+1)((3x)2−(3x)(1)+12)=(3x+1)((3x)2−(3x)(1)+12)
=(3x+1)(9x2−3x+1)=(3x+1)(9x2−3x+1)
51
EXAMPLE
Problems on a^3-b^3
Factorize x3−8x3−8
This is x3−23x3−23, so we get:

x3−23=x3−23x3−23=x3−23
= (x−2)(x2+2x+22)(x−2)(x2+2x+22)
= (x−2)(x2+2x+4)(x−2)(x2+2x+4)
52
EXAMPLE
Geometrically Verifiacation of (a+b)^2=a^2+2ab+b^2
Draw a line segment AB=aAB=a units. extend it to C.C.

So, that BC=bBC=b unit
Complete the squares and rectangles as shown in fig. 5.1
Here, AC=AB+BC=(a+b)AC=AB+BC=(a+b) units
thus, area of square ACDE=ACDE= Area of square ABGF+ABGF+ Area of rectangle BCHG+BCHG+ Area of
rectangle FGJE+FGJE+ Area of square GHDJGHDJ
i.e. (a+b)2=a2+ab+ab+b2(a+b)2=a2+ab+ab+b2
=a2+2ab+b2=a2+2ab+b2
53
DEFINITION
Geometrically Verification of (a-b)^2=a^2-2ab+b^2
Draw a square ABCDABCD with AB=aAB=a units

Cut BE=bBE=b unit.
So, that AE=(a−b)AE=(a−b) units complete the squares and rectangles as shown in fig.
Now,
Area of square AEFH=AEFH= Area of square ABCD−ABCD− Area of rectangle BEFG−BEFG− Area of rectangle HFJD−HFJD− Area
of square FGCJFGCJ
ie. (a−b)2=a2−b(a−b)−b(a−b)−b2(a−b)2=a2−b(a−b)−b(a−b)−b2
=a2−ab+b2−ab+b2−b2=a2−ab+b2−ab+b2−b2
=a2−2ab+b2=a2−2ab+b2
54
DEFINITION
Geometrically Verification of (a+b)(a-b)=a^2-b^2
Take OA=aOA=a unit and make a square OABCOABC.

AD=bAD=b units and make square ADEFADEF
Clearly, square OABC−OABC− square ADEF=a2−b2ADEF=a2−b2
Here, EF=bEF=b units and
BF=AB−AF=(a−b)BF=AB−AF=(a−b) units
Also, OD=OA−AD=(a−b)OD=OA−AD=(a−b) units
Cut off rectangle EFBGEFBG and paste it so that BF=LM.BF=LM.
Now, OL=OC+CL=(a+b)OL=OC+CL=(a+b) units
∴a2−b2=∴a2−b2=Area of rectangle ODMLODML
=OD×OL=OD×OL
=(a−b)(a+b)=(a−b)(a+b)
55
DEFINITION
Factor
A Factor of a Polynomial P(x)P(x) is any polynomial which divides evenly into P(x)P(x).
Example:
Factor of x2−1x2−1
x2−1=(x+1)(x−1)x2−1=(x+1)(x−1)
So (x−1)(x−1) or (x+1)(x+1) is Factor of Polynomial x2−1x2−1
56
DEFINITION
Factorisation
Factorization is opposite method of Simplification.
It is done by taking out common factors.
Example:
2x+22x+2 is in its simple form, but after factorization it is
2(x+1)2(x+1)
57
DEFINITION
Common Factor Method
Factorization using Common Factor Method is done by taking out Common Factors of the Terms.
Example:
21x+36xy+12x221x+36xy+12x2
Common Factor is 3x3x
=3x(7+12y+4x)=3x(7+12y+4x)
58
EXAMPLE
Factorisation by Grouping Terms
Grouping Terms for Factorization can be done only when after taking out common factors in each group there should be a common term in each
group.
Example:
x3−5x2+3x−15x3−5x2+3x−15
Grouping
(x3−5x2)+(3x−15)(x3−5x2)+(3x−15)
Taking out Common Factor
x2(x−5)+3(x−5)x2(x−5)+3(x−5)
=(x2+3)(x−5)=(x2+3)(x−5)
59
EXAMPLE
Factorisation of Difference of Two Squares
Factorisation of Difference of Two Squares can be done by using Binomial Identity
a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)
Example: x2−9x2−9
Using Identity we get
x2−32x2−32
=(x+3)(x−3)=(x+3)(x−3)
60
EXAMPLE
Factorisation of a Perfect Square Polynomial
x2+2xy+y2x2+2xy+y2
It can be simplified into x2+xy+xy+y2x2+xy+xy+y2
Grouping and taking out common factors
x(x+y)+y(x+y)x(x+y)+y(x+y)
(x+y)(x+y)(x+y)(x+y)
61
EXAMPLE
Problems using difference of two squares
Simplify: 572−1572−1
Solution:
572−1572−1= 572−12572−12=(57−1)(57+1)=56×58=3248=(57−1)(57+1)=56×58=3248
62
EXAMPLE
Factorisation of Trinomials by Special Product (x+a)(x+b)
Let the Trinomial be x2+qx+rx2+qx+r and its roots are aa and bb
So write q=(a+b)q=(a+b) and r=a.br=a.b
Now we get
x2+(a+b)x+a.bx2+(a+b)x+a.b
(x+a)(x+b)(x+a)(x+b)
Example:
x2+10x+21x2+10x+21
x2+(3+7)x+(3×7)x2+(3+7)x+(3×7)
(x+3)(x+7)(x+3)(x+7)
63
DEFINITION
Value of Polynomial
Value of Polynomial is the numerical value of the polynomial for given value of variables.
Example:
Value of x2+2x+2x2+2x+2 at x=1x=1
Put x=1x=1 in given polynomial
12+2(1)+212+2(1)+2
=5=5
64
EXAMPLE
Root of polynomial
Let the given x2+9x+20x2+9x+20
Solution: Solving by the factorization method we can see that:
Let p(x)=x2+9x+20=0p(x)=x2+9x+20=0
⟹p(x)=(x+4)(x+5)⟹p(x)=(x+4)(x+5)
Now to find the roots of p(x)p(x) we must have p(x)=0p(x)=0
Hence (x+4)(x+5)=0(x+4)(x+5)=0
Therefore the roots of the given polynomial are −4−4 and −5−5
65
DEFINITION
Zeroes of Polynomial
Let Polynomial be P(x)P(x), then Zeroes of Polynomial is the value of Variable xx for which the value of Polynomial P(x)P(x) is Zero.
Example:
Find Zero of Polynomial x2+5x+4x2+5x+4
Factorising
(x+4)(x+1)=P(x)(x+4)(x+1)=P(x)
For Zero of Polynmial P(x)=0P(x)=0
So (x+4)(x+1)=0(x+4)(x+1)=0
Either x=−4x=−4 or x=−1x=−1
66
DEFINITION
Graphical Representation of Zeroes of Linear Polynomial
Graph of x+y=1x+y=1
67
DEFINITION
Graphical Representation of Zeroes of Quadratic Polynomial
68
DEFINITION
Graphical Representation of Zeroes of Cubic Polynomial
69
EXAMPLE
Division of a polynomial by a binomial
Divide 2x4−9x3+21x2−26x2x4−9x3+21x2−26x by 2x−32x−3
70
EXAMPLE
Division of a polynomial by trinomial
 Divide 4x4+3x3+2x+14x4+3x3+2x+1 by x2+x+2x2+x+2
71
EXAMPLE
Division of Polynomial by a Polynomial
Dividing 2x3+x2−2x−12x3+x2−2x−1 by (x−1)(x−1),

72
DEFINITION
Remainder Theorem
When we Divide a Polynomial f(x)f(x) by x−cx−c then Remainder equals f(c)f(c)
Example:
Find Remainder when x2−3x−2x2−3x−2 is divided by x−1x−1
Here c=1c=1
f(1)=12−3(1)−2f(1)=12−3(1)−2
=−4=−4
73
DEFINITION
Factor Theorem
Factor Theorem:
When f(c)=0f(c)=0, then x−cx−c is a Factor of Polynomial.
Example:
x3−1x3−1
We can check at x=1x=1, Polynomial is Zero.
So x−1x−1 is Factor of x3−1x3−1
74
EXAMPLE
Factorisation of a Polynomial by Factor Theorem
Using factor theorem factorise the polynomials,
2x3+x2−2x−12x3+x2−2x−1, to check (x−1)(x−1) is a factor,
divide 2x3+x2−2x−12x3+x2−2x−1 by x−1x−1
So, we have (x−1)(2x2−3x+1)(x−1)(2x2−3x+1)
Now, factorise 2x2+3x+12x2+3x+1
=(2x+1)(x+1)=(2x+1)(x+1)
So, factorisation of 2x3+x2−2x−12x3+x2−2x−1 is (x−1)(2x+1)(x+1).(x−1)(2x+1)(x+1).
75
DEFINITION
Division Algorithm in Polynomials
If p(x)p(x) and q(x)q(x) are any Two Polynomials with Q(x)Q(x) not equal to Zero, then we can find Polynomials g(x)g(x) and r(x)r(x) such
that
p(x)=q(x).g(x)+r(x)p(x)=q(x).g(x)+r(x)
76
DEFINITION
Quadratic trinomial
A quadratic trinomial is a trinomial of the form ax2+bx+c,a≠0ax2+bx+c,a≠0. Quadratic trinomial has three terms they
are ax2ax2 , bxbx , cc. The degree of quadratic trinomial is 2.
Example: x2+x+8x2+x+8
77
DEFINITION
HCF of Monomials
Example:
The H.C.F. of numerical coefficients == The H.C.F. of 44 and 6.6.
Since, 4=2×2=224=2×2=22 and 6=2×36=2×3
Therefore, the H.C.F. of 44 and 66 is 22
The H.C.F. of Variables == The H.C.F. of x2y3x2y3 and xy2zxy2z is xy2xy2

Since, in x2y3x2y3 and xy2zxy2z; xx and yy are common.
The lowest power of xx is xx
The lowest power of yy is y2y2
Therefore, the H.C.F. of x2y3x2y3 and xy2zxy2z is xy2xy2
Thus, the H.C.F. of 4x2y34x2y3 and 6xy2z6xy2z.
== The H.C.F. of numerical coefficients ×× The H.C.F. of Variables
=2×(xy2)=2×(xy2)
=2xy2=2xy2
78
DEFINITION
HCF of binomials
The GCF for a binomial is the largest monomial that divides (is a factor of) each term of the polynomial
79
EXAMPLE
HCF of binomials
Find the HCF of 5a(a2+2ab+b2)5a(a2+2ab+b2) and 10a2(a2−b2)10a2(a2−b2)
Sol:
5a(a2+2ab+b2)=5a(a+b)25a(a2+2ab+b2)=5a(a+b)2 and 10a2(a2−b2)=5×2a(a−b)(a+b)10a2(a2−b2)=5×2a(a−b)(a+b)
The common factors are 55,aa a+ba+b. The lowest powers are 55 ,aa and a+ba+b. Hence HCF is 5a(a+b)5a(a+b)$
80
EXAMPLE
LCM of Monomials
LCM can be calculated by following steps:
1) The least common multiple of the numerical coefficients.
2) The lowest power of each letter which is divisible by every power of that letter occurring in the given expressions.
Example:
xyzxyz and 2x22x2
Step 1) Lowest Common Multiple of 22 and 11 is 22
Step 2) Highest Power of xx is x2x2, yy is yy and zz is zz, so x2yzx2yz
LCM is 2x2yz2x2yz
81
EXAMPLE
HCF of trinomials
If p(x)=4x2−4x−80p(x)=4x2−4x−80 and q(x)=8x2+24x−32q(x)=8x2+24x−32. Find their HCF
Solution: p(x)=4x2−4x−80=4(x2−x−20)=4(x2−5x+4x−20)=4(x(x−5)+4(x−5))=4(x−5)(x−4)p(x)=4x2−4x−80=4(x2−x−20)=4(x2−
5x+4x−20)=4(x(x−5)+4(x−5))=4(x−5)(x−4)
q(x)=8x2+24x−32q(x)=8x2+24x−32.= 8(x2+3x−4)=8(x2+4x−x−4)=8(x(x+4)−(x+4))=4×2(x−1)(x+4)8(x2+3x−4)=8(x2+4x−x−4)
=8(x(x+4)−(x+4))=4×2(x−1)(x+4)
here we can see that 44 and (x+4)(x+4) are two common factors, HCF is product 4(x+4)4(x+4)
82
FORMULA
Relation Between HCF and LCM of Polynomials
The Relation Between HCF and LCM of Polynomials is Product of Two Polynomials is equal to Product of their HCF and LCM.
P(x)×Q(x)=P(x)×Q(x)= HCF (P(x)(P(x)
and
Q(x)×Q(x)× LCM (P(x)(P(x) and Q(x))Q(x))
83
EXAMPLE
HCF of polynomials
Let p(x)=x2−2x+2p(x)=x2−2x+2, q(x)=x4−1q(x)=x4−1 and r(x)=x3−2x2−5x+6r(x)=x3−2x2−5x+6, find HCF
Solution: Factorise all:
p(x)=x2−2x+2p(x)=x2−2x+2 = (x−1)2(x−1)2
q(x)=x4−1q(x)=x4−1 = (x−1)(x+1)(x2+1)(x−1)(x+1)(x2+1)
r(x)=x3−2x2−5x+6r(x)=x3−2x2−5x+6 = x3−x2−x2+x−6x+6=x2(x−1)−x(x−1)−6(x−1)=(x−1)(x2−x−6)=(x−1)(x−3)(x+2)x3−x2−
x2+x−6x+6=x2(x−1)−x(x−1)−6(x−1)=(x−1)(x2−x−6)=(x−1)(x−3)(x+2)
Observe HCF of p(x),q(x)=(x−1)p(x),q(x)=(x−1), (−x−1),r(x)=(x−1)(−x−1),r(x)=(x−1). hence HCF of
p(x),q(x),r(x)p(x),q(x),r(x) is x−1x−1
84
EXAMPLE
GCD using Division Algorithm
85
EXAMPLE
LCM of binomials
Find the LCM of a2b+ab2a2b+ab2 and a3+a2ba3+a2b
Solution: The factors of the above expression are : a2b+ab2=ab(a+b)a2b+ab2=ab(a+b) and a3+a2b=a2(a+b)a3+a2b=a2(a+b). Here again
the highest power of aa is a2a2 , bb is b2b2 and that of (a+b)(a+b) is (a+b)(a+b) hence the LCM of these two expressions
is a2b(a+b)a2b(a+b)
86
EXAMPLE
LCM of trinomials
Find the L.C.M. of the expressions a2−12a+35a2−12a+35 and a2−8a+7a2−8a+7
Solution:
First expression = a2−12a+35a2−12a+35
= a(a−7)−5(a−7)a(a−7)−5(a−7)
= (a−7)(a−5)(a−7)(a−5)
Second expression = a2−8a+7a2−8a+7
= a(a−7)−1(a−7)a(a−7)−1(a−7)
= (a−7)(a−1)(a−7)(a−1)
Therefore, the L.C.M. = (a−7)(a−5)(a−1)(a−7)(a−5)(a−1)
87
EXAMPLE
LCM of polynomials
Find the L.C.M. of x2y2−x2x2y2−x2 and xy2−2xy−3xxy2−2xy−3x.
Solution:
Factorizing x2y2−x2x2y2−x2 by taking the common factor x2x2 we get,
x2(y2−1)x2(y2−1)
Now by using the identity a2−b2a2−b2.
x2(y2−12)x2(y2−12)
= x2(y+1)(y−1)x2(y+1)(y−1)
Also, factorizing xy2−2xy−3xxy2−2xy−3x by taking the common factor xx we get,
x(y2−2y−3)x(y2−2y−3)
=x(y2−3y+y−3)=x(y2−3y+y−3)
=x[y(y−3)+1(y−3)]=x[y(y−3)+1(y−3)]
=x(y−3)(y+1)=x(y−3)(y+1)
Therefore, the L.C.M. of x2y2−x2x2y2−x2 and xy2−2xy−3xxy2−2xy−3x is x2(y+1)(y−1)(y−3)x2(y+1)(y−1)(y−3).
88
EXAMPLE
LCM and HCF of Polynomials
FInd HCF and LCM of x2−12x=35x2−12x=35 and x2−8x+7x2−8x+7
Factorise:
x2−12x=35x2−12x=35
(x−7)(x−5)(x−7)(x−5)
Factories:
x2−8x+7x2−8x+7
(x−7)(x−1)(x−7)(x−1)
So HCF =(x−7)=(x−7)
LCM =(x−7)(x−5)(x−1)=(x−7)(x−5)(x−1)
89
DEFINITION
Square root of polynomial
The square root of any expression or polynomial is an expression whose square is equal to the original expression.
let p(x)p(x) be the polynomial then
p(x)−−−−√=|p(x)|,where{p(x),p(x)≥0−p(x),p(x)<0p(x)=|p(x)|,where{p(x),p(x)≥0−p(x),p(x)<0
90
EXAMPLE
Square root using factorization method
Find the square root of 4x2+20xy+25y24x2+20xy+25y2
Sol: We can see that 4x2+20xy+25y2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=4x2+20xy+25y2= (2x+5y)2−−−−−−−−√(2x+5y)2=|(2x+5y)||(2x+5y)|
91
EXAMPLE
Square root using division method
92
EXAMPLE
Square root of polynomial
93
DEFINITION
Algebriac Fractions
Algebraic Fractions are simply a Fraction with Algebraic Expressions in Numerator or Denominator or Both.
Example:
1x+11x+1
y+5y+3y+5y+3
94
EXAMPLE
Reduction of Algebraic Fraction to its Lowest Terms
Example:
Reduce 2x+10x2+5x2x+10x2+5x
First take out the common factors from Numerator and Denominator
2(x+5)x(x+5)2(x+5)x(x+5) =2x=2x
95
DEFINITION
Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expression
To Add Rational Expressions with same Denominators
Steps:
1) Add/Subtract the Numerators and write this Sum/Difference as Numerator on Common Denominator.
2) Reduce to Lowest terms
Add/Subtract Rational Expression with Different Denominators

Steps:
1) Factor each Denominator Completely
2) Take LCM of Denominators
3) Rewrite each Rational Expressions with LCM as Denominator
4) Add/ Subtract the Numerators
96
DEFINITION
Multiplication and Division of Rational Expresions
Multiplication of Rational Expressions
Steps:
1) Factor all Numerators and Denominators
2) Cancel all Common Factors
Division of Rational Expressions

Steps:
1) Take Reciprocal of Denominator and Multiply it by Numerator
2) Factor all Numerators and Denominators
3) Cancel Common Factors
LINEAR EQUATIONS
01
DEFINITION
Equation Identification
Two mathematical expressions equated by using "==" sign is called an equation.
Example:
x+y=a+bx+y=a+b
Here x, y, a, bx, y, a, b are variables.
02
EXAMPLE
Statement to equation form
The sum of two numbers is 2525. One of the numbers exceeds the other by 99.
Let the number be xx.
Then the other number =x+9=x+9
Sum of two numbers =25=25
According to question, x+x+9=25x+x+9=25
⇒2x+9=25⇒2x+9=25
03
FORMULA
Roots of Linear Equation
Value of the unknown variable which satisfies the equation is called Root.
Example:
x+17=35x+17=35
x=35−17x=35−17
x=18x=18
04
FORMULA
Solution of Linear Equation in one Variable with Variable on one side
Linear Equation where variable is on either LHS or RHS
Example:
2x+12=302x+12=30
2x=182x=18
x=9x=9
05
EXAMPLE
Solution of Word Problems on Linear Equations in one Variable with Variable on one side
Father's age is three more than twice the age of his son. If son's age is 1010, what is the father's age?
Let father's age be "xx".
According to the condition
2(10)+3=x2(10)+3=x
x=23x=23
06
DEFINITION
Solution of Linear Equation in one Variable with Variable on both sides
Linear Equation with Variable on both sides LHS and RHS
Example:
2x+6=x+42x+6=x+4
2x−x=4−62x−x=4−6
x=−1x=−1
07
EXAMPLE
Solution of word problems on Linear Equations in one Variable with variable on both sides
If twice the amount of mangoes in summer is equal to four more than the amount of mangoes, then find the value of mangoes?
2x=x+42x=x+4
2x−x=42x−x=4
x=4x=4
08
EXAMPLE
Reduction of Equations into Simple Linear Equations
1x+4+3x+4=401x+4+3x+4=40
Put 1x+4=u1x+4=u, we get
u+3u=40u+3u=40
4u=404u=40
u=10u=10
Now we have u=1x+4u=1x+4
10=1x+410=1x+4
10x+40=110x+40=1
x=−3910
LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLE

01
DEFINITION
Identification of Linear Equation in One Variable
Equation which contains only one unknown value is linear equation in one varaible.
Example:
X+17=35X+17=35
XX is variable.
02
DEFINITION
Identification of Linear Equation in Two Variable
Linear Equation consists of two unknown values.
Example:
x+4y=67x+4y=67
x,yx,y are variables
03
DEFINITION
Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables
Two different linear equations containing the same two variables form a pair of linear equations.
Example:
x+2y=6x+2y=6
2x+y=102x+y=10
Above two equations are the pairs of Linear equations where x, yx, y are variables
04
EXAMPLE
Linear Equations
Ross is hosting a lunch party. The catering company charge flat fee for serving the food plus a per person rate for the meals. If the total cost of
lunch party is represented by the equation y=11x+300y=11x+300. Find the representation of the number of people attending the party .
y=11x+300y=11x+300
The representation for number of people is ′x′′x′.
05
EXAMPLE
Solution of Linear Equation in Two Variable
There are four ways of solving system of linear equations in two variables
1) Graphical Method
2) By Elimination Method
3) By Substitution Method
4) By Cross-Multiplication Method
06
DEFINITION
Equations of Lines Parallel to x-axis and y-axis
A line is parallel to xx-axis when its yy coordinate is zero i.e. y=0y=0
So equation of line parallel to xx-axis is x=cx=c, where cc is a constant
A line is parallel to yy-axis when its xx coordinate is zero i.e. x=0x=0

So equation of line parallel to yy-axis is y=cy=c, where cc is a constant
07
DEFINITION
Graphical Representation of Linear Equation in Two Variable
A linear equation forms a straight line on the graph.
A system of linear equations forms two straights lines. Lines may intersect each other, be parallel to each other or overlap each other.
08
SHORTCUT
Graphs of lines parallel or coinciding with coordinate axes
The xx axis can be represented by y=0y=0 and yy axis can be represented by x=0.x=0.
Line parallel to xx axis can be represented by y=k.y=k.
Line parallel to yy axis can be represented by x=k.x=k.
kk is the perpendicular distance from origin.
09
DEFINITION
Inclination and Postion of LIne
Depending on the value of the angle of inclination, we can identify the position of a given line. The criteria is as given below:
tanθ>0tan⁡θ>0, the line has positive slope.
tanθ<0tan⁡θ<0, the line has negative slope.
tanθ=0tan⁡θ=0, the line is parallel to xx axis.
tanθ=∞tan⁡θ=∞, the line is parallel to yy axis.
10
DEFINITION
Slope of two parallel lines
Parallel lines have the same slope and will never intersect.
Two lines y=m1x+c1y=m1x+c1 and y=m2x+c2y=m2x+c2 are said to be parallel if m1=m2m1=m2
Example :
Lines 3x+4y=13x+4y=1 and 3x+4y=53x+4y=5 are parallel.
11
SHORTCUT
Relation of slopes of perpendicular lines
Two lines y=m1x+c1y=m1x+c1 and y=m2x+c2y=m2x+c2 are said to be perpendicular if m1.m2=−1m1.m2=−1

Example :
Lines 3x+4y=13x+4y=1 and 4x−3y=54x−3y=5 are perpendicular.
12
DEFINITION
Equation of a line parallel / perpendicular to a given line
To find equation of line parallel to given line:
1) Find the slope of the given line.
2) The slope of given line is same as the slope of the required line.
3) The slope of required line and the point through which it passes are known.
By using the slope-point form, the equation of the required line can be obtained.
To find equation of line perpendicular to given line:

1) Find the slope of the given line.
2) The slope of required line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the given line.
3) The slope of required line and the point through which it passes are known. By using the slope-point form, the equation of the required line can
be obtained.
13
DEFINITION
Relation between coefficients of identical lines
There are two lines Ax+By+C=0Ax+By+C=0 and Ex+Fy+G=0Ex+Fy+G=0 in the XYXY coordinate plane.
The slopes of the lines are m1=−ABm1=−AB and m2=−EFm2=−EF, respectively.
1) The above lines will be parallel if their slopes are equal.

So, m1=m2m1=m2
2) The above lines will be perpendicular to each other, if the product of their slopes is −1−1.
So, m1m2=−1m1m2=−1
14
DEFINITION
Equation of line passing through a point
Steps:
1) Find the angle of the given lines that it makes with positive direction of x-axis.
2) Find the slope of the lines using the angle so obtained.
3) Using the slope-point form, the equation of the required line can be obtained.
15
DEFINITION
Consistent Pair of Equations
If a system of equations has at least one solution then the system of equation is called consistent pair of equations
Example:
x+4y=5x+4y=5
4x+y=54x+y=5
Above pair of equations have one solution (1,1)(1,1), thus the pair of equation is consistent.
16
DEFINITION
Inconsistent Pair of Equations
If a system of equations has no solution, then the system of equation is called inconsistent pair of equations
Example:
x+4y=5x+4y=5
x+4y=10x+4y=10
Above pair of equations have no solution, thus, the pair of equations is inconsistent.
17
DEFINITION
Dependent Pair of Equations
If the pair of equations has an infinite number of solutions then the system is called dependent pair of equations.
Example:
x+2y=4x+2y=4
2x+4y=82x+4y=8
18
DEFINITION
Condition for Consistency of Equations
Condition for a pair of linear equations to be consistent
ax+by=cax+by=c
Ax+By=CAx+By=C
Above system of equation is consistent if it fulfills the following condition
aA=bB=cCaA=bB=cC
or, aA≠bBaA≠bB
19
FORMULA
Relation between slopes and coefficients of equation of pair of lines passing through origin
Relation between slopes and coefficients of pair of lines:
m1+m2=−2hbm1+m2=−2hb and m1m2=abm1m2=ab
20
DEFINITION
Solution of Pair of Linear Equation by Graphical Method
Draw the graph of given equations.
Each Linear Equation will form a straight line.
The point where these straight lines intersect is the solution of the pair of linear equations.
21
FORMULA
Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables by Substitution Method
Substituion Method:
Example:
x+2y=4.....(1)x+2y=4.....(1)
2+y=4......(2)2+y=4......(2)
From Eq (1)
x=4−2yx=4−2y
Substitiute value of xx in Eq (2)
2(4−2y)+y=22(4−2y)+y=2
y=2y=2
x=0x=0
22
DEFINITION
Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations in Two variables by Elimination Method
Let the system of equations be
x+2y=4.....(1)x+2y=4.....(1)
2x+y=2....(2)2x+y=2....(2)
By Elimination Method:
Multiply equation (1) by 22
2x+4y=82x+4y=8
Now substract it from equation (2)
we get 3y=63y=6
y=2y=2
Now substitute y=2y=2 in equation (1)
x=0x=0
23
RESULT
Cross Multiplication Method
Find a fraction which reduces to 2323 if the numerator and the denominator are each increased by 11, and reduces to 3535 if the numerator and
the denominator are each decreased by 22.
Let the fraction be xy.xy.
Given, if the numerator and the denominator are each increased by 11, then fraction =x+1y+1=23=x+1y+1=23
⟹3x+3=2y+2⟹3x+3=2y+2
⟹3x−2y=−1⟹3x−2y=−1 ....................... (1)(1)
Also, if the numerator and the denominator are each decreased by 22, then fraction =x−2y−2=35=x−2y−2=35
⟹5x−10=3y−6⟹5x−10=3y−6
⟹5x−3y=4⟹5x−3y=4 ....................... (2)(2)
Multiplying equation (1)(1) with 55 we get, 15x−10y=−515x−10y=−5 ...(3)(3)
Multiplying equation (2)(2) with 33 we get, 15x−9y=1215x−9y=12 ....(4)(4)

Subtracting equations (3)(3) from (4)(4), we get y=17y=17
Substituting y=17y=17 in the equation (2)(2), we get 5x−3(17)=45x−3(17)=4
⟹x=11⟹x=11
Hence, the fraction is 1117.1117.

24
EXAMPLE
Equation Reducable to a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables
Example: Reduce following equations into linear equations
12x−y+2x−2y=1012x−y+2x−2y=10
62x−y+7x−2y=2062x−y+7x−2y=20
Put 12x−y=u12x−y=u and 1x−2y=v1x−2y=v, we get

u+2v=10u+2v=10
6u+7v=20
RATIO AND PROPORTION

01
DEFINITION
Introduction to Ratio
A ratio is comparison of values of two quantities of the same type and having same unit by division.
Ratio of two quantities aa and bb is the fraction abab and we write it as a:b.a:b.
Example:,
If two girls and five boys were born on a particular day in a hospital.
we can write the ratio of number of girls to boys as 2:52:5 or 2525.
The ratio of number of boys to girl, can be written as 5:25:2 or 5252
Points to Remember:
 Ratio is a fraction.
 Ratio does not have a unit.
 Units of both the quantities involved in a ratio have to be same.
Example: To find ratio of 22 cm to 5050 mm.we will have to first convert 22 cm to mm or 5050 mm to cm
 We cannot compare two quantities of different type.
Example:We cannot compare 55 hours(unit of time) with 1010 inches (unit of length)
02
DEFINITION
Antecedent and Consequent.
aa is called as the first term or antecedent.
bb the second term or consequent.
Example:
i) The ratio 4:74:7 has antecedent =4=4 and consequent =7.=7.
03
DEFINITION
Antecedent and Consequent.
aa is called as the first term or antecedent.
bb the second term or consequent.
Representation:
Examples
The ratio 4:74:7 has antecedent =4=4 and consequent =7.=7.
04
DEFINITION
Continued Ratios
The ratio of more than two quantities,is known as a continued ratio.
The continued ratio of three quantities a,b,ca,b,c is represented as a:b:ca:b:c
Solved Example :
If the ratio of Apples to Mangoes in a bag is 4:54:5
and the ratio of Mangoes to Bananas is 2:3.2:3..Find the ratio of Apples to Mangoes to Bananas
Solution:
We have to calculate the ratio of Apples : Mangoes : Bananas
The ratio of Apples to Mangoes =45=4×25×2=810=45=4×25×2=810
The ratio of Mangoes to Banana be =23=2×53×5=1015=23=2×53×5=1015
∴∴The continued ratio of Apples : Mangoes : Banana =8:10:15.=8:10:15.
05
EXAMPLE
Calculate ratios of two given quantities.
To find the ratio of two quantities, remember the following points:
 The quantities should be of the same type.

 Their units should be same.
 Represent the ratio as a fraction.
 Reduce the fraction to its simplest form.
Example: Find the ratio of 54 minutes to 2 hours in its simplest form
Solution:
Both the quantities represent time, hence they are of the same type.
We first convert both the quantities in same units i.e. minutes.
22 hours == 2×60=120 min2×60=120 min
∴ 54min:2hours=54min:120min∴ 54min:2hours=54min:120min
=54120=54120
=920=920
∴∴, the ratio is 9:209:20

06
EXAMPLE
Divide a given quantity in a given ratio
Step 1:
From the given question, identify the ratio in which the given quantity is to be divided.
Step 2:
Take a common multiple (say xx) and find each part in terms of xx.
For eg: If we have to divide a number in two parts having ratio 3:23:2 then,
let the common multiple be xx.
Hence the two parts are 3x3x and 2x2x
Step 3
Apply the condition that ,
Sum of the parts= WholeSum of the parts= Whole and find value of xx
Using the value of xx ,each part can be calculated
Example: Divide 105,such that the parts are in ratio 3:23:2

Solution:
Step 1:
We have to divide the number 105105 in ratio 3:23:2
Step 2:
Let the common multiple be xx
∴∴ the parts are 3x3x and 2x2x
Step 3:
Sum of the two parts =105=105
∴3x+2x=105∴3x+2x=105
∴5x=105∴5x=105
∴x=21∴x=21
Hence the parts are 3x=3×21=633x=3×21=63 and 2x=2×21=422x=2×21=42
07
EXAMPLE
Solved Example on Comparison of Two Ratios
11)Compare 6565, 138115138115
Solution:
For ratios 65,13811565,138115
We have 6×115=6906×115=690 and 5×138=6905×138=690
∴6×115=5×138∴6×115=5×138
∴65=138115∴65=138115
22) Compare 7√52√8,3√51√27528,3512

Solution:
For ratios 7√52√8,3√51√27528,3512
We have, 7√5×1√2=75×12−−−−−−√=9√0075×12=75×12=900
and 2√8×3√5=28×35−−−−−−√=9√8028×35=28×35=980
But 9√00<9√80900<980
∴7√5×1√2<2√8×3√5∴75×12<28×35
∴7√52√8<3√51√2∴7528<3512
08
LAW
Comparison of Ratios
Consider two ratios abab and cdcd ....where b>0and d>0b>0and d>0
Use the following conditions to compare the two ratios.
1. If a×b>b×da×b>b×d then ab>cdab>cd

2. If a×b<b×da×b<b×d then ab<cdab<cd
3. If a×b=b×da×b=b×d then ab=cdab=cd
09
EXAMPLE
Theorem On Equal Ratio
Theorem on equal ratios :
If ab=cd,ab=cd,then a+cb+d=ab=cda+cb+d=ab=cd
provided that b+d≠0b+d≠0
Note:Theorem on equal ratios is also known as Addendo.
10
DEFINITION
Equality of Ratios Using Cross Multiplication
Consider two ratios abab and cdcd ....where b>0b>0 and d>0 d>0 ,
ab=cdab=cd only if a×b=b×da×b=b×d
Example:
Compare 6565, 138115138115
Solution:
For ratios 65,13811565,138115
We have 6×115=6906×115=690 and 5×138=6905×138=690
∴6×115=5×138∴6×115=5×138
∴65=138115∴65=138115
11
DEFINITION
Mean Proportional
The mean proportional of two number aa and bb is the positive number xx such that ax=xbax=xb
Example:
Find the mean proportion between 4 and 9.
Solution:
Let the mean proportion be xx
Therefore, 44 :x=x:9:x=x:9
x×xx×x = 4×94×9
x2=36x2=36
x2=62x2=62
x=6x=6
12
DEFINITION
Unitary method
In unitary method we will learn how to find the value of a unit from the value of a multiple and then to find value of a multiple from the value of a
unit.
For example : 33 pens cost Rs 60.60. Find the cost of 55 pens.

Cost of 33 pens == Rs 6060
Cost of 11 pens == Rs 603=603= Rs 2020
Cost of 55 pens == Rs 20×5=20×5= Rs 100100
13
DEFINITION
Direct Variation
xx 11 22 33 44
yy 55 1010 1515 2020

Observe the given table.
We have two quantities denoted by variable xx and yy.
The value of xx increases from 11 to 44. as we move towards right.
The value of yy also increases from 55 to 2020 as we move towards right
Such a relation in which the value of one variable increases with the increase in value of other variable,is known as direct variation.
We represent direct variation between variable xx and yy mathematically as, yαxyαx.
If yαxyαx,
then ,y=kxy=kx
Where kk is known as constant of proportionality (or variation)
Example:
A recipe for 6 cupcakes needs 1 cup of flour.The number of cupcakes you can make varies directly with the amount of flour ,which means for
making more cup cakes we require more flour.How many cupcakes can you make with 4 cups of flour?
Solution:Letxx = amount of flour and yy = number of cupcakes

Since yαxyαx,
y=kxy=kx . . . (11)
For 66 cup cakes we require 11 cup of flour.
∴∴ for x=6x=6, y=1y=1
put the above values in eq (11)

6=k×16=k×1
6=k6=k
∴k=6∴k=6
∴y=6x∴y=6x . . . (22)
Now we have to find the number cup cakes that can be made in four cups of flour.
When x=4x=4 y=?y=?

Using eq (22)
y=6x=6×4y=6x=6×4
∴y=24∴y=24
So you can make 2424 cupcakes in 44 cups of flour.
14
DEFINITION
Inverse Variation
xx 11 22 33 44
yy 1212 66 44 33
Observe the given table, we have two quantities denoted by xx and yy.
As we move from left to right the value of xx increases from 11 to 44. However, the value of yy decreases from 1212 to 33.
Also, the variation in yy is proportional to the variation in xx
Such a relation, where value of one variable increases,as the value of other decreases,is known as inverse variation.
Inverse variation between yy and xx is denoted by,
yα1xyα1x and read as yy varies inversely as xx
Example:
some workers complete a task in in a week. If we increase the number of workers the time to complete the task decreases.
Thus there exist an inverse variation between number of workers and time taken to complete a task.
15
DEFINITION
Definition of Proportion
The equality of two ratios is called as proportion.
If a:b=c:d,a:b=c:d, then it is said that a,b,c,da,b,c,d are in proportion.
It is also denoted as, a:b::d:ca:b::d:c.
The terms aa and dd are known as means and cc and dd are known as extremes.
Note:If four numbers a,b,c,da,b,c,d are in proportion then ab=bcab=bc
∴a×d=c×b∴a×d=c×b
∴product of the means=product of the extremes∴product of the means=product of the extremes
Example :
i)Check if 8,4,9,12 are in proportion or not
Solution :
84=2184=21 . . . (11)
912=34912=34 . . . (22)
From (11) and (22),
84≠91284≠912
∴8,4,9,12∴8,4,9,12 are not in proportion.
16
DEFINITION
Continued proportion
If a,ba,b and cc are in continued-proportion,
that means a:b::b:ca:b::b:c
⇒⇒ Product of extremes == Product of means
⇒a×c=b×b=b2⇒a×c=b×b=b2
Example : 8:4:28:4:2 is in continued proportion.
17
DEFINITION
Continued Proportion
If a:b=b:ca:b=b:c then a,b,ca,b,c are said to be in continued proportion.
Here bb is known as mean proportional.
Consider a continued proportion,
a:b=b:ca:b=b:c
∴ab=bc∴ab=bc
∴a×c=b×b∴a×c=b×b
∴b2=ac∴b2=ac
∴b=ac−−√∴b=ac
Thus, we conclude that if a,b,ca,b,c are in continued proportional then,
b=ac−−√b=ac
18
LAW
Invertendo
Invertendo :
ab=cdab=cd is the given ratio then,
After taking the reciprocal o both sides we get,
ba=dcba=dc
This operation is known as Invertendo.
19
DEFINITION
Alternendo
If ab=cdab=cd then, ac=bdac=bd
This operation is known as Alternendo.
Example:
35=61035=610
by alternendo,
36=51036=510
20
EXAMPLE
Explanation of Alternendo
Lets understand Alternendo with the help of an example,
Consider two ratio 1620,32401620,3240
Both these ratios are equal to each other,since both can be reduced to 4545
If we interchange consequent of the first ratio(2020) with antecedent of the second ratio (3232).
then, the new ratios obtained are,16321632 and 20402040.
The two above ratios are also equal ratios, since both can be reduced to 1212
This verifies that if 1620=32401620=3240 then, 1632=20401632=2040
21
DEFINITION
Defination of Componendo
If ab=cdab=cd
then, a+bb=c+dda+bb=c+dd,
This property is known as Componendo
22
DEFINITION
Explaination of Componendo
Consider an equal ratio ab=cdab=cd
Add 11 on both sides of the above equation
ab+1=cd+1ab+1=cd+1
a+bb=c+dda+bb=c+dd,
Thus,
If ab=cdab=cd
then, a+bb=c+dda+bb=c+dd,
This property is known as Componendo
23
DEFINITION
Explanation of Dividendo
Consider an equal ratio ab=cdab=cd
Subtract 11 from both sides of the above equation
ab−1=cd−1ab−1=cd−1
a−bb=c−dda−bb=c−dd,
Thus if ab=cdab=cd then, a−bb=c−dda−bb=c−dd,
24
DEFINITION
Definition of Dividendo
If ab=cdab=cd then, a−bb=c−dda−bb=c−dd
This property is known as Dividendo.
25
LAW
Componendo and Dividendo
ab=cdab=cd a+bb=c+dda+bb=c+dd
Componendo
ab=cdab=cd a−bb=c−dda−bb=c−dd
Dividendo
ab=cdab=cd a+ba−b=c+dc−da+ba−b=c+dc−d
Componendo - Dividendo
26
DEFINITION
Defination of Componendo-Dividendo
Componendo- Dividendo
If ab=cdab=cd, then a+ba−b=c+dc−da+ba−b=c+dc−d
27
EXAMPLE
Proof of Componendo- Dividendo
Consider an equal ratio ab=cdab=cd . . .(11)
Add 11 on both sides of equation (11)
ab+1=cd+1ab+1=cd+1
a+bb=c+dda+bb=c+dd . . .(22)
Subtract 11 from both sides of equation (11)
ab−1=cd−1ab−1=cd−1
a−bb=c−dda−bb=c−dd, . . .(33)
Now,
Divide equation (11) by (22)
a+bba−bb=c+ddc−dda+bba−bb=c+ddc−dd
∴a+ba−b=c+dc−d∴a+ba−b=c+dc−d
Thus,
if ab=cdab=cd
then, a+ba−b=c+dc−da+ba−b=c+dc−d
This property is known as Componendo-Dvidendo.
28
EXAMPLE
Addendo
The property states,
ab=cd=ef=a+c+eb+d+fab=cd=ef=a+c+eb+d+f,Where a+b+c≠0a+b+c≠0.
Lets understand this with an example.

Consider the given equal ratios
24=816=102024=816=1020 . . . (11)
Each of the above ratio can be reduced to 1212
Now, adding all the numerators of eq(11) we get 2+8+102+8+10
adding all the denominators of eq (11) we get 4+16+204+16+20.
Lets form a new ratio as,
New Ratio=2+8+104+16+20=2040=2+8+104+16+20=2040
The above ratio can also be reduced to 1212
Thus,
24=816=1020=2+8+104+16+2024=816=1020=2+8+104+16+20
In general we can conclude that
Ifab=cd=efab=cd=ef is the given equal ratio,
then each ratio=a+c+eb+d+fa+c+eb+d+f , Provided that a+b+c≠0a+b+c≠0
This property is known as Addendo.
29
EXAMPLE
Understanding Addendo
Let's understand Addendo with an example.
Consider the given equal ratios
24=816=102024=816=1020 . . . (11)
Each of the above ratio can be reduced to 1212
Now, adding all the numerators of eq(11) we get 2+8+102+8+10
adding all the denominators of eq (11) we get 4+16+204+16+20.
Lets form a new ratio as,
New Ratio=2+8+104+16+20=2040=2+8+104+16+20=2040
The above ratio can also be reduced to 1212
Thus,
24=816=1020=2+8+104+16+2024=816=1020=2+8+104+16+20
In general we can conclude that
Ifab=cd=efab=cd=ef is the given equal ratio,
then each ratio=a+c+eb+d+fa+c+eb+d+f , Provided that a+b+c≠0a+b+c≠0
This property is known as Addendo.
30
DEFINITION
Direct Proportion
xx 11 22 33 44
yy 55 1010 1515 2020

Observe the given table.
We have two quantities denoted by variable xx and yy.
The value of xx increases as we move towards right from 11 to 44.
The value of yy also increases as we move towards right from 55 to 2020.
Also observe that the increase in xx and yy are in proportion i.e 15=210=315=42015=210=315=420.
Such a relation in which the value of one variable increases with the increase in value of other variable,is known as direct proportion.
We represent direct proportion between variable xx and yy mathematically as, yαxyαx.
If yαxyαx,
then ,y=kxy=kx
Where kk is known as constant of proportionality (or variation)
Example:
A recipe for 6 cupcakes needs 1 cup of flour.The number of cupcakes you can make varies directly with the amount of flour ,which means for
making more cup cakes we require more flour.How many cupcakes can you make with 4 cups of flour?
Solution:Letxx = amount of flour and yy = number of cupcakes

Since yαxyαx,
y=kxy=kx . . . (11)
For 66 cup cakes we require 11 cup of flour.
∴∴ for x=6x=6, y=1y=1
put the above values in eq (11)

6=k×16=k×1
6=k6=k
∴k=6∴k=6
∴y=6x∴y=6x . . . (22)
Now we have to find the number cup cakes that can be made in four cups of flour.
When x=4x=4 y=?y=?

Using eq (22)
y=6x=6×4y=6x=6×4
∴y=24∴y=24
So you can make 2424 cupcakes in 44 cups of flour.
31
DEFINITION
Direct and inverse proportion
Two values xx and yy are said to be directly proportional to each other when the ratio x:yx:y always remains the same.
Example : If we buy two pen for 5050 Rs.

It will cost us 100100 Rs for four pen.
Two values xx and yy are said to be inversely proportional to each other when the ratio x:1yx:1y always remains the same.
Example : If 33 people complete a work in 1010 days.

Then, to find the number of days taken by 55 people to complete it.
Let us consider they take xx days to complete.
Number of days and people are inversely proportional.
x×5=3×10x×5=3×10
x=6x=6 days
32
DEFINITION
Inverse proportion
xx 11 22 33 44
yy 1212 99 66 33
Observe the given table, we have two quantities denoted by xx and yy.
As we move from left to right the value of xx increases from 11 to 44. However, the value of yy decreases from 1212 to 33.
Such a relation, where value of one variable increases,as the value of other decreases,is known as inverse variation.
Inverse variation between yy and xx is denoted by,
yα1xyα1x and read as yy is inversely proportional to xx
Example:
Some workers complete a task in a week. If we increase the number of workers the time to complete the task decreases.
Thus there exist an inverse proportion between number of workers and time taken to complete a task.
33
EXAMPLE
Steps to Solve Word Problems on Ratio.
Steps to solve problems on ratio
Step 1:
From the given question, identify the given ratio.
Step 2:
Take a common multiple (say xx) and represent antecedent (first term) and consequent (second term) in terms of xx.
for eg: if A:B=3:2A:B=3:2 ,let the common multiple be xx.
hence, A=3xA=3x and B=2xB=2x
Step 3
Apply the given condition, find the value of xx, and put the value of xx in appropriate equation to get the desired answer.
34
EXAMPLE
Word Problems on Ratios
If the ratio of ages of father and son is 8:38:3, 10 years later ratio of their ages is 2:12:1, then find their present ages.
Solution:
Step 1:
The given ratio is father′s age:son′s age=8:3father′s age:son′s age=8:3
Step 2:
Let the common multiple be xx,
therefore, father′s age=8xfather′s age=8x and son′s age=3xson′s age=3x.
Step 3:
10 years later, father′s age=8x+10father′s age=8x+10 and son′s age=3x+10son′s age=3x+10
therefore, the ratio of their ages after 10 years is 8x+10:3x+108x+10:3x+10
according to the given condition this ratio is equal to 2:12:1
hence,
8x+103x+10=218x+103x+10=21
solving the above equation, we get x=5x=5
therefore,father′s age=8x=8×5=40 yearsfather′s age=8x=8×5=40 years
and ,son′s age=3x=3×5=15 yearsson′s age=3x=3×5=15 years
35
EXAMPLE
Problems on direct and inverse variation
Direct Variation:
If 33 balls weigh 2424 kg. What is the weight of 55 balls?
The number of balls and weight are in direct variation.
Let the weight of 55 balls be x.x.
So, 324=5x324=5x
x=5×243x=5×243
x=40x=40 kg
Inverse variation:
If 33 people complete a task in 2424 days. Find the number of days taken by 88 people to complete the same task.
Number of people and time are in inverse variation.
3×24=8×d3×24=8×d
d=9d=9
88 people can complete the same task in 99 days.
36
DEFINITION
Percentage
Percentage means part per 100100.
The symbol of percentage is %%.
Example:
20%,5%,70%20%,5%,70% etc.
37
EXAMPLE
Convert fraction to percentage
45=4×205×20=80100=8045=4×205×20=80100=80
38
FORMULA
Percentages by approximation
The percentage error gives the difference between the approximate and exact values as the percentage of the exact value.
Formula:
Percentage Error =Approximate value−Exact valueExact value×100=Approximate value−Exact valueExact value×100
39
LAW
Convert percentage to fraction
We follows the following steps to convert percentage to fraction:
(i) First we divide the percentage by 100100 and write like Percentage100Percentage100
(ii) If the percentage is not a whole number then multiply; both numerator and denominator by 1010.
(iii) Than reduce the fraction.
Example:
(1) Convert 75%75% in to fraction
7510075100
This is a whole number so we reduce the fraction
75100=3475100=34
(2) Convert 35.5%35.5% in to fraction

35.510035.5100
This is not a whole number so we multiply the numerator and denominator by 1010 and then reduce the fraction.
3551000=71203551000=7120
40
DEFINITION
Increase and decrease percentage
Increase Percentage: We can find the increase percentage by calculating the difference between a final value and the initial value, expressed as a
percentage of the initial value.
Percentage increased =Final value−Initial valueInitial value×100%=Final value−Initial valueInitial value×100%
Decrease Percentage: We can find the decrease percentage by calculating the difference between a initial value and the final value, expressed as
a percentage of the initial value.
Percentage decreased =Initial value−Final valueInitial value×100%=Initial value−Final valueInitial value×100%
41
EXAMPLE
Word problems on percentage
The cost of an article A is 15% less than that of article B. If their total cost is Rs. 2,775; find the cost of each article.
Solution: Let cost of A be Rs xx and of B be Rs yy.
Given, Total cost =Rs2775=Rs2775

=>x+y=2775=>x+y=2775 --- (1)
Also, cost of an article A is 1515 % less than that of article B

=> x=y−0.15y=>x=0.85yx=y−0.15y=>x=0.85y --- (2)
From (1)(1) and (2)(2), we get

0.85y+y=27750.85y+y=2775
1.85y=27751.85y=2775
=>y=1500=>y=1500
And, x=0.85y=1275x=0.85y=1275
Hence, cost of A is Rs 12751275 and of B is Rs 15001500
42
DEFINITION
Speed, time and distance
It is measured by the ratio of the distance covered by a body to the time in which this distance is covered.
Speed =distancetime=distancetime
Example :
If the distance covered by a car is 1212 km in 44 hrs, then its' speed =distancetime=distancetime
speed =124=3=124=3 km/hr
43
DEFINITION
Uniform, variable and average speed
Uniform Speed: A body is said to be moving with uniform speed, if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
Variable Speed: A body is said to be moving with variable speed if it covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
Average Speed: Average speed of a body is defined as that uniform speed with which it covers the same distance in a given interval of time as is
actually covered by it in the same interval of time while moving with variable speed.
It is given by the ratio of the total distance travelled by the body to the total time taken by it.
Average speed =Total distance travelled/Total time taken
COMMERCIAL MATHEMATICS
01
DEFINITION
Principal
Principal is the amount that is borrowed or invested .
It is denoted by PP.
It does not included interest.
02
DEFINITION
Interest
Interest is the amount of money that is paid for the use of someone money and assets.
There are two type of interest.
1. Simple interest
2. Compound interest
03
DEFINITION
Rate of interest
Rate of interest is the percentage paid or receive on each year on the principal.
Rate of interest =IP×T=IP×T
Where I=I= Interest, P=P= Principal, T=T= Time
04
DEFINITION
Amount
Amount is the total money that include principal and interest paid for a period of time.
Amount == Principal ++ Interest
05
DEFINITION
Simple interest
Simple interest is calculated on the initial amount that is borrowed.
Simple interest == Principal ×× Rate of interest ×× Time
I=P×T×R100I=P×T×R100
06
EXAMPLE
Simple Interest
Let's take an example
Richard invested Rs. 2000020000 for 3 years at the rate of 7%7% per annum. Find the interest and amount he got.
Solution :-
Principal (P)=20000(P)=20000
Rate (R)=7(R)=7
Time (T)=3(T)=3 years
Simple Interest (I)=P×T×R100(I)=P×T×R100
=20000×3×7100=20000×3×7100
=4200=4200
Amount =P+I=P+I
=20000+4200=24200=20000+4200=24200
Therefore he got Rs. 24,20024,200
07
DEFINITION
Selling price and Cost price
*The selling price of something is the price for which it is sold.
Formula to calculate selling price when %profit/%loss is given:
*Selling price =[(100+Profit)100×C.P]=[(100+Profit)100×C.P]
*Selling price =[(100−Loss)100×C.P]=[(100−Loss)100×C.P]
Cost Price:
*The price at which goods are or have been bought by a merchant or Seller.
Formula to calculate cost price when %profit/loss is given:
*Cost price =[100(100+Gain)×S.P]=[100(100+Gain)×S.P]
*Cost price =[100(100−Loss)×S.P]=[100(100−Loss)×S.P]

08
DEFINITION
Profit
If selling price is more than cost price than we called it as profit.
Profit == S.P(Selling price) −− C.P (Cost price)
09
DEFINITION
Loss
If selling price is less than cost price then we called it as loss.
Loss == C.P (Cost price) −− S.P(Selling price)
10
FORMULA
Profit percentage
Profit percentage is calculated on cost price.
Profit %=(Profit×100C.P)%=(Profit×100C.P)
11
FORMULA
Loss percentage
Loss percentage is calculated on cost price.
Loss %=(Loss×100C.P)%=(Loss×100C.P)
12
FORMULA
S.P when C.P and Gain % or Loss % are given
S.P when C.P and Gain %% are given
=100+Gain%100×C.P=100+Gain%100×C.P
S.P when C.P and Loss %% are given
=100−Loss%100×C.P=100−Loss%100×C.P
13
FORMULA
C.P when S.P and Gain % or Loss % are given
C.P when S.P and gain %% are given
=100100+Gain%×S.P=100100+Gain%×S.P
C.P when S.P and loss %% are given
=100100−Loss%×S.P=100100−Loss%×S.P
14
DEFINITION
Overhead expenses
Overhead expense include the cost that we spend for over all transaction.
It is as a part of cost price.
15
EXAMPLE
Overhead charges
Overhead is those costs required to run a business, but which cannot be directly attributed to any specific business activity, product, or service.
16
DEFINITION
Marked price
*Marked price is the normal price of the thing without any discount.
*Marked price == Selling price ++ discount.
17
DEFINITION
Discount
Discount is the reduction made in the marked price.
Sales Price == Marked price −− Discount
18
DEFINITION
Cash Discount
Cash Discount is offered to a customer,if he is willing to pay the entire amount at once, rather than paying in installments.
19
DEFINITION
Tarde Discount
Trade discount is given to the retailer who buys goods from wholesaler. It varies
from time to time according to the costs of raw materials, manufacture, taxation and so on.
20
EXAMPLE
Calculation of discount
If an item is sold on x%x% discount and price of item is Rs yy then
Discount amount =y×x100=y×x100
=xy100=xy100
21
DEFINITION
Different types of Taxes
There is two types of taxes in India:
1. Direct Taxes
2. Indirect taxes
Direct Taxes: These types of taxes are directly imposed & paid to Government of India. Direct taxes, which are imposed by the Government of
India, are:
Income Tax, Capital gain tax, Securities transaction tax, Perquisite Tax, Corporate Tax, etc
Indirect Taxes: Some of indirect taxes are,

Sales Tax, Service Tax, Value Added Tax, Custom duty and Octroi, Excise Duty, Professional Tax, Stamp Duty, Registration Fees, Transfer
Tax, Education Cess, Wealth Tax, Swatch Bharat Cess etc.
22
DEFINITION
Sales tax
Sales tax is a tax that is levied on the sale of a product.
This product can be something that was produced in India or imported and can even cover services rendered.
This tax is levied on the seller of the product who then transfers it onto the person who buys said product with the sales tax added to the price of
the product.
The limitation of this tax is that it can be levied only once for a particular product.
23
DEFINITION
VAT
The VAT or Value Added Tax, is levied on various goods sold in the state and the amount of the tax is decided by the state itself.
24
FORMULA
Computation of sales tax
Sales tax == Item cost ×× Sales tax rate
25
EXAMPLE
Calculate VAT
A Bicycle manufacturer produces a Bicycle which cost him Rs.1000. He sells it to a wholesaler at a price of Rs1000 and wholesaler sells it to
retailer at a price of Rs.1500. The retailer sells it to the customer at a price of Rs.2000. If the sales tax charged is 5%. Find the tax paid by the
customer.
Cost of production of manufacturer = Cost of wholesaler = Rs.1000.
Tax charged by manufacturer from wholesaler = 5% of Rs.1000=Rs.50Rs.1000=Rs.50
Cost charged by wholesaler from retailer =Rs.1500=Rs.1500
Tax charged by the wholesaler = 5% of Rs.1500=Rs.75Rs.1500=Rs.75
Cost charged by retailer from customer =Rs.2000=Rs.2000
Tax charged by retailer from customer = 5% of Rs.2000=Rs.100Rs.2000=Rs.100

VAT paid by Customer =100=100
26
DEFINITION
Compound interest
Compound interest is the interest calculated on initial amount (Principal) and on the interest of previous period of a deposit or loan.
It is also called 'Interest on Interest.
Compound interest == Amount −− Principal
Amount =P(1+R100)t=P(1+R100)t
∴C.I=P(1+R100)t−P∴C.I=P(1+R100)t−P
27
LAW
Compound interest by simple interest method
To calculate the compound interest by simple interest method, we calculate the interest of every year independently using simple interest formula.
When we add first year interest to the principal then it would be the principal for the next year and so on.
28
FORMULA
PCI−PSI=P((1+R100)n−(1+nR100))PCI−PSI=P((1+R100)n−(1+nR100))
29
FORMULA
Deduce and use the formula to calculate compound interest
Suppose a sum of Rs P is compound annualy at a rate of R% per annum for n years.
∴Principal for first year=P∴Principal for first year=P
Interest for first year =P×R×1100=PR100=P×R×1100=PR100
Amount at the end of first year =P+PR100=P(1+R100)=P+PR100=P(1+R100)
Principal for second year =P(1+R100)=P(1+R100)
Interest for second year =P(1+R100)×R×1100=PR100(1+R100)=P(1+R100)×R×1100=PR100(1+R100)
Now amount at the end of second year =P(1+R100)+PR100(1+R100)=P(1+R100)+PR100(1+R100)
=P(1+R100)(1+R100)=P(1+R100)2=P(1+R100)(1+R100)=P(1+R100)2
Following in the same way , the amount at the end of nn years
A=P(1+R100)nA=P(1+R100)n
And C.I=A−PC.I=A−P
Hence the formula for finding amount at the end of n years for principal P and rate of interest R% per month is
A=P(1+R100)nA=P(1+R100)n
And compound interes (C.I)=A−P(C.I)=A−P
30
EXAMPLE
Problems on compound and simple interest
The difference between simple and compound interests compounded annually
on a certain sum of money for 22 years at 44% per annum is Re. 11.Find the sum.
Let the sum be Rs xx. THen ,
C.I. =[x(1+4100)2−x]=[x(1+4100)2−x]
(676x625−x)=51x625(676x625−x)=51x625
S.I=(x×4×2100)=2x25=(x×4×2100)=2x25
∴51x625−2x25=1∴51x625−2x25=1
x=625x=625
31
FORMULA
When the rate for successive years is different in C.I
If the rate of interest for the successive year is R1,R2,R3R1,R2,R3 and so on, then
Amount =P×(1+R1100)(1+R2100)(1+R3100)=P×(1+R1100)(1+R2100)(1+R3100)....so on
32
LAW
Compound interest and amount when rate compounded semi annually
When the rate of interest compounded semi-annually / half-yearly then to calculate the amount we divide the rate of interest by 22 and multiply
the time by 22.
∴∴ Amount =P(1+R2×100)2t=P(1+R2×100)2t
33
LAW
Compound interest and amount when rate compounded quarterly
When rate of interest compounded quarterly then to calculate the amount we divide the rate of interest by 44 and multiply the time by 44.
∴A=P(1+R100×4)4t∴A=P(1+R100×4)4t
34
LAW
Amount and Compound interest when the time is fraction of a year
When the time is fraction of a year than we first calculate the amount for given complete year then we calculate the amount for the rest of the year
that is in fraction.
35
FORMULA
Problems on population
To solve the problem on population of growth, we use the below formula
P=PoertP=Poert
Here PoPo belongs to initial population
rr belongs to rate of growth
tt belongs to time
PP belongs to final population.
36
FORMULA
Growth
The growth per year is called the rate of growth.
If the rate of growth is constant then value after nn year
== Initial value (1+r100)n(1+r100)n
Where, rate of growth in production is r%r% and nn is the number of years.
If the rate of growth is r1%r1% in first year, r2%r2% in the second year, then
value after 22 years == Initial value(1+r1100)(1+r2100)(1+r1100)(1+r2100)
37
FORMULA
Depriciation
The decrease in the value per year is called the rate of depreciation.
If the rate of depreciation is constant then
Value after nn years == Present value(1−r100)n(1−r100)n
Present value == Value nn years ago(1−r100)n(1−r100)n
Where rr is the rate of depreciation per year and nn is the number of years.
If the rate of depreciation is r1r1 in the first year and r2r2 in the second year then:
Value after 22 years == Present value(1−r1100)(1−r2100)(1−r1100)(1−r2100)
38
EXAMPLE
applications of compound interest formula
Compound interest=Amount-Princial
Amount=P(1+R100)tP(1+R100)t
∴C.I=P(1+R100)t−P∴C.I=P(1+R100)t−P
Example-Find the amount and the compound interest on Rs.25,000 at 8% for 212212
Solution -Here the interest is compounded annually but the period is 212212years.So first we compounding the interest for 2 years and then
for 1212.
For first two years-
⇒A=25000(1+8100)2⇒A=25000(1+8100)2
⇒A=25000(108100)2⇒A=25000(108100)2
⇒A=25000×1.08×1.08×1.08=Rs.29160⇒A=25000×1.08×1.08×1.08=Rs.29160
For the next half year-
⇒A=29160(1+8100×2)12×2⇒A=29160(1+8100×2)12×2
⇒A=29160(1+4100)1⇒A=29160(1+4100)1
⇒A=29160×1.04=30326.40⇒A=29160×1.04=30326.40
C.I=A−PC.I=A−P
C.I=30326.40−25000=Rs.5,326.40C.I=30326.40−25000=Rs.5,326.40
39
DEFINITION
Hire purchase and purchase by instalments
Hire purchase: In the hire purchase purchaser pays the price of good in instalments.
Instalments may be annual, Half-yearly, quarterly.
In hire purchase the transfer of the ownership is take place after the all payments are done.
Purchase by instalments: In the purchase by instalments purchaser pays the price of good in instalments.
Instalments may be annual, Half-yearly, quarterly.
In this the transfer of the ownership is transfer immediately without full payment.
40
DEFINITION
Different schemes on hire purchase and installments
Hire purchase scheme: On hire purchase, buyers get the article, but ownership lies with the vendor till the full payment. The hirer cannoot
41
DEFINITION
EMI
EMI is the fixed payment done by borrower to lender after specific amount of time.
P=ai(1−(1+i)−nP=ai(1−(1+i)−n
P=P= Principal amount
a=a= Annual instalment
n=n= No of years
i=i= interest
42
DEFINITION
Bank Draft
Bank Draft is a form of a cheque issued and guaranteed by the Bank.
Use: Bank Draft is a safe and easier method to make transactions of money.
43
DEFINITION
Recurring deposit account
This account is a special kind of Term Deposit account offered by banks.
It is very useful for the people who have regular income.
They can deposit a fixed amount into their Recurring Deposit account and earn fixed interest at the end of month.
It is similar to making FDs of a certain amount in monthly instalments.
44
FORMULA
Maturity value of recurring deposit account
Each deposit/installment would be considered as a separate deposit and interest would be calculated on each installment for the remaining time
period.
Recurring Deposit Interest Formula:
Maturity Value (A)=P×(1+rn)nt(A)=P×(1+rn)nt
45
EXAMPLE
Conversion of currency
Conversion of currency means converting one currency into another currency. For example, converting Indian rupees into US dollars or
converting US dollars to Euro dollars etc.
Example:-
Convert Rs. 643643 into US dollars
Solution:-
11 Rs is 11 Indian rupees =0.016=0.016 US dollars
∴643 Rs.=643×0.016=10.2∴643 Rs.=643×0.016=10.2 US dollars.
46
DEFINITION
Commission
Any amount paid for to get any services to any, broker, agent is called commission.
47
DEFINITION
Annuity
An annuity is a sequence of equal payments made at equal intervals of time, with compound interest on these payment.
48
DEFINITION
Payment Period
The time between two successive payment dates of an annuity is called its payment period.
49
DEFINITION
Types of annuities
1.Annuity Certain: It is that type of annuity which is fixed for its future time . E.g., if we purchase the a car and if agreement fixes the 10
installment of payment , then these annuities will be called annuity certain.
2. Perpetuity or perpetual annuity : It is that type of annuity which is payable all the time . E.g., if a person has taken life insurance policy, then
if he pays its premium up to his life, these these annuities will be called perpetuity or perpetual annuity.
3. Immediate annuity : It is that type of annuity whose payment is done at the time of purchase of asset .
4. Annuity due : If annuity is fixed to pay in the beginning of time interval , then this annuity is called annuity due . Suppose payment of rent is
advance of every month , then this is annuity due case .
5. Defferred annuities : If agreement is relating to payment of annuity in future date and upto that date annuities are not paid . Then ,
these annuity is called defferred annuity .
6. Forborne annuity : Any annuity whose payment is closed after some time , then these annuity is called forborne annuity .
50
DEFINITION
Annuant
An annuitant is a person who is entitled to receive benefits from an annuity.
51
DEFINITION
Clases of annuity certain
Annuities can be divided into three types.
1.Annuity certain is an annuity which begins and ends on certain fixed dates, and the payments are made unconditionally for a fixed number of
intervals of time.
2. Annuity contingent is one when payments are made till the happening of an event such as death of person, the marriage of girl etc.
3. Perpetual annuity is an annuity whose payments continue forever.
52
DEFINITION
Instalment
The payment of each single annuity is called an Installment.
53
FORMULA
Amount of an annuity in case of annuity due
Annuities certain are classified on the basis of payment interval and time of payment. They are three classes
1.Annuity due is an annuity in which the payments are made at the beginning of each payment period.
2. An immediate annuity is an annuity when the payments are made at the end of each payment period.
3. A deferred annuity is an annuity in which the first payment is postponed for a period of time equivalent to a certain number of payment
periods.
54
FORMULA
Amount of an immediate annuity
Amount (A)=ai(1+i)[(1+i)n−1](A)=ai(1+i)[(1+i)n−1]
55
FORMULA
Amount of annuity
The formula to find annuity is P=rPV1−(1+r)−nP=rPV1−(1+r)−n
Where P= Payment
PV = Present Value
r = rate
n = number of periods
56
DEFINITION
Present Value of annuity
Amount (A)=ai[(1+i)n−1](A)=ai[(1+i)n−1]
57
FORMULA
Present Value of annuity
The present value or the present worth of a given annuity is the sum of the present values of its different instalments, i.e., the total worth of all
payments of annuity under consideration, at the beginning of the annuity.
58
FORMULA
Present Value of an immediate annuity
P=ai[1−(1+i)−n]P=ai[1−(1+i)−n]
Where aa is amount of each installment
i=r100i=r100 here rr is rate per period
nn denotes period
59
FORMULA
Present value of an annuity due
P=ai[1−(1+i)−n]P=ai[1−(1+i)−n]
60
FORMULA
Perpetual annuity
Formula for finding Perpetual annuity, present worth is = aiai where aa is the amount in each installment of an annuitya, i=r100i=r100
where rr is the rate per period
61
FORMULA
Deferred annuity
Formula for the present value of deferred annuity beginning at the end of mm year and continues for nn years
P=ai(1+i)n−1(1+i)m+nP=ai(1+i)n−1(1+i)m+n
PP = Present Value
aa is installment of an annuity for a period of nn years
i=r100i=r100 where rris the rate per period
62
FORMULA
Amount of annuity left unpaid
If an annuity is left unpaid for nn years then, the equivalent amount which may be paid at the end of nnth year is the same as the amount of
ordinary annuity certain.
A=ai[(1+i)n−1]A=ai[(1+i)n−1]
63
EXAMPLE
Installment when amount is given
What annual installment will discharge a debt of Rs2,360Rs2,360 due in four years at 12%12% p.a. simple interest?
Solution: Installments paid at the end of 11st, 22nd,33rd and 44th years earn a simple interest at 12%12% p.a. for 3,2,13,2,1 and 00 years
respectively.
Hence the respective installments amount to,(100+3×12)(100+3×12), (100+2×12100+2×12), (100+1×12)(100+1×12) and 100100, when
annual installment is Rs 100100.
Hence amount paid is Rs.136+Rs124+Rs112+Rs100Rs.136+Rs124+Rs112+Rs100 i.e.,Rs472Rs472, when the annual installment is
Rs.100100
For an amount of Rs 2,3602,360, annual installment = 2,360100472=Rs5002,360100472=Rs500
64
DEFINITION
Sinking Fund
If an annuity is left unpaid for nn years then, the equivalent amount which may be paid at the end of nnth year is the same as the amount of
ordinary annuity certain.
A=ai[(1+i)n−1]A=ai[(1+i)n−1]
65
DEFINITION
Endowment or Scholarship Fund
Sinking is a fund created to discharge a known future liability. The fund is created by investing a certain sum annually at compound interest for a
certain period.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
01
SHORTCUT
Aryabhatta and his contributions
Aryabhatta was the first great Hindu mathematician.
He lived in Kusumapura in ancient Magadhar. He was born in 476476 AD.
At the age of 2323, he wrote two books on Astronomy (1) Aryabhatiya (2) Arya-Siddhanta.
His contributions to mathematics are:

1. Number Notation :-
Numerical values, Notation System, Place-value, Square root and cube root, Interest.
2. Algebra :-
Integer solutions, Indeterminate equations, Identities, Arithmetic series.
3. Geometry :-
Value of ππ, Pythagoras theorem, circle theorem, Formula for areas.
4. Trigonometry :-
Sine table, versine
02
DEFINITION
Varahamihira and his contributions
Varahamihira was one of the renowned Indian astronomer, mathematician and astrologer.
He was honored with a special decoration and status as one of the nine gems in the court of King Vikramaditya in Avanti.
He wrote several important books on Jyotish like : Brhat Jataka, Bruhat Samhita, Yoga Yatra, Pancha Siddhantika and Prasna Vallabha.

1. Trigonometry :-
Trigonometric formulas, Improved accuracy in sine table
2. Binomial Coefficients
03
DEFINITION
Brahmagupta and his contributions
Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was born 598598 AD.
His contributions to mathematics are :

1. He was the first to give rules to compute with zero.
2. He gave the formula for finding the simple interest.
04
SHORTCUT
Bhaskaracharya and his contributions
Bhaskaracharya was one of the most powerful and creative mathematicians of ancient India.
He was born in 1114 AD in Bijapur in Karnataka.
He was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain.

1. First to give that any number divided by zero gives infinity.
2. He wrote 'The hundredth part of the circumference of a circle seems to be straight.
Our earth is a big sphere and thats why it appears to be flat'.

3. Formula :- sin(A±B)=sinAcosB±cosAsinBsin⁡(A±B)=sin⁡Acos⁡B±cos⁡Asin⁡B.
4. Calculated derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae.
5. He explained solution of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations.
6. He developed a proof of Pythagoras Theorem by calculating the same area in two
different ways & these cancel out terms to get a2+b2=c2a2+b2=c2.

7. He gave first general method for finding the solution of the problem x2−ny2=1x2−ny2=1(Pell's equation)
8. He gave solution of Diophantine equations of second order such as 61x2+1=y261x2+1=y2.
05
DEFINITION
Basic logical connectivities
Basic logical connectivities:
Two of the most important connectivities are the words "and" and "or". Suppose
pp: It is cold today.
qq: It is raining.
We can form the following compound sentences.
pp and qq: It is cold today and it is raining.
pp or qq: It is cold today or it is raining.
06
FORMULA
Symbolize conjunction and disjunction
Conjunction: In the study of logic, the word "and" is symbolized by ∧∧ and the word "or" by ∨∨. Thus "p and q""p and q" is written
as p ∧ qp ∧ q and " p or qp or q" is written as p ∨ qp ∨ q.
07
EXAMPLE
truth value of given statements
We regard T(for true) and F(for false) as the possible truth values of a statement. Thus, the statement, "Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime
minister of India", has the truth value T, the statement, "Chennai is the capital of India", has the truth value F.
08
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- Conjunction
Since p∧qp∧q is true only when both p and q are true, the complete truth table is given below.
p q p∧qp∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
09
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- disjunction
Since p∨qp∨q is only False when both of p and q are false, its truth table is given as follows:
p q p∨qp∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
10
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- negation
In accordance with the ordinary usage, a statement and its negation have opposite truth value. The truth table of p and ∼p∼p is given below. The
truth table expresses the fact that, "If p is true, then ∼p∼p is false, and if p is false, then ∼p∼p is true."
p ∼p∼p
T F
F T
11
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- More complex sentences.
Construct a truth table for the statement ∼p∨q∼p∨q.
p q ∼p∼p ∼p∨q∼p∨q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
12
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- Conditional statement
The truth table of conditional statement expresses the fact that the conditional statement , "if p,then q" is false only when p is true and q is false,
otherwise it is true.
p q p⇒qp⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
13
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- biconditional
The truth table of biconditional expresses the fact that the biconditional p⇔qp⇔q is true only when p and q both have the same truth value.
p q p⇔qp⇔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
14
EXAMPLE
Truth tables- Converse, Inverse and contrapositive.
Truth table for Converse:
p q p⇒qp⇒q q⇒pq⇒p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Truth table for Inverse:

p q ∼p∼p ∼q∼q p⇒qp⇒q ∼p⇒∼q∼p⇒∼q
T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T
15
DEFINITION
Mathematically acceptable statement
A statement is called a mathematically acceptable statement if it is either true or false but not both.
Example : Three plus three equals six.
16
DEFINITION
Logical statement
It is a declarative statement that is either true or false but not both.
Example : 1919 is an even number. (false)
17
DEFINITION
Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is based on premises which are considered to be true.
Example :
If P=QP=Q and Q=RQ=R, then P=RP=R.
18
DEFINITION
Mathematical reasoning
Mathematical reasoning is a fundamental to knowing and doing mathematics.
Example: All men are mortal.
Socrates was a man.
Therefore, Socrates was a mortal.
19
DEFINITION
Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning is reaching a conclusion based on a series of observations. Example: When you notice that all the mice you see around you
are brown and so you make the conclusion that all mice in the world are brown.
20
EXAMPLE
Mathematical statement
These are assertions in words or symbols which are either true or false but not both simultaneously. The difference between an ordinary sentence
and a logical statement is that it is not possible to say about truth or falsity of an ordinary statement, whereas true or false is a essential requisite of
a logical statement.
Statements:
1) New Delhi is the capital of India. [True].
2) 66 is an odd number. [False]
Non-statements:
1) What time is it?
2) Open the door.
21
EXAMPLE
Mathematical statement using quantifier
Write the mathematical statement for "Every whole number is equal to itself".
Sol: The statement can be written as ∀x∈W,x=x∀x∈W,x=x
22
EXAMPLE
Wite open sentence for the given mathematical sentence
Mathematical statement: ∀x∈N,x+1>x∀x∈N,x+1>x
Open statement: Successor of each Natural number is greater than itself.
23
DEFINITION
Valid arguments
An argument is considered to be valid if and only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion inspite
of that to be false.
24
DEFINITION
Negation of a statement
The negation connection ∼∼ (read as NOT) is defined for given statement pp by the following truth table. The negation of the statement pp is
denoted by ∼p∼p.
P ∼∼P
T F
F T
25
DEFINITION
Converse of a statement
For the statement P→QP→Q, the converse is Q→PQ→P.
Converse of "If it is raining, then the pond overflows" is "if the pond overflows, then it is raining.
26
DEFINITION
Compound statements
New statements that can be formed by combining two or more simple statements are called compound statements.
Example: 15 is an odd number and 15 is divisible by 3
27
DEFINITION
Truthfulness and falsity of statements
Truthfulness of a statement: A statement that is logically true is called a true statement.
Example: Each angle of an equilateral triangle measures 60.
Falsity of a statement: A statement that is logically false is called a false statement.
Example: 66 is an odd number.
28
LAW
Truthfulness of a compound statement.
A fundamental property of a compound statement is that its truth value is completely determined by the truth value of each of its sub-statements
together with the way in which they are connected to form the compound statements.
29
RESULT
Rules for conjunction statement.
The truthfulness of a compound statement connected with "and" is true only if both the statements are true and will be false if even one of the two
connecting statements if false.
30
RESULT
Rules for disjunction statement
The truthfulness of a compound statement connecting with "or" is true if any one of the connecting statements is true and false only if both the
connecting statements are false.
31
RESULT
Inclusive OR and exclusive OR
Inclusive OR allows both possibilities as well as either of them. So, if either A or B is True, or if both are True, then the statement value is True.
Whereas Exclusive OR only allows one possibility. So if either A or B is true, then and only then is the value True.
32
DEFINITION
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are phrases like 'There exists' and 'For all' and 'None'. An open sentence with a quantifier becomes a statement, called a quantified
statement.
Universal quantifier: 'for all (∀∀)'
Exitential quantifier: 'for every (∃∃)'
33
DEFINITION
Implications
The statement pp implies qq means that if pp is true, then qq
must also be true. The statement ''pp implies qq'' is also written
if ′′p then q′′″p then q″ or sometimes ′′q if p′′″q if p″. Statement pp is called the
premise of the implication and qq is called the conclusion.

34
EXAMPLE
Problems on implications
Example: (1) Does 2=32=3 imply 2+1=3+1?2+1=3+1?
Yes, its an example of the rule x=yx=y implies x+1=y+1.x+1=y+1.
(2) Does 2=32=3 imply 2×0=3×02×0=3×0?
Yes, its an example of the rule x=yx=y implies xz=yz.xz=yz.

35
DEFINITION
Contrapositive
A contrapositive of a given conditional is a new conditional whose antecedent is the negation of the original consequent and whose consequent is
the negation of the original antecedent.
If the conditional is p⇒qp⇒q, the contrapositive of this conditional is ∼q⇒∼p∼q⇒∼p, read as "not q implies not p".
36
EXAMPLE
Problems on mathematical statements
Use p: I like this school ; q: I like Mr.Saxena. Express the following statements in words.
(a) p∧qp∧q : I like this school and I like Mr. Saxena.
(b) ∼q∼q : I do not like Mr.Saxena.
37
DEFINITION
Inverse
The inverse of a given conditional is a new conditional whose antecedent is the negation of the original antecedent and whose consequent is the
negation of the original consequent. that is, if the given conditional is p⇒qp⇒q, the inverse of this conditional is ∼p⇒∼q∼p⇒∼q read "
\not pp implies not qq", or "if not pp, then notqq".
38
DEFINITION
Dual of compound statement
The proposition that contains only the logical operators: , and is
the compound proposition. Then dual of compound proposition is obtained
by replacing each by , by , T by F and F by T. The dual of compound statement S is S*. Here is as it is.
For Example:
1. s = pq
s* = p q
39
RESULT
Negation of conditional statement
By definition, pqpq is false if, and only if, its hypothesis,pp, is true and its conclusion, qq, is false. It follows that the negation of "Ifpp then qq"
is logically equivalent to "p and not q."
This can be restated symbolically as follows:
¬(p→q)≡p∧¬q¬(p→q)≡p∧¬q
40
DEFINITION
Negation of quantified statement
The negation of a statement has a meaning that is opposite that of the original meaning.
Symbolically, the negation of a statement p is denoted by ~p.
Example: 'Every good boy does fine' be a statement.
Sol: Writing the statement with quantifier: ∀x∈G∀x∈G, xx does fine, GG is set of humans then the negation of the statement
is ∃x∈G∃x∈G, xx does not do fine.
Converting the negation in statement gives : There are some boys that do not do fine
41
DEFINITION
Logical equivalence.
In logic, statements pp and qq are logcially equivalent if they have the same logic content. This is a semantic concept. Two statements are
equivalent if they have the same truth value in every model. The logical equivalence of pp and qq is sometimes expressed as p≡qp≡q.
42
RESULT
Complement Law
p∨¬p≡Tp∨¬p≡T and p∧¬p≡Fp∧¬p≡F
43
RESULT
Identity Law
p∨F≡pp∨F≡p, p∧F≡Fp∧F≡F and p∨T≡Tp∨T≡T, p∧T≡pp∧T≡p
44
RESULT
Distributive Law
p∨(q∧r)≡(p∨q)∧(p∨r)p∨(q∧r)≡(p∨q)∧(p∨r) and p∧(q∨r)≡(p∧q)∨(p∧r)p∧(q∨r)≡(p∧q)∨(p∧r)
45
RESULT
Associative Law
(p∨q)∨r≡p∨(q∨r)=p∨q∨r(p∨q)∨r≡p∨(q∨r)=p∨q∨r and (p∧q)∧r≡p∧(q∧r)=p∧q∧r(p∧q)∧r≡p∧(q∧r)=p∧q∧r
46
RESULT
Commutative Law
p∨q≡q∨pp∨q≡q∨p and p∧q≡q∧pp∧q≡q∧p
47
RESULT
Idempotemt law
p∨p≡pp∨p≡p and p∧p≡pp∧p≡p
48
RESULT
Involution Law
¬(¬p)≡p¬(¬p)≡p
49
RESULT
DeMorgan's Law
¬(p∨q)≡¬p∧¬q¬(p∨q)≡¬p∧¬q and ¬(p∧q)≡¬p∨¬q¬(p∧q)≡¬p∨¬q
50
RESULT
Absorption Law
p∨(p∧q)≡pp∨(p∧q)≡p and p∧(p∨q)≡pp∧(p∨q)≡p
51
RESULT
Conditional Law
p→q≡¬p∨qp→q≡¬p∨q and p↔q≡(¬p∨q)∧(¬q∨p)
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
01
DEFINITION
Use of Co-ordinate geometry
Co-ordinate geometry helps us to locate the points in a plane. Its uses are spread in all fields like trigonometry, calculus, dimensional geometry,
etc.
02
DEFINITION
Rectangular Co-ordinate Axes
If the two axes of reference, namely the xx-axis and the yy-axis cut each other at right angles, then they are called as rectangular co-ordinate axes.
03
DEFINITION
Cartesian plane
A Cartesian plane is a co-ordinate plane consisting of two perpendicular number lines.
The horizontal line is called the x−x−axis and the vertical number line is called the y−y−axis.
04
DEFINITION
Oblique Co-ordinate axes
If the two axes of reference, namely the xx-axis and the yy-axis cut each other at angles other than right angles, then they are called as oblique co-
ordinate axes.
05
FORMULA
Rectangular Cartesian Co-ordinates of a point
A system of geometry where the position of points on the plane is represented using ordered pairs.
Ordered pair is of the form (x,y)(x,y).

The location of any point on the coordinate plane is denoted by ordered pair.
The x−x−coordinate is called abscissa and is the horizontal distance from the origin (0,0)(0,0) and y−y−coordinate is called ordinate and is the
vertical distance from the origin.
Example:
For the point (3,4)(3,4). Here, 33 is the abscissa and 44 is the ordinate.
06
DEFINITION
Quadrants and their sign convention
The x−x−axis and y−y−axis divide the co-ordinate plane into four sections and these are called quadrants.
In first quadrant, both x−x−coordinate and y−y−coordinate are positive.
In second quadrant, x−x−coordinate is negative and y−y−coordinate is positive.
In third quadrant, both x−x−coordinate and y−y−coordinate are negative.
In fourth quadrant, x−x−coordinate is positive and y−y−coordinate is negative.
07
DEFINITION
Co-ordinate axis
A point that lies on the xx-axis has its ordinate as 00.
For eg. (2,0) and (-1,0)
A point that lies on the yy-axis has its abscissa as 00.

For eg. (0,2) and (0,-3)
08
EXAMPLE
Distance between two points formula
If the distance between the points (4,p)(4,p) and (1,0)(1,0) is 55, then the find the value of pp .
The given points are(4,p)(4,p) and (1,0)(1,0)d=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2
5=(4−1)2+p2−−−−−−−−−−√5=(4−1)2+p2⟹25=(4−1)2+p2⟹25=(4−1)2+p2⟹25−9=p2⟹25−9=p2 Hence p=+4,−4p=+4,−4
09
FORMULA
Distance between two points
If the co-ordinates of two given points are (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and (x2,y2)(x2,y2), then the distance between the two points is given by
d=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d=(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2
10
DEFINITION
Betweenness of a point
A point BB is between two other points AA and CC if all three points are collinear and AB+BC=ACAB+BC=AC
11
FORMULA
Section formula for internal division
If P(x,y)P(x,y) is a point that divides a segment joining points A(x1,y1)A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)B(x2,y2) in the ratio m:nm:n, internally then,
x=mx2+nx1m+nx=mx2+nx1m+n and y=my2+ny1m+ny=my2+ny1m+n
12
FORMULA
Section formula for external division
If P(x,y)P(x,y) is a point that divides a segment joining points A(x1,y1)A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)B(x2,y2) in the ratio m:nm:n externally then,
x=mx2−nx1m−nx=mx2−nx1m−n and y=my2−ny1m−ny=my2−ny1m−n
13
RESULT
Section Formulae
If the line 2x+y=k2x+y=k passes through the point which divides the line segment joining the points (1,1)(1,1) and (2,4)(2,4) in the
ratio 3:23:2 ,then find the value of kk.
Let the point be G(h,k′)G(h,k′). Then the co-ordinates of the point will be given by section formula.
G(h,k′)=2(1)+3(2)3+2,2(1)+3(4)3+2G(h,k′)=2(1)+3(2)3+2,2(1)+3(4)3+2
=85,145=85,145
Since the line passes through G, we get
2(85)+145=k2(85)+145=k
k=16+145k=16+145
k=305k=305
k=6k=6
14
FORMULA
Points of trisection using section formula
13(2x1+x2),13(2y1+y2)13(2x1+x2),13(2y1+y2) is one point of trisection of the line joining (x1,x2)(x1,x2) and (y1,y2).(y1,y2).
We can also find the other point of trisection using section formula.
15
DIAGRAM
Divide a line segment into number of equal parts
1. Start with a line segment AB that we will divide up into 5 (in this case) equal parts.
2. From point A, draw a line segment at an angle to the given line, and about the same length. The exact length is not important.
3. Set the compasses on A, and set its width to a bit less than one fifth of the length of the new line.
4. Step the compasses along the line, marking off 5 arcs. Label the last one C.
5. With the compasses' width set to CB, draw an arc from A just below it.
6. With the compasses' width set to AC, draw an arc from B crossing the one drawn in step 4. This intersection is point D.
7. Draw a line from D to B.
8. Using the same compasses' width as used to step along AC, step the compasses from D along DB making 4 new arcs across the line
9. Draw lines between the corresponding points along AC and DB.
10. Done. The lines divide the given line segment AB in to 5 congruent parts
16
DIAGRAM
Divide a line segment into given ratio
Let AB be the given line segment.
Step1:Draw a segment AC of a convenient length, making an acute angle with the given line segment AB.
Step2: Draw a segment BD of any convenient length making the same angle with AB as AC on the opposite side of AC.
Step 3: Now, using compass to any small convenient length mark xx number points on AC and yy number points on BD or vice versa such
that AX1=X1X2=X2X3=−−−=BY1=Y1Y2=Y2Y3=−−−AX1=X1X2=X2X3=−−−=BY1=Y1Y2=Y2Y3=−−−
Step4: Join XnXn to YnYn to intersect AB at point P. Now Point P divides the line segment AB in the ratio xx is to yy.
17
FORMULA
Mid-point formula
If P(x,y)P(x,y) is a point that divides a segment joining points A(x1,y1)A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)B(x2,y2) in the ratio 1:11:1 internally then,
x=x2+x12x=x2+x12 and y=y2+y12y=y2+y12
18
DEFINITION
To find whether a point lies on the line or not
The coordinates of the point are (x1,y1)(x1,y1).
The given line is ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0.
For the point to lie on the line, it must satisfy the given equation.:
i.e. ax1+by1+c=0ax1+by1+c=0.
19
EXAMPLE
Position of a point w.r.t. line
If (a,2)(a,2) is a point between the lines 3x+4y=23x+4y=2 and 3x+4y=53x+4y=5, then find the range of aa
For point (a,2)(a,2) to lie between the lines 3x+4y=23x+4y=2 and 3x+4y=53x+4y=5
we must have, {3(a)+4(2)−2>03(a)+4(2)−5<0{3(a)+4(2)−2>03(a)+4(2)−5<0
⇒{a+2>0⇒a>−2a+1<0⇒a<−1⇒{a+2>0⇒a>−2a+1<0⇒a<−1
Hence −2<a<−1−2<a<−1
20
DEFINITION
Image of a point w.r.t. y=mx+cy=mx+c
Assume given point as (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and the image as (x2,y2)(x2,y2).
Use the formula, x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−2(ax1+by1+c(a2+b2)x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−2(ax1+by1+c(a2+b2)
21
DEFINITION
Image of a point w.r.t. a line
A transformation where a point appears at an equal distance on the other
side of a given line is called as its image.
22
DEFINITION
Image of a point w.r.t y=xy=x
If P(α,β)P(α,β) be any point and Q(x1,y1)Q(x1,y1) be its image about the line y=xy=x, then PQ⊥RSPQ⊥RS.
x1=βx1=β and y1=αy1=α
Hence, Q≡(β,α)Q≡(β,α).
So, the image of the line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 about the line y=xy=x is ay+bx+c=0ay+bx+c=0
23
EXAMPLE
Position of a point
Find the condition for the point (1,β)(1,β) to lie on or inside the triangle formed by the lines y=xy=x, x−x− axis and x+y=8x+y=8.
Equation of sides of triangle are

AB :x−y=0, BC:y=0x−y=0, BC:y=0 and AC : x+y−8=0x+y−8=0
Point of intersection of sides of triangle are A(4,4),B(0,0),C(8,0)A(4,4),B(0,0),C(8,0).
Now, the point P(1,β)P(1,β) will lie inside or on the triangle ABC,ABC, if the following three conditions hold simultaneously.
(i) AA and PP lie on the same side of BC,BC,
(ii) BB and PP lie on the same side of ACAC
(iii) CC and PP lie on the same side of ABAB.
Now, AA and PP will lie on the same side of BCBC, if
4β≥04β≥0
⇒β≥0⇒β≥0 ....(i)
BB and PP will lie on the same side of AC,AC, if
−8(1+β−8)≥0−8(1+β−8)≥0
⇒β−7≤⇒β≤7⇒β−7≤⇒β≤7 .....(ii)
CC and PP will lie on the same side of AB,AB, if
8(1−β)≥0⇒1−β≥08(1−β)≥0⇒1−β≥0
⇒β≤1⇒β≤1 ......(iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii), we obtain that
0≤β≤10≤β≤1
24
DEFINITION
Half Plane
A half-plane is a planar region consisting of all points on one side of an infinite straight line and no points on the other side.
25
RESULT
Foot of perpendicular
Convert the parametric form of an equation from the parametric form to the slope point form(or any other form) and apply the formula i.e.,
Foot of perpendicular of a point P(x1,y1)P(x1,y1) from the line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 is given by
x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−(ax1+by1+c)a2+b2x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−(ax1+by1+c)a2+b2
26
EXAMPLE
The point P (x1,y1)(x1,y1) lies on one side (less side ) or the other side of the line xcosαxcos⁡α ++ ysinα=pysin⁡α=p according
to x1cosαx1cos⁡α ++ y1sinα−p<0y1sin⁡α−p<0 or x1cosαx1cos⁡α ++ y1sinα−p>0y1sin⁡α−p>0.
27
RESULT
Problems on finding distance of a point from a line
The length of perpendicular from (x1,y1)(x1,y1) is the line xcosα+ysinα=pxcos⁡α+ysin⁡α=p is
|x1cosα+y1sinα−p|(cos2α+sin2α)−−−−−−−−−−−−−√|x1cosα+y1sinα−p|(cos2α+sin2α)
28
EXAMPLE
Image of a point
Let image of a point P(x1,y1)P(x1,y1) with respect to the line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 be the point Q(x2,y2)Q(x2,y2), then
x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−2(ax+by+c)a2+b2−−−−−−√x2−x1a=y2−y1b=−2(ax+by+c)a2+b2
29
RESULT
Pole or polar axis of a straight line
Find the angle made by the perpendicular of the line r(cosθ+3√sinθ)=5r(cos⁡θ+3sin⁡θ)=5 with the polar axis .
The equation of line at a distance pp from the normal and the normal make an angle αα with polar axis is
rcos(θ−α)=prcos⁡(θ−α)=p
Given equation is r(cosθ+3√sinθ)=5r(cos⁡θ+3sin⁡θ)=5
⇒r(12cosθ+3√2sinθ)=52⇒r(12cos⁡θ+32sin⁡θ)=52
⇒rcos(θ−π3)=52⇒rcos⁡(θ−π3)=52
So, here α=π3
STRAIGHT LINES AND PAIRS OF STRAIGHT LINES
01
DEFINITION
Inclination of a Line
The inclination of a line means the angle the line makes with the horizontal axis (x-axis), above the axis.
In the given figure, the line makes an angle θθ with the x-axis.
02
DEFINITION
Inclination and slope of a line
Inclination of a line is the angle between the line and the positive direction of x−x−axis. Value of this angle is between 0o0o and 180o180o.
It is measured in anti-clockwise direction from the x−x−axis.

If inclination angle is known:
Slope of a line is the tangent of the angle of inclination. It is denoted by mm.
m=tanθm=tan⁡θ
The slope can be positive, negative, zero or undefined.
Positive Slope: tanθ>0tan⁡θ>0, when θθ is acute.
Negative Slope: tanθ<0tan⁡θ<0, when θθ is obtuse.

Zero Slope: A horizontal line always has a slope equal to zero. i.e. the line has no slope.
θθ is zero.
Undefined Slope: A vertical line has an undefined slope.
θθ is 900900.
03
DEFINITION
y-intercept of a line
The yy-intercept of a line is the point at which the line intersects the yy axis. Therefore, at this point the xx co-ordinate value equals 0.0.
yy-intercept =(0,y)=(0,y)
04
DEFINITION
Point slope form
For line passing through a given point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and having slope m,m,
y−y1=m(x−x1)y−y1=m(x−x1)
When the line passes through origin, then such a line is represented by y=mxy=mx in point-slope form.
05
DEFINITION
Horizontal /Vertical Lines
The line parrellal to yy axis will have equation x=ax=a

The line parrellal to xx axis will have equation y=ay=a
06
DIAGRAM
Linear equation in two variable in a graph
A linear equation in two variables can be represented on a graph paper.
This can be done by assuming a value of one variable and finding the corresponding value of the other variable.
This step is repeated for 3 such points and then those pairs of points are plotted on a graph paper.
Example:
xx y=2x+3y=2x+3 yy (x,y)(x,y)
00 y=2(0)+3y=2(0)+3 33 (0,3)(0,3)
11 y=2(1)+3y=2(1)+3 55 (1,5)(1,5)
−1−1 y=2(−1)+3y=2(−1)+3 11 (−1,1)(−1,1)

07
DEFINITION
X-intercept of a line
The xx-intercept of a line is the point at which the line intersects the xx axis. So, at this point the y co-ordinate value equals 0.0.
xx-intercept =(x,0)=(x,0).
08
DEFINITION
Equally inclined lines
Equally inclined lines mean lines which are inclined at the same angle with respect to the x-axis.
The lines in the given figure are inclined at 45o45o with respect to the x-axis.
09
DEFINITION
Equation of line in slope - intercept form
A straight line can be represented as y=mx+cy=mx+c
where,
mm is the slope and cc is the y−y−intercept.
This is the equation of a straight line in slope-intercept form.
10
DEFINITION
Two points form
Slope of a straight line passing through two given fixed points (x1,y1)(x1,y1) and (x2,y2)(x2,y2) is
m=y2−y1x2−x1m=y2−y1x2−x1
Substituting this value of mm is point-slope form, we get
y−y1=y2−y1x2−x1(x−x1)y−y1=y2−y1x2−x1(x−x1)
11
DEFINITION
Equation of line in normal form
Equation of line in normal form is represented by xcosα+ysinα=pxcos⁡α+ysin⁡α=p
where,
cosα=−aa2+b2−−−−−−√cos⁡α=−aa2+b2, sinα=−ba2+b2−−−−−−√sin⁡α=−ba2+b2 and p=ca2+b2−−−−−−√p=ca2+b2
12
DEFINITION
The point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) will lie on the given line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0, if ax1+by1+c=0ax1+by1+c=0.
The point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) lies above the line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 if

1) ax1+by1+c>0ax1+by1+c>0 and b>0b>0
2) ax1+by1+c<0ax1+by1+c<0 and b<0b<0
The point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) lies below the line ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 if

1) ax1+by1+c<0ax1+by1+c<0 and b>0b>0
2) ax1+by1+c>0ax1+by1+c>0 and b<0b<0
13
FORMULA
Position of two points w.r.t. a line
The given line is ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 and the two points are (x1,y1)(x1,y1) & (x2,y2)(x2,y2).
If the two points lie on the same side of the line, then
ax1+by1+cax2+by2+c>0ax1+by1+cax2+by2+c>0
If the two points lie on the opposite sides of the line, then
ax1+by1+cax2+by2+c<0ax1+by1+cax2+by2+c<0
A point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) lies on the origin side of the above line, if ax1+by1+cax1+by1+c and cc have the same signs.
A point (x1,y1)(x1,y1) lies on the non-origin side of the above line, if ax1+by1+cax1+by1+c and cc have opposite signs.
14
DEFINITION
Graphical representation of straight line
A straight line is represented by the 1st-degree equation ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0, where a,b≠0a,b≠0.

In the given figure, x+y=1x+y=1 is the given line, where a=1,b=1a=1,b=1.
Hence, it represents a straight line.
15
FORMULA
Equation of line in double-intercept form
We know that a line is represented by the equation ax+by=cax+by=c

Dividing by cc on both sides, we get
axc+byc=1axc+byc=1
⇒xca+ycb=1⇒xca+ycb=1
where,
caca is the xx-intercept and cbcb is the yy-intercept.
Hence, if xa+yb=1xa+yb=1, then aa is the xx-intercept and bb is the yy-intercept.
16
LAW
Co-ordinate axes
The two perpendicular lines in a co-ordinate plane are called as co-ordinate axes.
The horizontal line is called as the X−X−axis.
The vertical line is called as the Y−Y− axis.
17
DEFINITION
Reflection
When an object is place before the mirror, the image is formed behind the mirror. This is called reflection.
Properties:
If A is the point then its image B is found behind the mirror at an equal distance from O (which lies on mirror).
Mirror line is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the object and passes through O. This line is known as axis of reflection.
18
DEFINITION
Invariant point
If the point PP is on the line ABAB then clearly its image in
ABAB is PP itself. We say PP is an invariant point for the axis of reflection ABAB.
19
DEFINITION
Reflection of a Point in X-axis
When point A(h,k)A(h,k) is reflected in x−x−axis, the image BB is formed in the fourth quadrant whose co-ordinates are (h,−k)(h,−k).
Thus when a point is reflected in x−x−axis, then the xx co-ordinate remains same, but the yy co-ordinate becomes negative.
Example:
Reflection of Point (2,3)(2,3) in x−x− axis is (2,−3)(2,−3).
20
DEFINITION
Reflection of a Point in Y-axis
When a point is reflected in y−y−axis, then the yy co-ordinate remains same and then xx co-ordinate become negative.
Thus, the image of A(h,k)A(h,k) is B(−h,k)B(−h,k).
21
DEFINITION
Reflection of a Point in Origin
When a point is reflected in origin, both xx co-ordinate and yy co-ordinate become negative.
Thus, the image of A(h,k)A(h,k) is B(−h,−k)B(−h,−k)
Example: Reflection of (3,4)(3,4) is (−3,−4)(−3,−4)
22
DEFINITION
Family of lines
If u=ax1+by1+c1=0u=ax1+by1+c1=0 and v=ax2+by2+c2=0v=ax2+by2+c2=0 are two intersecting lines, then the
equation u+kv=0u+kv=0 represents a family of lines, each passing through the point of intersection of the lines u=0u=0 and v=0v=0,
where kk is a parameter.
23
DEFINITION
Concurrent lines
Three or more distinct lines are said to be concurrent, if they pass through the same point.
The point of intersection of any two lines, which lie on the third line is called the point of concurrence.
24
FORMULA
Condition for concurrency of three lines
Three lines ax1+by1+c=0ax1+by1+c=0, ax2+by2+c=0ax2+by2+c=0 and ax3+by3+c=0ax3+by3+c=0 are said to be concurrent if :
∣∣∣∣a1a2a3b1c2b3c1c3c3∣∣∣∣=0|a1b1c1a2c2c3a3b3c3|=0
25
EXAMPLE
Concurrency of LInes
Find the point where the set of lines ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 and 5a+6b+7c=05a+6b+7c=0 are concurrent .
ax+by+c=0⇒ax−c+by−c=15a+6b+7=0⇒a−7/5+b−7/6=1ax+by+c=0⇒ax−c+by−c=15a+6b+7=0⇒a−7/5+b−7/6=1
Hence, equation passes through (57,67)(57,67)
26
FORMULA
Condition of collinearity if three given points are in cyclic order
If the three given points be A≡[f(a),g(a)]A≡[f(a),g(a)], B≡[f(b),g(b)]B≡[f(b),g(b)] and C≡[f(c),g(c)]C≡[f(c),g(c)] lie on the same
line lx+my+n=0lx+my+n=0, then
lf(t)+mg(t)+n=0lf(t)+mg(t)+n=0 ...(i)
where,
a,b,ca,b,c are the roots of eq(i) and eq(i) is must be cubic in tt.
So, At3+Bt2+Ct+D=0At3+Bt2+Ct+D=0
Hence, the required conditions are
a+b+c=−BAa+b+c=−BA, ab+bc+ca=CAab+bc+ca=CA and abc=−DAabc=−DA
27
DEFINITION
Slope of line equally inclined with two given lines
If two lines with slopes m1m1 and m2m2 be equally inclined to a line with slope mm, then
m1−m1+mm1=−m2−m1+mm2m1−m1+mm1=−m2−m1+mm2
28
SHORTCUT
To find separate equations from a given pair of straight lines
Steps:
1) Consider only the second degree part of the given pair of straight lines. This should be a quadratic equation in two variables.
2) Solve the quadratic equation to find 2 linear equations.
3) Now add a constant "A" and "B" with each of the equations and then multiply the new equations so formed.
4) Compare this newly formed equation with the standard form of the pair of straight lines to find values of A and B.
5) Substitute the values of A and B to get the separate equations (desired result).
INTRODUCTION TO EUCLIDS GEOMETRY

01
DEFINITION
Postulates
A postulate is a statement that is accepted without proof.
Example: For example, if you know that Anjali is five feet tall and all her siblings are taller than her, you would believe her if she said that all of
her siblings are at least five feet tall.. Anjali just stated a postulate, and you just accepted it.
02
DEFINITION
Axioms
Axiom is a mathematical statement that is assumed to be true without proof.
Example : A line can be drawn from any point to any other point.
03
LAW
Euclid's five postulates
 A straight line segment can be drawn by joining any two points.
 Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line.
 For a given straight line segment, a circle can be drawn having the segment as radius and one endpoint as center.
 All right angles are congruent.
 If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.
04
DEFINITION
Non euclidean geometries
Non-Euclidean geometries are called hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is a non-Euclidean two-dimensional
geometry.
05
DEFINITION
Proof and corollary
Corollary: A theorem that follows on from another theorem.
Example: The "Angles subtended by same arc" is a corollary of "Angle at the center theorem".
Proof: Proof is a deductive argument of a mathematical statement.
06
DEFINITION
Equivalent version of Euclid's fifth postulate
 For every line ll and for every point PP which is not lying on ll, there exists a unique line mm passing through PP and parallel to ll.
 Two distinct straight lines which intersect one another cannot both be parallel to the same straight line.
LINES AND ANGLES
01
DIAGRAM
To measure the angle in degrees using a protractor/division of a circle
measure of angle ABD is 70o70o

02
DEFINITION
Point
A exact location on plane is known as point.
03
DEFINITION
Line
A line is a straight path that is endless in both directions.
04
DEFINITION
Line Segemnt
A line segment is a part of a line.
Lines do not have endpoints while line segments have endpoints.
05
DEFINITION
Ray
Ray is a line with an endpoint that extends infinitely in one direction.
06
DEFINITION
Parallel lines
Two lines on the same plane which are always at the same distance apart and never touch each other are said to be parallel.
For eg. A pair of railway tracks, a ladder, piano keys, etc.
07
DEFINITION
Intersecting Lines
Lines that intersect each other at one point are known as intersecting lines.
08
DEFINITION
Straight line
The path traced by a point traveling in a constant direction is a straight line.

09
DEFINITION
Lines
Line is 1−dimensional1−dimensional figure that extends in both direction and has no end point and no thickness.
10
DEFINITION
Surface
It is a two dimensional domain, with arbitrary and is a generalization of a plane.
11
DEFINITION
Plane
Plane is a two dimensional surface that extends infinitely far.
12
DEFINITION
Collinear and Non- Collinear Points
Points, which lie on the same straight line are known as collinear points.
Points, which don't lie on the same straight line are known as non-collinear points.
13
DEFINITION
Plane seperation axiom
Given a line and a plane containing it, the points of the plane that do not lie on the line form two sets such that: (i) each of the sets is convex; and
(ii) if P is in one set and Q is in the other, then segment intersects the line.
14
DEFINITION
Angle
Angle is the combination of two rays with common endpoint.

15
DIAGRAM
Parts of an angle
The corner point of an angle is called the vertex (B)

The two straight sides are called arms (AB) and (BC)
The angle is the amount of turn between each arm.(∠ABC∠ABC)
16
RESULT
Angles Around Point
Angles around a point add up to 360O360O.
17
EXAMPLE
Interior Angle
The interior of an angle is the area between the two rays that define it.
say ∠ABC∠ABC
18
EXAMPLE
Naming Angle
An angle is named by using the names of the points on the arms,

with the name of the vertex in the middle. The symbol used to
represent an angle is ∠∠
As in the example we have ∠ABC∠ABC
19
DIAGRAM
Identify angles in writing names
Angle is named as ∠ABC or ∠CBA∠ABC or ∠CBA.
20
DIAGRAM
Check the angle between the minute and hour hand at different times
21
DEFINITION
Acute angle
An angle that measures less than 90o90o is known as an acute angle.

22
DEFINITION
Right Angle
An angle that measures equal to 90o90o is known as right angle.

23
DEFINITION
Obtuse Angle
An angle that measures greater than 90o90o is known as an obtuse angle.
24
DEFINITION
Reflex Angle
A reflex angle is an angle which measures more than 180o180o but less than 360o360o.
25
DEFINITION
Zero Angle
An angle measure 0o0o is called zero angle.
26
EXAMPLE
Comparing Angles
Compare the given angles

We can see that ∠A∠A is smaller than ∠B∠B as ∠A∠A is an acute angle and ∠B∠B is an obtuse angle
27
DEFINITION
Complementary Angles
Two angles are said to be complementary when they add up to 90o90o.
28
DEFINITION
Supplementary Angles
Two Angles are supplementary when add up to 180o180o.
29
DEFINITION
Linear pair of angles
Two angles are said to be in a linear pair if they are adjacent to each other, lie on the same side of the line and the sum of their measures
is 180o180o.
30
DEFINITION
Transversal
A transversal is a line that passes through two lines lying in the same plane at two distinct points.
The two given lines may be parallel or non-parallel.
31
DEFINITION
Corresponding angles
When two parallel or non-parallel lines in a plane are cut by a transversal, some angles are formed as shown in the figure.
The following are the pairs of corresponding angles:
1) ∠1∠1 and ∠6∠6
2) ∠4∠4 and ∠7∠7
3) ∠2∠2 and ∠5∠5
4) ∠3∠3 and ∠8∠8
32
DEFINITION
Alternate angles
The following are the pairs of alternate angles:
1) ∠4∠4 and ∠5∠5
2) ∠3∠3 and ∠6∠6
33
DEFINITION
Interior Angles
The following are the pairs of interior angles formed:
1) ∠4∠4 and ∠6∠6
2) ∠3∠3 and ∠5∠5
34
DEFINITION
Concept of Adjacent Angles
Two angles are said to be adjacent when they share a common side and a vertex.
35
DEFINITION
Vertically Opposite Angles
Vertically opposite angles are the angles formed opposite to each other when two lines intersect.
36
DEFINITION
Properties of Transversal
A pair of parallel lines is intersected by a transversal. Following are the properties:
1. Vertically opposite angles are equal.
2. Corresponding angles are equal
3. The interior angles formed on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
4. Alternate angles are equal.
37
DEFINITION
Conditions for lines to be parallel
Two lines are said to be parallel if either one of the following is satisfied:
1) Corresponding angles are equal.
2) Alternate angles are equal.
3) Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
38
DEFINITION
Equal Intercept Theorem
The theorem states if a transversal makes equal intercepts on three or more parallel lines, then any other line cutting them will also make equal
intercepts.
39
DEFINITION
Triangle
Triangle is a closed polygon formed by three lines.
40
DEFINITION
Acute angled triangle
An acute angled triangle is a triangle in which all the angles having their measure less than 90o90o.
41
DEFINITION
Scalene Triangle
If all the three sides of a triangle are unequal in lengths,then the triangle is known as a scalene triangle.
In the given triangle ,all the three sides have different lengths
42
DEFINITION
Right angle
A triangle where one of its interior angle is a right angle (90 degrees)
43
DEFINITION
Obtuse angled Triangle
A obtuse angled triangle is a triangle in which its one of its angle greater 90o90o.
44
RESULT
Understand why triangles are the strongest shapes
Triangles are the strongest shape because any added force is evenly spread through all three sides.
45
DEFINITION
Median
A median of a triangle is a line segment which joins vertex to the mid -point of the opposite side.
46
DEFINITION
Relation Between Interior and Exterior Angles
Exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the interior non -adjacent angles.
47
DEFINITION
Interior and Exterior angles of Triangle
The exterior and interior angles are shown for the given triangle.
48
RESULT
Sum of Internal angles of a Triangle
Statement: Sum of the three interior angles of a triangle is equal to 180o180o

Proof:
Consider a ABC, as shown in the figure below.To prove the above property of triangles, draw a line PQ parallel to the side BC of the given
triangle.
Since PQ is a straight line, it can be concluded that:

∠∠PAB + ∠∠BAC + ∠∠QAC == 180 (1)
SincePQ ∥∥ BC and AB, AC are the transversals,
Therefore, ∠∠QAC == ∠∠ACB (pair of alternate angles)
Also, ∠∠PAB == ∠∠CBA(pair of alternate angles)
Substituting the value of ∠∠QAC and ∠∠PAB in equation (1),
∠∠ACB + ∠∠BAC + ∠∠CBA == 180
Thus, the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180
49
DEFINITION
Equilateral Triangle
If all the sides of a triangle are equal in length then the triangle is known as an equilateral triangle.
In the given △ABC△ABC
l(AB)=l(BC)=(AC)l(AB)=l(BC)=(AC)
Hence it is an equilateral triangle.
50
DEFINITION
Isosceles Triangle
If two sides of triangle are equal in length, then the triangle is known as an isosceles triangle.
In the given △ABC△ABC, l(AB)=l(AC)l(AB)=l(AC)
Hence, it is an isosceles triangle
51
DEFINITION
Isosceles Triangle
An Isosceles triangle has its two sides and angles equal.
52
DEFINITION
Triangle Inequality
The sum of length of two sides is greater than the third side.
53
DEFINITION
Pythagoras Theorem
It states that square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides.
.
TRIANGLES
01
DEFINITION
Congruent angles
Two angles are said to be congruent if they have the same measure.
02
DEFINITION
Congruent
If one shape can become another using Turns, Flips and/or Slides, then the shapes are Congruent. When two things are said to be congruent, it
means that all of their measurements are identical.
03
EXAMPLE
Example of congruent shapes
Consider the given figure we can see that one triangle points up, while the other points down. However, if we were to measure them, we would
discover that the corresponding sides of both triangles are exactly the same. In fact, the second triangle is the same as the first; it's just been
rotated. So, these shapes are
congruent.
04
RESULT
Transitive Property
For any angles A,B,andC
if ∠A≅∠B∠A≅∠B
and ∠B≅∠C∠B≅∠C , then ∠A≅∠C∠A≅∠C
If two angles are both congruent to a third angle, then the first two angles are also congruent.
05
RESULT
Reflexive Property
For all angles A , ∠A≅∠A∠A≅∠A
An angle is congruent to itself.
06
RESULT
Symmetric Property
For any angles AandB,
if ∠A≅∠B∠A≅∠B, then ∠B≅∠A∠B≅∠A
Order of congruence does not matter.
07
RESULT
Corresponding Sides
If the relative position of two sides is same in two figures, then they are called Corresponding Sides.
As in the given figure we have In quadrilaterals JKLMJKLM and RSTURSTU,

JKJK corresponds with RSRS
08
DEFINITION
Corresponding Angles
When two lines are crossed by another line
(which is called the Transversal), the angles in matching corners are
called corresponding angles.
09
DEFINITION
SSS condition of congruence
SSSSSS Congruency - If the sides of one triangle is equal to the sides of the other triangle, then the triangles are said to
have SSSSSS congruency.
10
DEFINITION
SAS condition of congruence
SASSAS Congruency - Two triangles are congruent, if two sides and an included angle of one triangle is equal to the two sides and an included
angle of the other triangle, then the triangles are said to have SASSAS congruency.
11
DEFINITION
AAS condition of congruence
If two angles and non included side of one triangle is equal to the corresponding parts of the triangle , then two triangles are congruent as per
AAS condition of congruence.
12
DEFINITION
RHS Condition of congruence
Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and the corresponding
side of the other triangle.
13
DEFINITION
ASA condition of congruence
ASAASA Congruency - Two triangles are congruent, if two angles and an included side of one triangle is equal to two angles and an included
side of the other triangle, then the triangles are said to have ASAASA congruency.
14
DEFINITION
The SAS rule states that

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and included angle of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
An included angle is an angle formed by two given sides.
For the two given triangles , if AC=PQAC=PQ, BC=RQBC=RQ and ∠C=∠P∠C=∠P , then using the SAS
rule, △ABC≅△QRP△ABC≅△QRP
15
DIAGRAM
ASA criteria
The ASA rule states that

If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and included side of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
In the given two triangles AC=PQAC=PQ ,BC=RQBC=RQ and ∠C=∠P∠C=∠P,hence, △ABC≅△PQR△ABC≅△PQR
16
DEFINITION
Angle Bisector Theorem
The internal (external) bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side internally (externally) in the ratio of the corresponding sides
containing the angle.
17
DEFINITION
Perpendicular Bisector Theorem
If a point is on the perpendicular bisector of a segment, then it is equidistant from the endpoints of the segment.
18
DEFINITION
Converse of Angle Bisector Theorem
If a straight line through one vertex of a triangle divides the opposite side internally (externally) in the ratio of the other two sides, then the
line bisects the angle internally (externally) at the vertex.
19
RESULT
Relation between sides and angles of a triangle
The shortest side is always opposite to the smallest interior angle.
The longest side is always opposite to the longest interior angle.
20
DEFINITION
Converse of Pythagoras Theorem
If square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides ,then the triangle is known as right angled triangle.
21
DEFINITION
Similarity of Figures
Two Geometrical figures are said to be similar when they are of same shape.
22
DEFINITION
Properties of Similar Figures
1. Corresponding sides are proportional .
2. Corresponding angles are equal.
23
DEFINITION
SAS Postulate of Similarity
Triangles are similar if two sides in one triangle are in same proportion to the corresponding sides in the other , and the included angle is equal.
24
DEFINITION
AAA Postulate of Similarity
Triangles are similar if the measure of three interior angles in one triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles in the other.
25
DEFINITION
SSS Postulate of Similarity
Triangles are similar if all three interior angles in one triangle are same as the corresponding angles in the other.
26
DEFINITION
Relation between Area of Similar Triangles
In two similar triangles, the ratio of their areas is the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides.
27
DEFINITION
Centroid
GIF
Centroid is the intersection of three medians of a triangle.
28
DEFINITION
Altitude
A altitude is a line segment from a vertex and is perpendicular to the opposite side.
29
DEFINITION
Orthocentre
The point of intersection of altitudes is known as orthocentre.
30
DEFINITION
Angle Bisector
Angle bisector of a triangle is a line segment which bisects an angle of a triangle.
31
DEFINITION
incenter
The point of intersection of angle bisectors is known as incenter.
32
DEFINITION
Perpendicular Bisector
Perpendicular bisector of a triangle is a line segment , which is perpendicular to the side and bisect it.
33
DEFINITION
Circumcentre
The point of intersection of perpendicular bisectors of sides of a triangle is known as circumcenter.
34
FORMULA
Area of Triangle
A=12×b×h=12×b×h
where , b=b= Base of triangle
h=h= Height of triangle
35
RESULT
Area of triangle with equal base and heights
The triangles with common or equal bases and equal heights are equal in areas.
In the figure let A(△MLK)=A1A(△MLK)=A1 and A(△NKL)=A2A(△NKL)=A2
∴△(MLK)△(NKL)=LKLK∴△(MLK)△(NKL)=LKLK .....LKLK common base
A1A2=11A1A2=11
∴A1=A2∴A1=A2
36
DEFINITION
Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
If a straight line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line must be parallel to the third side
QUADRILATERALS
01
DEFINITION
Defination of a Quadrilateral
A figure with four sides is known as quadrilateral.

02
DEFINITION
Definition of Circle
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that it is always at a constant distance from a fixed point in the plane.
03
DEFINITION
Polygon
Polygon is a closed figure formed by straight line segments.
Polygons are of two types, one is regular polygon and the other is irregular polygon.
Regular polygon has its all sides equal. Irregular polygon don't have its all sides equal.
04
RESULT
Regions in polygon
Number of regions is a convex polygon divided into by its diagonals, if
no three are concurrent is nC4+(n−1)C2 for n>=4nC4+(n−1)C2 for n>=4
05
DEFINITION
Diagonal
A polygons diagonals are line segments from one corner to another, but not the sides.
Examples: 1. square (or any quadrilateral) has 4(43)/2=41/2=24(43)/2=41/2=2 diagonals

2. an octagon has 8(83)/2=85/2=208(83)/2=85/2=20 diagonals
A triangle has no diagonals.

A diagonal can actually be outside the polygon, which happens with some concave polygons.
06
DIAGRAM
draw a polygon
we can draw regular or irregular polygons.
Polygon with 5 sides is called pentagon.
Polygon with 6 sides is called hexatagon.
Polygon with 7 sides is called heptagon.
07
DEFINITION
Polygons Based on Number of Sides
"n =" Number of sides of polygon
1. n=3n=3, polygon is triangle
2. n=4n=4, polygon is quadrilateral.
3. n=5n=5, polygon is pentagon.
and so on...
08
DEFINITION
Let RR and rr be the radius of circumcircle and incircle of a polygon of side nn.
Then each angle is (n−2)πn(n−2)πn
And,
R=a⋅cosecπn2R=a⋅cosecπn2
r=a⋅cotπn2r=a⋅cot⁡πn2
09
FORMULA
Area of polygon in n and a
Let RR andrr be the radius of circumcircle and incircle of a polygon ofnn sides. And let ′a′′a′ be the side length.
Then, Area of polygon =na2cotπn4=na2cot⁡πn4
10
FORMULA
Area of polygon in n and r
Let RR and rr be the radius of circumcircle and incircle of a polygon of nn sides. And let 'aa' be the side length.
Then, Area of polygon =nr2tanπn=nr2tan⁡πn
11
FORMULA
Area in R and n
Let RR and rr be the radius of circumcircle and incircle of a polygon ofnn sides. And let 'aa' be the side length.
Then, Area of polygon =nR2sin2πn2=nR2sin⁡2πn2
12
DEFINITION
Convex polygon is a polygon in which line segment joining any two points lies inside polygon.
13
DEFINITION
Concave Polygon
Concave Polygon is a polygon in which line segment joining any two points on the boundary of polygon lies exterior to the polygon.
14
FORMULA
Interior Angle Sum Property of Polygon
Sum of interior angles of a polygon =(n−2)180o=(n−2)180o
where, n=n= Sides of a polygon.
15
FORMULA
Exterior Angle Sum Property of Polygon
Exterior angle of polygon =360on=360on
Where n=n= Number of sides of polygon
16
DEFINITION
Regular Polygon
Regular polygon has its all sides equal.
17
DEFINITION
Irregular Polygon
Irregular Polygons don't have all its sides equal.
18
RESULT
Properties of Regular Polygon
1. All sides are equal.
2. All angles are equal.
19
DEFINITION
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has one pair of parallel lines.

20
DEFINITION
Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram where all angles are equal to 900900.
In the figure, ABCD is a parallelogram and ABC'D' is the rectangle.
21
DEFINITION
Defination of Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with all the angles equal to 90o90o

22
DEFINITION
Rhombus
A Rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides equal.
23
DEFINITION
Square
A square is a parallelogram with all four sides equal and each of the four angles is equal to 90o90o.
24
DEFINITION
Properties of Trapezium
1. A line segment joining mid points of non parallel sides is parallel to the parallel sides
AB||PS||QRAB||PS||QR
2. A line segment joining mid points of parallel side is half the sum of the lengths of its parallel sides
AB=12(PS+QR)AB=12(PS+QR)
25
DEFINITION
Properties of trapezium
1. The bases of a trapezoid are parallel.
2. One of the pair of opposite sides are parallel.
3. Each lower base angle is supplementary to the upper base angle on the same side.
26
DEFINITION
Kite
A Quadrilateral in which two pairs of adjacent sides are equal in length is known as a Kite.
In □ABCD◻ABCD
 seg AB≅seg ADseg AB≅seg AD

 seg CB≅seg CDseg CB≅seg CD
Hence, □ABCD◻ABCD is a kite.
27
DEFINITION
Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral in which two disjoint pairs of consecutive
sides are congruent (disjoint pairs means that one side cant be used
in both pairs)
28
DEFINITION
Properties of KIte
 Diagonals of a kite are perpendicular bisectors of each other
Diagonal AC⊥Diagonal BDDiagonal AC⊥Diagonal BD
Diagonal ACDiagonal AC and Diagonal BDDiagonal BD bisect each other.
29
EXAMPLE
Solved Example on Angle Sum Property of A Quadrilateral.
Solved Example
The angles of a quadrilateral are in a ratio 3:5:9:133:5:9:13.Find all angles of the quadrilateral.
Solution:
The measure of all angles of the quadrilateral are in ratio 3:5:9:133:5:9:13
Let xx be the common multiple.
∴∴ the angles of the quadrilateral are of the measure 3x,5x,9x.13x3x,5x,9x.13x
By Sum angle property of a quadrilateral,
3x+5x+9x+13x=360o3x+5x+9x+13x=360o
30x=360o30x=360o
x=12ox=12o
thus measure of each angle is as follows:
1. 3x=3×12=36o3x=3×12=36o
2. 5x=5×12=60o5x=5×12=60o
3. 9x=9×12=108o9x=9×12=108o
4. 13x=13×12=156o13x=13×12=156o
∴∴ The measure of the angles are 36o36o,60o60o,108o108o and 156o156o
30
LAW
Angle Sum Property of A Quadrilateral
Given: ABCDABCD is a quadrilateral

To prove: ∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o
Approach:
 We know that sum of all angles of a triangle is 180o180o.This property is known as sum angle property of a triangle.
 lets form two triangles, △ADC△ADC and △ABC△ABC by drawing diagonal ACAC
 Now,apply sum angle property in each triangle
 Add all the angles of triangle so that we get sum of all angles of a quadrilateral.
Proof:
In △ADC△ADC,
m∠ADC=xm∠DAC=ym∠DCA=zm∠ADC=xm∠DAC=ym∠DCA=z
x+y+x=180ox+y+x=180o . . . (11)
(sum all angles of a triangle is 180o180o)
In △ABC△ABC,
m∠ABC=am∠BAC=bm∠BCA=cm∠ABC=am∠BAC=bm∠BCA=c
a+b+c=180oa+b+c=180o . . . (22)
(sum of all angles of a triangles is 180o180o)
Now,
If we add all angles of the two triangles , we will get sum of all angles of the quadrilateral.
Hence, adding equation (11) and (22)
x+y+z+a+b+c=180o+180ox+y+z+a+b+c=180o+180o
x+(y+b)+(z+c)+a=180o+180ox+(y+b)+(z+c)+a=180o+180o . . . (33)
From the given figure ,
x=∠Dx=∠D
y+b=∠Ay+b=∠A
z+c=∠Cz+c=∠C
a=∠Ba=∠B
putting the above values in equation (33),
∠D+∠A+∠C+∠B=360o∠D+∠A+∠C+∠B=360o
∴∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o∴∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o . . . Hence proved.
31
LAW
Proof of Angle Sum Property of a Quadrilateral
Given: ABCDABCD is a quadrilateral

To prove: ∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o
Approach:
 We know that sum of all angles of a triangle is 180o180o.This property is known as sum angle property of a triangle.
 lets form two triangles, △ADC△ADC and △ABC△ABC by drawing diagonal ACAC
 Now,apply sum angle property in each triangle
 Add all the angles of triangle so that we get sum of all angles of a quadrilateral.
Proof:
In △ADC△ADC,
m∠ADC=xm∠DAC=ym∠DCA=zm∠ADC=xm∠DAC=ym∠DCA=z
x+y+x=180ox+y+x=180o . . . (11)
(sum all angles of a triangle is 180o180o)
In △ABC△ABC,
m∠ABC=am∠BAC=bm∠BCA=cm∠ABC=am∠BAC=bm∠BCA=c
a+b+c=180oa+b+c=180o . . . (22)
(sum of all angles of a triangles is 180o180o)
Now,
If we add all angles of the two triangles , we will get sum of all angles of the quadrilateral.
Hence, adding equation (11) and (22)
x+y+z+a+b+c=180o+180ox+y+z+a+b+c=180o+180o
x+(y+b)+(z+c)+a=180o+180ox+(y+b)+(z+c)+a=180o+180o . . . (33)
From the given figure ,
x=∠Dx=∠D
y+b=∠Ay+b=∠A
z+c=∠Cz+c=∠C
a=∠Ba=∠B
putting the above values in equation (33),
∠D+∠A+∠C+∠B=360o∠D+∠A+∠C+∠B=360o
∴∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o∴∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o . . . Hence proved.
32
DEFINITION
Angle Sum Property of a Quadrilateral.
Angle Sum Property of a Quadrilateral States that,the sum of the angles of quadrilateral is 360o360o.
In □ABCD◻ABCD,
∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o∠A+∠B+∠C+∠D=360o
33
EXAMPLE
Solved Example on Sum angle property of a quadrilateral
Solved Example:
Three angles of Quadrilateral are 75o75o,95o95o,125o125o. Find the measure if the fourth angle.
Solution:
Let the measure of the fourth angle be xoxo
∴75o+95o+125o+x=360o∴295o+xo=360o∴x=360−295o∴x=65o∴75o+95o+125o+x=360o∴295o+xo=360o∴x=360−295o∴x=65o
∴∴ The measure of the fourth angle is 65o65o
34
DEFINITION
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel and equal sides.

35
DEFINITION
diagonal of parallelogram bisect each other
Given: □ABCD◻ABCD is a parallelogram in which the diagonals ACAC and BDBD intersect in MM.
To prove: segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM
and segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM
Proof: since □ABCD◻ABCD is a paeallelogram.
sideAb||sideCDsideAb||sideCD and segACsegAC is a transersal.
∴∠BAC≅∠DCA∴∠BAC≅∠DCA ...(Alternate angles)
i.e. ∠BAM≅∠DCM∠BAM≅∠DCM ...(A-M-C)...(1)
Also, sideAB||sideDCsideAB||sideDC and segDBsegDB is a transversal.
∴∠ABD≅∠CDB∴∠ABD≅∠CDB ...(Alternate angels)
i.e. ∠ABM≅∠CDM∠ABM≅∠CDM ...(B-M-D)..(2)
Now, In △ABM△ABM and △CDM△CDM
∠BAM≅∠DCM∠BAM≅∠DCM ...(from 1)
sideAB≅sideDCsideAB≅sideDC ...(opposite side)
∠ABM≅∠CDM∠ABM≅∠CDM ...(from 2)
∴△ABM≅△CDM∴△ABM≅△CDM ...(ASA test)
∴segAM≅segCM∴segAM≅segCM ...(c.s.c.t.)
and segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM
Hence, diagonals of parallelogram bisect each other.
36
DEFINITION
test of parallelogram 4
Given: □LMNK◻LMNK is a given quadriateral in which

sideLM||sideNKsideLM||sideNK and
sideLM≅sideNKsideLM≅sideNK
To prove: □LMNK◻LMNK is a parallelogram
Construction: Draw diagonal MKMK
Prrof: since □LMNK◻LMNK is a quadrilateral in which
sideLM||sideNKsideLM||sideNK
and segMKsegMK is a transversal.
∠LMK≅∠NKM∠LMK≅∠NKM ...(Alternate angles)..(1)
Now, In △KLM△KLM and △MNK△MNK
segLM≅segNKsegLM≅segNK ...(given)
∠LMK≅∠NKM∠LMK≅∠NKM ...(from 1)
segKM≅segMKsegKM≅segMK ...(common side)
∴△KLM≅△MNK∴△KLM≅△MNK ...(SAS test)
∴∠LKM≅∠NMK∴∠LKM≅∠NMK ...(c.a.c.t.)
∴sideLK||sideMN∴sideLK||sideMN ...(alternate angles test)..(2)
and sideLM||sideNKsideLM||sideNK ...(given)..(3)
∴∴ from (2) and (3) we have □LKMN◻LKMN is a parallelogram
Hence, if a pair of opposite side of a quadrilateral is parallel and congruent then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
37
DEFINITION
Given: □PQRS◻PQRS is a quadrilateral in which diagonals PRPR and QSQS intersect in MM.
segPM≅segRMsegPM≅segRM and
segQM≅segSMsegQM≅segSM
To Prove: □PQRS◻PQRS is a parallelogram
Proof: In △PMQ△PMQ and △RMS△RMS
segPMQ≅segRMsegPMQ≅segRM ...(given)
∠PMQ≅∠RMS∠PMQ≅∠RMS ...(vertically opposite angles)
segQM≅segSMsegQM≅segSM ...(given)
∴△PMQ≅△RMS∴△PMQ≅△RMS ...(SAS test)
∴∠PQM≅∠RSM∴∠PQM≅∠RSM ...(c.a.c.t.)
i.e. sidePQ||sideSRsidePQ||sideSR ...(alternate angle test)..(1)
similarly, we can prove that
sidePS||sideQRsidePS||sideQR ...(2)
□PQRS◻PQRS is a parallelgram ...from (1) and (2)
Hence, if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each ther then it is a parallelogram.
38
DEFINITION
Given: □PQRS◻PQRS is a quadrilateral in which

∠SPQ≅∠QRS∠SPQ≅∠QRS
∠PQR≅∠RSP∠PQR≅∠RSP
To prove: □PQRS◻PQRS is a parallelogram.
Proof: Let ∠SPQ=∠QRS=x0∠SPQ=∠QRS=x0 Opposite angle of
and ∠PQR=∠RSP=y0∠PQR=∠RSP=y0 a quadrilateral.
∠SPQ+∠PQR+∠QRS+∠RSP=3600∠SPQ+∠PQR+∠QRS+∠RSP=3600. (Angle sum property of a quadrilateral)
∴x+y+x+y=3600∴x+y+x+y=3600
∴2x+2y=3600∴2x+2y=3600
∴x+y=1800∴x+y=1800 ...(dividing by 2)
∠SPQ+∠RSP=1800∠SPQ+∠RSP=1800
∴sidePQ||sideSR∴sidePQ||sideSR ...(interior angles test)..(1)
Similarly, we can prove that
sidePS||sideQRsidePS||sideQR ...(2)
∴□PQRS∴◻PQRS is a parallelgram ... from (1) and (2)
Hence, if opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then it is a parallelogram.
39
DEFINITION
opposite angles of parallelogram are congruent
Given: □PQRS◻PQRS is a Parallelogram.

To prove: ∠SPQ≅∠QRS∠SPQ≅∠QRS
and ∠PSR≅∠RQP∠PSR≅∠RQP
Construction: Draw a diagonal SQSQ
Proof: □PQRS◻PQRS is a parallelogram.
∴sidePS||sideQR∴sidePS||sideQR and seg SQSQ is a transveral
∴∠PSQ≅∠RQS∴∠PSQ≅∠RQS ...(Alternate angles) ...(1)
Also, sidePQ||sideSRsidePQ||sideSR and seg SQSQ is a transversal.
∠PQS≅∠RSQ∠PQS≅∠RSQ ...(Alternate angles)...(2)
In △PQS△PQS and △RSQ△RSQ
∠PSQ≅∠RQS∠PSQ≅∠RQS ...from (1)
sideSQ≅sideQSsideSQ≅sideQS ...(common side)
∠PQS≅∠RSQ∠PQS≅∠RSQ ...from (2)
∴△PQS≅△RSQ∴△PQS≅△RSQ ...(ASA test)
∴∠SPQ≅∠QRS∴∠SPQ≅∠QRS ...(c.a.c.t.)
Similarly, we can prove by drawing diagonal PRPR.
∠PSR≅∠RQP∠PSR≅∠RQP
Hence, the opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.
40
DEFINITION
Properties of Parallelogram
1. Adjacent angles are supplementary.

∠P+∠Q=180o∠P+∠Q=180o
∠R+∠S=180o∠R+∠S=180o
∠P+∠S=180o∠P+∠S=180o
∠Q+∠R=180o∠Q+∠R=180o
2. Diagonals bisect each other.
Diagonal PRDiagonal PR and Diagonal QSDiagonal QS bisect each other.
3. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length
PQ=RSPQ=RS
PS=QRPS=QR
4. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal
∠P=∠R∠P=∠R
∠Q=∠S∠Q=∠S
5. Opposite Sides of a parallelogram are parallel
PQ||RSPQ||RS
PS||QRPS||QR
41
DEFINITION
test of rhombus
Given: In □ABCD◻ABCD diagonal AC⊥AC⊥ diagonal BDBD.

segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM
segDM≅segBMsegDM≅segBM
To prove: □ABCD◻ABCD is a rhombus
Proof: In △AMB△AMB and △CMB△CMB
segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM ...(given)
∠AMB≅∠CMB∠AMB≅∠CMB ...(Each is 900900)
segMB≅segMBsegMB≅segMB ...(common side)
∴△AMB≅△CMB∴△AMB≅△CMB ...(SAS test)
∴segAB≅segCB∴segAB≅segCB ...(c.s.c.t.)..(1)
Similarly, we can prove that,
△CMB≅△CMD△CMB≅△CMD ...(SAS test)
∴segCB≅segCD∴segCB≅segCD ...(c.s.c.t.)..(2)
and we can also prove that,
△CMD≅△AMD△CMD≅△AMD ...(SAS test)
∴segCD≅segAD∴segCD≅segAD ...(c.s.c.t.)..(3)
∴∴ from (1), (2) and (3) we have,
segAb≅segCB≅segCD≅segADsegAb≅segCB≅segCD≅segAD
Hence, If the diagonals of aquadrilateral bisect each other at right angle then it is a rhombus.
42
DEFINITION
Properties of Rhombus
 Diagonals of a Rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
Diagonal ACDiagonal AC and Diagonal BDDiagonal BD bisect each other
43
LAW
Diagonals of a rectangle are congruent
Given : □ABCD◻ABCD is a rectangle. seg AC and seg BD are its diagonals.

To Prove : Diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal BDBD
Approach:Congruence of any two lengths or angles can be proven by using congruence of triangle (this approach works for nearly 80% of the
problems) .We have to prove congruence of ACAC and BDBD.Hence we select △ABC△ABC and △DCB△DCB and prove them congruent
first.
Proof : In △ABC△ABC and △DCB△DCB
sideAB≅sideDCsideAB≅sideDC ...(Opposite sides of a rectangle)
∠ABC≅∠DCB∠ABC≅∠DCB ...(each angle is 90o90o)
sideBC≅sideCDsideBC≅sideCD ...(common side)
△ABC≅△DCB△ABC≅△DCB ...(SAS test)
∴sideAC≅sideBD∴sideAC≅sideBD ...(c.s.c.t)
i.e. Diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal BDBD
Hence, diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.
44
DEFINITION
test for rectangle
Given : □ABCD◻ABCD is a parallelogram in which diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal DBDB

To prove : □ABCD◻ABCD is a reactangle
Approach:
 To prove that □ABCD◻ABCD is a rectangle we will have to prove that each angle is 90o90o
 If we prove any two adjacent angles 90o90o ,it would imply that all angles are 90o90o
 To do so, lets prove that adjacent angles are supplementary and congruent (If two angles are congruent and supplementary then every angle
is a right angle) using congruence of triangles.
Proof : In △ABC△ABC and △DCB△DCB
segAC≅segDBsegAC≅segDB ...(given)
segAB≅segDCsegAB≅segDC ...(opposite sides of parallelogram)
segBC≅segCBsegBC≅segCB ...(common side)
∴△ABC≅△DCB∴△ABC≅△DCB ...(SSS test)
∴∠ABC≅∠DCB∴∠ABC≅∠DCB ...(c.a.c.t)..(1)
Also, ∠ABC∠ABC and ∠DCB∠DCB are supplementary (Adjacent of a parallelogram) ...(2)
If two angles are congruent and supplementary then every angle is a right angle
∴∠ABC=∠DCB=90∴∠ABC=∠DCB=90 ...from (1) and (2)
We can also prove that ∠BAD=∠CDA=90∠BAD=∠CDA=90
∴ABCD∴ABCD is a rectangle.
Hence, if diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent then it is a rectangle.
45
DEFINITION
Properties of Rectangle
1. All angles are of 90o90o.

∠A=∠B=∠C=∠D∠A=∠B=∠C=∠D
2. Diagonals bisect each other and are equal.
Diagonal AC=Diagonal BDDiagonal AC=Diagonal BD
DiagonalACDiagonalAC bisects Diagonal BDDiagonal BD
46
LAW
Diagonals of a Square are Congruent and Perpendicular Bisectors of Each Other
Given : □ABCD◻ABCD is a square. In which diagonals ACAC and BDBD intersects in point MM.
To prove : i) diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal BDBD
ii) segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM, segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM and
iii) diagonal AC⊥AC⊥ diagonal BDBD
Approach:
 Given quadrilateral is a square

 Every Square is a rectangle,hence its diagonals are congruent to each other.
 Every square is also a Rhombus, hence its diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
Proof : □ABCD◻ABCD is a square ...(given)
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a rectangle ...(property of square)
∴∴ diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonals BDBD ...(property of rectangle)
also □ABCD◻ABCD is a rhombus ...(square is a rhombus)
hence its diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
∴segAM≅segCM∴segAM≅segCM
segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM
and diagonal AC⊥AC⊥ diagonal BDBD
Hence, the diagonal of a squeare are congruent and perpendicular bisectors of each other.
47
LAW
If Diagonals of Quadrilateral are Congruent and Perpendicular Bisectors of Each Other then it is a Square.
Given : □ABCD◻ABCD is a quadrilateral in which diagonal ACAC and diagongal BDBD bisect each other at MM.
Approach:
 A square has all the sides equal and each angle as 90o90o
 So, we wil prove that the give parallelogram is a Rhombus, this would prove that all sides are equal
 To prove that all angles are 90o90o we will also prove that given quadrilateral is a rectangle.
To prove : □ABCD◻ABCD is a square
Proof : In □ABCD◻ABCD, diagonals bisect each other.
i.e. segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM ...(given)
and segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM ...(given)
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a parallelogram.
Also, diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal BDBD ...(given)
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a rectangle.
diagonal AC⊥AC⊥ diagonal BDBD ...(given)
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a reactangle whose diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a rhombus which is rectangle
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a square.
Hence, if diagonals of quadrilateral are congruent and perpendicular bisectors of each other than it is a square.
48
DEFINITION
Properties of square
1. All four sides of a square are equal.
2. All four angles of a square are equal i.e. 90o90o.
3. Diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90o90o.
4. Diagonals of a square bisect its angles.
5. Opposite sides of a square are parallel.
6. Diagonals of a square are equal.
49
LAW
Diagonals of a Square are Congruent and Perpendicular Bisectors of Each Other
Given : □ABCD◻ABCD is a square. In which diagonals ACAC and BDBD intersects in point MM.
To prove : i) diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonal BDBD
ii) segAM≅segCMsegAM≅segCM, segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM and
iii) diagonal AC⊥AC⊥ diagonal BDBD
Approach:
 Given quadrilateral is a square

 Every Square is a rectangle,hence its diagonals are congruent to each other.
 Every square is also a Rhombus, hence its diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
Proof : □ABCD◻ABCD is a square ...(given)
∴□ABCD∴◻ABCD is a rectangle ...(property of square)
∴∴ diagonal AC≅AC≅ diagonals BDBD ...(property of rectangle)
also □ABCD◻ABCD is a rhombus ...(square is a rhombus)
hence its diagonals are perpendicular bisectors of each other.
∴segAM≅segCM∴segAM≅segCM
segBM≅segDMsegBM≅segDM
Hence, the diagonal of a square are congruent and perpendicular bisectors of each other.
50
DEFINITION
Properties of square
2. Diagonals are equal and bisect each other.
3. Diagonals are perpendicular.
4. Each angle of square is 90o90o.
51
DEFINITION
Properties of a Square

AB=BC=CD=DAAB=BC=CD=DA
2. Diagonals are equal and bisect each other.
Diagonal AC=Diagonal BDDiagonal AC=Diagonal BD
Diagonal ACDiagonal AC and Diagonal BDDiagonal BD bisect each other.
3. Diagonals are perpendicular.
4. Each angle of square is 90o90o.
∠A=∠B=∠C=∠D=90o∠A=∠B=∠C=∠D=90o
52
DEFINITION
Mid point Theorem
The line segment connecting the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and is congruent to one half of the third side.
53
DEFINITION
Converse of Mid Point Theorem
The line drawn through the mid-point of one side of a triangle and parallel to another side bisects the third side.
54
DEFINITION
Mid point Theorem and Equal Intercept Theorem
In △△ ABC , D and E are the mid points of AB and AC . The line segment joining D and E is parallel to BC and measures 12 cm. Find the
length of BC.
DE is parallel to BC and D and E are the mid points of AB and AC.
BC=24 cm (using mid point Theorem)
55
EXAMPLE
Construct a quadrilateral when three sides and two included angles are given
GIF
Construct a quadrilateral DEAR, where DE = 4 cm, EA = 5 cm, AR = 4.5 cm and angleE=60oangleE=60o and ∠A=90o∠A=90o.
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral DEAR
Step 2: Draw line segment EA=5=5 cm and construct angle of 60o60o with the help of a protractor on it. At a distance of 44cm from E, mark a
point D on the angle.
Step 3: At point A, construct an angle of 90o90o with the help of a protractor and at a distance of 4.54.5cm, mark a point R on it.
Step 4: Join points Rand D.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
56
EXAMPLE
Quadrilateral when two sides,a diagonal and angle between the two remaining sides is given
Construct a
quadrilateral ABCDABCD given AB=7 cmAB=7 cm, BC=5 cmBC=5 cm and AC=6 cmAC=6 cm ∠ACD=30o∠ACD=30o and ∠CA
D=40o∠CAD=40o
Sol:
Given : AB=7 cmAB=7 cm,BC=5 cmBC=5 cm ,AC=6 cmAC=6 cm ∠ACD=30o∠ACD=30o and ∠CAD=40o∠CAD=40o
Step 1: Construct △ABC△ABC with AB=7 cmAB=7 cm and BC=5 cmBC=5 cm and AC=6 cmAC=6 cm.
Step 2: Draw CFCF such that ∠ACF=30o∠ACF=30o and AEAE such that ∠CAE=40o∠CAE=40o. Let them intersect at D.
Then ABCDABCD is the required quadrilateral
57
EXAMPLE
Quadrilateral when three sides, a diagonal and the angle between a side and the given diagonal
Construct a quadrilateral ABCDABCD given AB=7 cmAB=7 cm, CD=4 cmCD=4 cm, AD=4 cmAD=4 cm,
diagonal 6 cm6 cm and ∠DAC=40o∠DAC=40o.
Sol: Given AB=7 cmAB=7 cm, CD=4 cmCD=4 cm, AD=4 cmAD=4 cm, diagonal 6 cm6 cm and ∠DAC=40o∠DAC=40o.
Step 1: Draw AB=7 cmAB=7 cm
Step 2: With B as center and radius 5 cm5 cm draw an arc
Step 3: With A as center and radius 6 cm6 cm draw another arc.
Step 4: Draw AC and BC
Step 5: At a make an ∠DAE=40o∠DAE=40o
Step 6: With A as centre and radius 4 cm4 cm draw an arc to cut AEAE at DD
Step 7: Draw CD
Now ABCEABCE is the required Quadrilateral
58
EXAMPLE
Construct a quadrilateral when four sides and one diagonal is given
GIF
Construct a quadrilateral PQRS where PQ = 4 cm,QR = 6 cm, RS = 5 cm,PS = 5.5 cm and PR = 7 cm.
1. Draw PQR using SSS construction condition.

2. With P as centre, draw an arc of radius 5.5 cm.
3. With R as centre, draw an arc of radius 5 cm.
4. S is the point of intersection of the two arcs. Mark S and complete PQRS. PQRS is the required quadrilateral.
59
EXAMPLE
Construct a quadrilateral when three sides and two diagonals are given
GIF
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, given that BC = 4.5 cm, AD = 5.5 cm,CD = 5 cm the diagonal AC = 5.5 cm and diagonal BD = 7 cm.
1. Draw ACD using SSS construction.

2. With D as centre, draw an arc of radius 7 cm.
3. With C as centre, draw an arc of radius 4.5 cm
4. Since B lies on both the arcs, B is the point intersection of the two arcs. Mark B and complete ABCD.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral
60
EXAMPLE
Construct a quadrilateral when two adjacent sides and three angles are known
GIF
Construct a quadrilateral PQRS where PQ = 3.5 cm, QR = 6 cm,P = 75,Q = 135 and R = 120.
1. Draw PQ = 3.5 cm and construct PQX = 135.

2. Cut off QR = 6 cm.
3. Make QRY = 120
4. Make QPZ = 75 at M. Mark that point, where RY and PZ meet, as S
We get the required quadrilateral PQRS
61
EXAMPLE
Construct a parallelogram when two consecutive sides and the included angle are given
Construct a parallelogram ABCD with sides AB = 4 cm and AD = 5 cm and angle A = 60.
1. Construct a line segment AB = 4 cm. Construct a 60 angle at point A.

2. Construct a line segment AD = 5 cm on the other arm of the angle. Then, place the sharp point of the compasses at B and make an arc 5 cm
above B.
3. Stretch your compasses to 4 cm, place the sharp end at D and draw an arc to intersect the arc drawn in step 2. Label the intersecting
point C. Join C to D and B to C to form the parallelogram ABCD.
62
EXAMPLE
Construct a parallelogram when two consecutive sides and a diagonal are given
Construct a parallelogram ABCD in which AB = 6 cm, BC = 4.5 cm and diagonal AC = 6.8 cm.
1. Draw AB = 6 cm.
2. With A as centre and radius 6.8 cm, draw an arc.
3. With B as center and radius 4.5 cm draw another arc, cutting the previous arc at C.
4. Join BC and AC.
5. With A as centre and radius 4.5 cm, draw an arc.
6. With C as centre and radius 6 cm draw another arc, cutting the previously drawn arc at D.
7. Join DA and DC.
Then, ABCD is the required parallelogram.
63
EXAMPLE
Construct a parallelogram when one side and two diagonals are given
Construct a parallelogram ABCD in which AB=7cm,AC=10cm,and BD=8cm
1. Construct line segment AB of length 7 cm.

2. From point A, mark an arc taking 5 cm as radius.
3. From point B, mark an arc taking 4 cm as radius. Name the point of intersection as O. Join AO and OB.
4. Extend AO and BO. From O, mark an arc on extended ray AO of radius 5 cm. Name it as C.
5. Similarly mark an arc on extended ray BO of radius 4 cm. Name it as D.
6. Join AD, DC and BC. ABCD is the required parallelogram.
64
EXAMPLE
Construction of a parallelogram given the length of two diagonals and intersecting angles between them
Construct a parallelogram whose diagonals are 4cm and 5cm and the angle between them is = 700700.
First draw a rough diagram of ABCD with AC and BD as diagonals.

1. Mark a point A and draw a line though A
2. From A, draw an arc of radius 4cm to cut the above line at C (AC=4cm)
3. Bisect AC at O (From A and C, draw arcs of radius more than half the length of AC on both sides, Let they cut at X and Y. XY is the
perpendicular bisector of AC. It cuts AC at O)
4. From O, draw a line at an angle 700700 to AC on both sides
5. From O, draw an arc of radius 2.5cm on both sides of AC to cut the above line at B and D. Join AB, BC, CD and DA.
ABCD is the required parallelogram.
65
EXAMPLE
Construction of a parallelogram given the length of adjacent sides and the height of parallelogram
Construct a parallelogram ABCD, with adjacent sides AB=4 cm, BC = 5cm and height corresponding to BC =3.5 cm
1. Mark a point B and draw a line though B

2. From B, draw an arc of radius 5cm to cut the above line at C
3. Draw 2 perpendicular lines XY and PQ on BC at any two points U and T on it.
4. From U and T cut PQ and XY at S and R by an arc of radius 3.5 cm. Join RS.
5. Cut the line RS at A by an arc of radius 4cm from B
6. From A cut the line RS at D by an arc of radius 5cm
ABCD is the required parallelogram.
66
EXAMPLE
Parallelogram when one side , a diagonal and altitude is given
Construct a Parallelogram PQRSPQRS when PQ=3 cmPQ=3 cm , Diagonal PR=4.4 cmPR=4.4 cm and an altitude 2.2 cm2.2 cm
Given:PQ=3 cmPQ=3 cm , Diagonal PR=4.4 cmPR=4.4 cm and an altitude 2.2 cm2.2 cm
Step 1: Draw a line segment PQ=3 cmPQ=3 cm
Step 2: At QQ construct a perpendicular QFQF
Step 3: Cut off 2.5 cm2.5 cm on QFQF and locate point TT; QTQT = 2.2 cm2.2 cm . Draw perpendicular to QFQF at TT
Step 4: With PP as center and radius 4.4 cm4.4 cm, draw an arc to cut the second perpendicular in RR
Step 5: With RR as center and radius = PQPQ draw an arc to cut the line through FF and RR in SS
Step 6: Join PSPS and QRQR
The PQRSPQRS is the required parallelogram
67
DIAGRAM
Construct a rectangle when two adjacent sides are given
1. Draw a side of given length (say) CL

2. Draw side LU (say) of given length perpendicular to CL at L.
3. Draw side CE (say) of length equal to LU and perpendicular to CL at C.
4. Draw side UE.
68
EXAMPLE
Construct a rectangle when one side and one diagonal is given
To Construct a rectangle ABCD in the given sides AB = 4 cm, and diagonal AC = 5 cm.
1. Draw al line segment AB of length 4 cm.

2. At B, draw BE ⊥⊥ AB.
3. With A as centre position and radius 5 cm, draw an arc cutting BE at C.
4. With centre B and radius equal to AC = 5 cm, draw an arc.
5. With centre position C and radius equal to AB = 4 cm, another arc, cutting the previous arc at D.
6. Join AD and CD.Then, ABCD is the required rectangle.
69
EXAMPLE
Construct a rectangle when one diagonal and the angle between the two diagonals are given
When one diagonal AC = 6.4 cm and the angle between the two diagonals are given to be 60o60o.
1. Draw AC = 6.4 cm.

2. Draw the perpendicular bisector of AC and find the mid-point of AC. Let the perpendicular.Bisectors intersect AC at point O.
3. Through O, construct a line POQ so that angle POC = 600600.
4. From OP cut OD equal to OC (i.e. 32cm) and from OQ.Then, ABCD is the required rectangle.
70
EXAMPLE
Construct a rhombus given one side and one angle
Construct a rhombus ABCD in which AB = 6 cm and Angle A = 60o60o
1. Draw line segment AB = 6 cm.

2. Construct Angle BAX = 60o60o.
3. With A as the centre and radius equal to 6 cm , draw an arc on ray AX.
4. Mark the point of intersection as D.
5. With D as the centre and radius equal to 6 cm, draw an arc.
6. With B as the centre and the same radius, draw another arc such that it intersects the previous arc at C.
7. Join points C, D and points C, B.
ABCD is the required rhombus.

71
EXAMPLE
Construct a rhombus given one side and one diagonal
Construct a rhombus ABCD in which AB = 5.4 cm and AC = 7.4 cm
1. Draw line segment AB = 5.4 cm .

2. With B as the centre and radius equal to 5.4 cm , draw an arc.
3. With A as the centre and radius equal to 7.4 cm, draw another arc such that it intersects the previous arc at C.
4. Join points B,C and points A, C.
5. With A as the centre and radius equal to 5.4 cm, draw an arc.
6. With C as the centre and the same radius, draw another arc such that it intersects the previous arc at D.
7. Join points D, A and points D, C.

72
EXAMPLE
Construction of rhombus given two diagonals
Construct a rhombus ABCD in which diagonal AC = 8 cm and diagonal BD = 6.2 cm.
1. Draw line segment AC = 8 cm.

2. Draw the perpendicular bisector of AC.
3. With O as the centre and radius =3.1 cm, mark arcs on both the sides of AC to intersect its perpendicular bisector. Mark the points of
intersection as B and D.
4. Join points A, D, points C, D, points C, B, and points B, A.

73
DIAGRAM
Construct a square when one side is given
1. Draw a line segment AB of given length.
2. Extend the line AB to the right.
3. Set the compasses on B and any convenient width. Draw an arc on each side of B, creating the two points F and G.
4. With the compasses on G and any convenient width, draw an arc above the point B.
5. Without changing the compasses' width, place the compasses on F and draw an arc above B, crossing the previous arc, and creating point H
6. Draw a line from B through H.
7. Set the compasses on A and set its width to AB. This width will be held unchanged as we create the square's other three sides.
8. Draw an arc above point A.
9. Without changing the width, move the compasses to point B. Draw an arc across BH creating point C - a vertex of the square.
10. Without changing the width, move the compasses to C. Draw an arc to the left of C across the exiting arc, creating point D - a vertex of the
square.
11. Draw the lines CD and AD
ABCD is a square where each side has a length AB

74
DIAGRAM
Construct a square when a diagonal is given
1. Construct a line AC as a given diagonal of the square.

2. Construct M as a midpoint of the diagonal AC.
3. Construct the perpendicular line at M.
4. Construct a circle centered at M and has a radius MC.
5. Name the intersection points between the circle and the perpendicular line at M as B and D.
6. Join up the four points A, B, C and D to get the required square.
75
EXAMPLE
Construction of a trapezium of which all the four sides are given and the parallel sides are marked.
Construct a trapezium in which AB = 6 cm, BC = CD = 4 cm and DA = 5 cm. Also, AB || CD.
1. Draw line segment AB = 6 cm.

2. Mark a point E on AB such that AE = DC = 4 cm.
3. Draw an arc with E as the centre and radius 5 cm.
4. Draw another arc with B as the centre and radius 4 cm, cutting the previous arc at C.
5. Draw an arc with C as the centre and radius 4 cm.
6. Draw another arc with A as the centre and radius 5 cm, cutting the previous arc at D.
7. Join points B and C, points C and D and points D and A.
ABCD is the required trapezium.

76
EXAMPLE
Construct a trapezium when two sides and two angles are given
Construct a trapezium ABCD in which AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB¯ is parallel to DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯DC¯ , AB = 7 cm, BC = 6 cm

, ∠BAD=80o∠BAD=80o and ∠ABC=70o∠ABC=70o
Given:AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB¯ is parallel to DC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯DC¯,AB = 7 cm, BC = 6 cm
, ∠BAD=80o∠BAD=80o and ∠ABC=70o∠ABC=70o
Step 1: Draw a line segment AB=7 cmAB=7 cm
Step 2: On AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯atAB¯atAmakemake\ angle BAX = 80ôStep3:OnStep3:On\overline {AB}
at bb make angleABY=70o angleABY=70o
Step 4: With BB as centre abd radius 6 cm6 cm draw an arc cutting BY→BY→ at CC
Step 5: Draw CZ→CZ→ is paralllel to AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB¯. This cuts AX→AX→ at DD
ABCDABCD is the required trapezium
77
EXAMPLE
Construct trapezium when three sides and one angle is given
Construct a trapezium PQRS in which PQ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯PQ¯ is parallel to SR¯¯¯¯¯¯¯SR¯, PQ = 8 cm , ∠PQR=70o∠PQR=70o , QR = 6 cm

and PS = 6 cm
Given:PQ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯PQ¯ is parallel to SR¯¯¯¯¯¯¯SR¯,PQ = 8 cm , ∠PQR=70o∠PQR=70o , QR = 6 cm and PS = 6 cm
Step 1: Draw a line segment PQ = 8 cm
Step 2: At Q on PQ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯PQ¯ make ∠PQX∠PQX whose measure is 70o70o
Step 3: With Q as centre and 6 cm as radius draw an arc. This cuts QX→QX→ ar R
Step 4: Draw RY→RY→ parallel to QP¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯QP¯
Step 5: WIth P as center abd radius 6 cm draw an arc cutting RY→RY→ at S
Join PS¯¯¯¯¯¯¯PS¯ , PQRS is the required trapezium
78
EXAMPLE
Trapezium when three sides and one diagonal is given
Construct a trapezium ABCE in which AB¯AB¯ is parallel

to DC¯DC¯, AB=10 cmAB=10 cm ,BC= 5cmBC= 5cm, AC=8 cmAC=8 cm and CD=6 cmCD=6 cm
Sol: Given:AB¯AB¯ is parallel to DC¯DC¯, AB=10 cmAB=10 cm ,BC=5cmBC=5cm, AC=8 cmAC=8 cm and CD=6 cmCD=6 cm
Step 1:Draw a line segment AB=10 cmAB=10 cm
Step 2: With AA and BB as centers draw arcs of radii 8 cm8 cm and 5 cm5 cm respectively and let them cut at CC
Step 3: Join AC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AC¯ parallel to BA¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯BA¯
Step 4: With CC as center and radius 6 cm6 cm draw an arc cutting CX→CX→ at DD
Step 5: Join AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AD¯ ABCD is the required trapezium
79
DEFINITION
Dimension
It is a measure of length in one direction.
Example : length, breadth, width etc
Rectangle has 2 dimensions.
80
DEFINITION
2D Figures
2D Figures are figures that can be laid flat on a piece of paper or on any mathematical plane, having a minimum or negligible thickness (height).
81
DEFINITION
3D Figures
3D Figures have three dimensions length, breadth and depth.
82
DIAGRAM
Different Views of 3D Shapes
There are different views of 3D shapes such as top view and side view.
For example, the top view of a cylinder will be a circle but its side view will be a rectangle.
83
DEFINITION
Prism and types of prisms
There are two major types of prisms. They are,
 Regular Prism
 Irregular Prism
A prism with regular polygon bases is called as regular prism. The height of a regular prism is the distance between the bases.
The bases of irregular prisms are irregular polygons and the faces are not equally sized.
84
DEFINITION
Properties of prisms
Rectangular prism:
A rectangular prism is a 3-dimensional object, which has as many as six faces. It is a solid material and all the faces are rectangular.
Triangular prism;
Two triangular bases and three rectangular sides make a triangular prism
Right Prisms:
The lateral faces of the right prisms are rectangle or squares.
85
DEFINITION
Prism
A prism is a solid object with:
 identical ends
 flat faces
 and the same cross section all along its length !
86
RESULT
Properties of pyramids
1. Pyramids are solid figures.
2. Base of a pyramid is a polygon
3. Lateral faces are always triangle
4. The perpendicular drawn from the vertex of the pyramid to the edge of the base is called slant height of the pyramid.
5.The perpendicular distance between the base and the vertex of the pyramid is called the height of the pyramid.
6.Length of the slant height is more than the height of the pyramid.
87
DEFINITION
Euler Formula of Polyhedron
V−E+F=2V−E+F=2
where, V =Number of Vertices
E= Number of Edges
F =Number of Faces.
88
EXAMPLE
Net diagrams
Net diagram is a 22-dimensional plane figure which can be folded to form a 33-dimensional figure. Or we can say net diagrams are the figures
which obtained by unfolding some 3D figures.
For example,
A cube can be unfolded into several ways or we can open the cube in different ways which forms different shapes. And the unfolded figures will
become net for cube.
Hence, net diagrams form a 3D figure.
89
DEFINITION
Scaling of models
If a map is scaled to an m:1m:1 model, the length of components in the map changes to 1m1m times in the model.
Example: For a 5:15:1 model, a length of 10 m10 m in the map will be 10×15=2 m10×15=2 m in the model.
SYMMETRY,REFLECTION AND ROTATION
01
DEFINITION
Concept of Symmetry
Symmetry: When one Shape become exactly like other after turning, sliding and flipping it.
Symmetry is of three types: Linear Symmetry, Point Symmetry and Rotational Symmetry.
02
DEFINITION
Properties of Linear Symmetry
1. A line of symmetry divides a figure in half.

2. the two such figures formed are laterally similar.
3. The distance of any point of a figure from line of symmetry is same as the distance of a point on other side.
03
EXAMPLE
Creating Symmetrical Figures
Start with a point on the line of symmetry and draw the same thing on the other side.
1. Make a horizontal line
2. Make a vertical line
3. Make a horizontal line
4. Make a diagonal line
Figure A is the original drawing and figure B was drawn to be a symmetrical or identical part.
04
EXAMPLE
Problems on symmetry
Q: Find the number of lines of symmetry of the grid shown below:
Ans: 44
05
DEFINITION
Linear Symmetry
It is type of symmetry in which a line is drawn from the middle of the figure.
If the two parts of the figure are similar to each other then the one is called the mirror image of the other, and the figure is said to have linear
symmetry.
06
EXAMPLE
Lines of symmetry in miscellaneous figures
Look at the lines of symmetry on the following figures.

There are different types of figures can have different numbers of lines of symmetry.
07
DEFINITION
Line of Symmetry
Line which divides a figure into two symmetrical figures, then that line is known as Line of Symmetry.
08
DEFINITION
Identification of Line of Symmetry in Line Segment
In a Line Segment, Line of Symmetry is a perpendicular bisector and it divide the Line Segment into two equal parts.
09
DEFINITION
Line of Symmetry of an Angle
Line of Symmetry divides Angle into two equal angles i.e. it bisects the given angle.
10
DEFINITION
Line of Symmetry in an Isosceles Triangle
In an Isosceles Triangle, Line of Symmetry bisects the angle enclosed by two equal sides and divides side opposite to that angle into equal parts.
11
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in an Equilateral Triangles
In an Equilateral Triangle, there are 33 Lines of Symmetry along the Medians.
12
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in a Scalene Triangle
There is No Lines of Symmetry in a Scalene Triangle because all sides are different.
13
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in a Kite Shaped Figure and an Arrow Head
Only one Line of Symmetry exists for Kite Shaped Figure and an Arrow Head, which passes from their tip to back.
14
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in a Rectangle and a Rhombus
In Rectangle, there are Two Lines of Symmetry.
In Rhombus, there are Two Lines of Symmetry
15
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in a Regular Polygon
Lines of Symmetry in a Regular Polygon is equal to number of sides of Polygon, since in Regular Polygon all sides are Equal.
16
DEFINITION
Lines of symmetry of letters in english alphabet
Some Letters in English Alphabets have only one Line of Symmetry
Example: A B C D E K M T U V W Y
Some Letters in English Alphabets have two Lines of Symmetry, Horizontal and Vertical.
Example: H I X
Some Letters in English Alphabets have no Line of Symmetry
Example: F G J L N P Q R S Z
While letter "O" has infinite line of symmetry.
17
DEFINITION
Lines of Symmetry in a Circle
In Circles, Lines of Symmetry are infinite and lies along the Diameter.
18
FORMULA
Image of a point with respect to a line
Method to find the image of a point with respect to a line:
1. The given point is (p,q,r)(p,q,r) and the given line is x−x1a=y−y1b=z−z1cx−x1a=y−y1b=z−z1c.
2. Assume the foot of perpendicular be L. As it lies on the line, its
coordinate will be (x1+aλ,y1+bλ,z1+cλ)(x1+aλ,y1+bλ,z1+cλ)
3. Direction ratios of PL will be (x1+aλ−p,y1+bλ−q,z1+cλ−r)(x1+aλ−p,y1+bλ−q,z1+cλ−r)
4. PL is perpendicular to AB. So,
a(x1+aλ−p)+b(y1+bλ−q)+c(z1+cλ−r)=0a(x1+aλ−p)+b(y1+bλ−q)+c(z1+cλ−r)=0
Get λλ from here
5. Put the value of λλ in
(x1+aλ,y1+bλ,z1+cλ)(x1+aλ,y1+bλ,z1+cλ), and get the coordinate of
foot of perpendicular.
6.Now let the image of point P be point Q(α,β,γ)Q(α,β,γ)
7. Then L is basically the mid point of PQ.
8. Hence, α+p2=x1+aλα+p2=x1+aλ
β+q2=y1+aλβ+q2=y1+aλ
γ+r2=z1+aλγ+r2=z1+aλ
Get the image Q(α,β,γ)Q(α,β,γ) from above equation
19
DEFINITION
Locus
A locus of a moving point is the path traced out by that point under one or more given conditions.
For eg.
Locus of a point moving in a plane from a fixed point at a fixed distance is called a circle.
20
EXAMPLE
Problems based on locus
The equation of the locus of the points equidistant from the points A(-2,3) and B(6, -5) is ?
Let an arbitrary point be P (x,y),(x,y),
Then it is given that
PA=PBPA=PB
Or
PA2=PB2PA2=PB2
(x+2)2+(y−3)2=(x−6)2+(y+5)2(x+2)2+(y−3)2=(x−6)2+(y+5)2
(x+2)2−(x−6)2=(y+5)2−(y−3)2(x+2)2−(x−6)2=(y+5)2−(y−3)2
(2x−4)(8)=(2y+2)(8)(2x−4)(8)=(2y+2)(8)
2x−4=2y+22x−4=2y+2
x−2=y+1x−2=y+1
x=y+3x=y+3
Or
x−y=3x−y=3
21
FORMULA
Rotation of Point through 180 Degree about the Origin
Rotation of a point through 18001800 about the origin:
When a point A(h,k)A(h,k) is rotated about the origin OO through 18001800 in anticlockwise or clockwise direction, it takes the new
position B(−h,−k)B(−h,−k).
22
DEFINITION
Clockwise Rotation
Rotation of point through 90 about the origin
in clockwise direction when point M (h, k) is rotated about the origin O
through 90 in clockwise direction. The new position of point M (h, k) will
become M (k, -h).
Find the
co-ordinates of the point P (5, 7) obtained on rotating the point given below through
90 about the origin in clockwise direction.
When rotated through 90 about the origin in clockwise
direction, the new position of the above point is P' (7,
-5)
23
RESULT
Anticlockwise rotation
Rotation of point through 90 about the origin in anticlockwise direction when point M (h, k) is rotated about the origin O
through 90 in anticlockwise direction. The new position of point M (h, k) will become M' (-k, h).
Find the new position of the A (2, 3) point when
rotated through 90 anticlockwise about the origin.

solution:
When rotated through 90 about the origin in anticlockwise
direction. The new position of the above point is:The new position of point A (2, 3) will become A' (-3,2)
24
DEFINITION
Rotation
To move around a central point or Axis is called Rotation.
25
EXAMPLE
Rotation of axes
When the axes is rotated by an angle θθ in anticlockwise direction, the points (x,y)(x,y) become (X,Y).(X,Y).
X=(xcosθ+ysinθ)X=(xcos⁡θ+ysin⁡θ) and and Y=(−xsinθ+ycosθ)Y=(−xsin⁡θ+ycos⁡θ).
26
LAW
Transforming equations
Equations can be transformed by two methods:
1) Shift of origin method
Here, the coordinates of the new origin (h,k)(h,k) and the equation of the curve will be given.
Steps:
Replace xx with (x+h)(x+h) and yy with (y+k)(y+k).
Solve to get the resultant equation.
2) Rotation of axes method

When the axes is rotated by an angle θθ in anticlockwise direction, the points (x,y)(x,y) become (X,Y).(X,Y).
X=(xcosθ+ysinθ)X=(xcos⁡θ+ysin⁡θ) and and Y=(−xsinθ+ycosθ)Y=(−xsin⁡θ+ycos⁡θ).
27
EXAMPLE
Real Life examples
Seema has total of Rs 4848. She has to purchase either orange and apple. The price of a apple and an orange are Rs33 and Rs44 respectively. So
her purchasing capacity depends on 3x+4y=483x+4y=48 where xx and yy are quantities of apple and orange.
28
DEFINITION
Pyramid
A pyramid is a solid figure with a polygonal base abs the triangular lateral faces. These lateral faces converge at a point called the vertex of a
pyramid
29
EXAMPLE
Reflection of figure
When the figure reflects vertically, the vertical points remains same whereas horizontal points changes.
In the above figure, only x-coordinates will change whereas y-coordinates remains constant.
So, the figure on left side is the reflection of the figure given on right side.
Similarly, if the figure reflects horizontally, the vertical points will change whereas the horizontal points will remain unchanged.
MENSURATION
01
LAW
Units to find area
If length is measured in cm.cm. the corresponding area is measured in cm2cm2.
To convert m2m2 into cm2cm2
1m2=cm×cm=.100cm×100cm=10,000cm21m2=cm×cm=.100cm×100cm=10,000cm2
and
1cm2=cm×cm=.01m×.01m=.0001m21cm2=cm×cm=.01m×.01m=.0001m2
02
DEFINITION
Area
Area is the measurement of a surface or a piece of a land.
03
DEFINITION
Perimeter
A perimeter is a boundary of two dimensional shape.
04
FORMULA
Perimeter of Rectangle
Perimeter of Rectangle =2(l+w)=2(l+w)
where ,l=l= length of rectangle
w=w= width of rectangle
05
DEFINITION
Perimeter of a Triangle
Perimeter of a triangle is the sum of the length of its sides.
06
FORMULA
Perimeter of Square
Perimeter of square =4a=4a
where a=a= side of the square
07
FORMULA
Perimeter of Rhombus
Perimeter of Rhombus =4a=4a
aa is the side of rhombus.
08
DIAGRAM
area of figure using grid
Area of the given figure is 33 units.

09
DEFINITION
Length of Diagonal in Rectangle
Length =a=a
Breadth =b=b
Length of Diagonal =a2+b2−−−−−−√=a2+b2
10
FORMULA
Length of Diagonal in Square
Length of the diagonal =2√a=2a
11
DEFINITION
Concentric circles
Circles with common centres are called concentric circles.

Here, C1,C2,C3,C4C1,C2,C3,C4 are called concentric circles.
12
FORMULA
Circumference of Circle
Circumference of circle =2πr=2πr
where , r=r= radius of the circle.
13
FORMULA
Area and Circumference of Circular Ring
Circumference of Circular ring =2πr1=2πr1
r1r1 is the outer radius.
Area of Circular ring =π((r2)2−(r1)2)=π((r2)2−(r1)2)
r1r1 is the inner radius
r2r2 is the outer radius.
14
FORMULA
Area of Circle
Area of Circle =πr2=πr2
where , r=r= radius of the circle.
15
DEFINITION
Intercepted arc
When two straight lines intersect a circle, the part of the circle between the intersection points is called the intercepted arc.
16
LAW
Angle in a semicircle
Angle in a semicircle is 90o.90o.

Since angle subtended by semicircle at a point on the circumference is half of the angle subtended by semicircle at the centre.
17
FORMULA
Area of Sector
Area of Sector =θ360×πr2=θ360×πr2
θθ is in degrees.
18
FORMULA
Area of Square
Area of Square =a2=a2
where , a=a= side of the square.
19
EXAMPLE
Problems on area and perimeter
A rectangular garden of length 100100 m and width 9090 m is being reconstructed by expanding every side by 22 m. Then, calculate the area
and perimeter of reconstructed garden.
Solution:-
Length of the garden =100=100 m
Breadth of the garden =90=90 m
New length of the garden =100+2=102=100+2=102 m
New breadth of the garden =90+2=92=90+2=92 m
Area of rectangle =Length×Breadth=Length×Breadth
Perimeter of rectangle =2(Length+Breadth)=2(Length+Breadth)
∴∴ Area of new garden =102×92=9384 m2=102×92=9384 m2
Perimeter of new garden =2(102+92)=388 m=2(102+92)=388 m
20
EXAMPLE
Combination of Plane Figures
Plane figures are formed by the collection of points on a plane.

Problems on combination of plane figures can be solved by solving each figure separately.
Let's take an example of finding area of combination of plane figures
Example:
Find the area of the flower bed (with semi-circular ends) shown in the figure.
Solution:-
Observing the figure, we get to know that It contains one rectangle of dimensions
3838 cm ×10×10 cm and two semi-circles of diameters 1010 cm.
Area of Figure == Area of Rectangle +2×+2×Area of Semicircle
Area of Rectangle =38×10=380 cm2=38×10=380 cm2
Area of Semi-Circle =π×522=252π cm2=π×522=252π cm2
Area of figure =380+2×252π=(380+25π) cm2
AREA
01
FORMULA
Area of Trapezium
Area of trapezium =12×=12× sum of parallel sides ×× height
=12=12 ×× (a+b)×h(a+b)×h
02
FORMULA
Area of Parallelogram
Area of Parallelogram =Base×Height=Base×Height
=b×h=b×h
03
FORMULA
Area of Rhombus
Area of Rhombus =12×d1×d2=12×d1×d2
where d1d1 and d2d2 are diagonals of the rhombus.
04
FORMULA
Area of Rectangle
Area of Rectangle =l×w=l×w
l=l= length of rectangle
w=w=width of rectangle
05
DEFINITION
Area of Polygon
For Regular Polygons
Area =12×=12× (Perimeter) ×× bb
b=b=length of perpendicular from centre to the one side.
06
FORMULA
Area of Polygon
Area of polygon whose vertices are (x1,y1),(x2,y2),(x3,y3),.......,(xn,yn)(x1,y1),(x2,y2),(x3,y3),.......,(xn,yn) is
12[∣∣∣x1x2y1y2∣∣∣+∣∣∣x2x3y2y3∣∣∣+......+∣∣∣xnx1yny1∣∣∣]12[|x1y1x2y2|+|x2y2x3y3|+......+|xnynx1y1|]
07
EXAMPLE
Area of Polygon
The area of △ABC△ABC is 2020 cm22. The coordinates of vertex AA are (−5,0)(−5,0) and those of BB are (3,0)(3,0). The vertex CC lies
on the line x−y=2x−y=2. Find the coordinates of CC.
Let any point on the line x−y=2x−y=2 be C≡(h,h−2)C≡(h,h−2). Given area of ΔABCΔABC is
∣∣∣∣12∣∣∣∣h−53h−200111∣∣∣∣∣∣∣∣=20|12|hh−21−501301||=20
⇒|−8(h−2)|=40⇒|−8(h−2)|=40
⇒h−2=±5⇒h−2=±5
⇒h=7,−3⇒h=7,−3
Hence, the points are (7,5)(7,5) and (−3,−5)(−3,−5).
CIRCLES
01
DEFINITION
Centre of a circle
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that it is
always at a constant distance from a fixed point in the plane. The fixed
point is called the centre.

02
DEFINITION
Radius of a circle
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that it is
always at a constant distance from a fixed point in the plane. The constant distance is called radius
of the circle.
03
DEFINITION
Circumference
The circumference of a circle is the distance around it. And it is equal to 2πR2πR
04
DEFINITION
Equal circles
Two circles with equal radius are called equal circles.

05
LAW
Congruent chords and the angle subtended at the centre
Equal chords subtended equal angles at the centre.

06
LAW
Relation between perpendicular dropped from center to the chord
OMOM is the distance of the chord from the centre.

ABAB is the length of chord.
The perpendicular from the centre to the chord bisects the chord.
So, AM=MB.AM=MB.
07
LAW
Angles subtended by arc at center and subtended by arc at a point on circle
 The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle subtended by it at any point on the circle.
 Angles subtended by an arc at all points within the same segment of the circle are equal.
08
EXAMPLE
Chords of Circle
lf one of the diameters of the circle x2+y2−2x−6y−6=0x2+y2−2x−6y−6=0 is a chord to the circle with centre ((2,1 )) , then find the radius of
the circle .
Given circle x2+y2−2x−6y−6=0x2+y2−2x−6y−6=0
Centre C1C1 at (1,3)(1,3)
and radius r1=1+9+6−−−−−−−√=4r1=1+9+6=4
Given, center C2C2 at (2,1)(2,1)

C1C2=5√C1C2=5
Now, r22=4+5=9r22=4+5=9
⇒r2=3⇒r2=3
09
DEFINITION
Diameter of a circle
A diameter is a chord that passes through the center.
10
DEFINITION
Chord definition
A chord of a circle is a straight line segment whose endpoints both lie on the circle.
11
DEFINITION
Point of Tangent
Point of contact refers to the location where two different lines or curves or angles meet.
In case of Tangents, the point on circle at which tangent is drawn to a circle, is known as point of tangency.
12
DEFINITION
Secant of a circle
A line that intersects a circle at two points.

13
DEFINITION
Tangent and point of contact
Tangent : A straight line that touches the circle at one point.

Point of contact : The point at which the tangent touches the circle.
TT is the point of contact.
14
SHORTCUT
Number of tangents to a circle from a given point
Case 1 : When a point is inside the circle no tangent can be drawn from that point.
Case 2 : When a point is on the circle, only one tangent can be from that point.
Case 3 : When a point is outside the circle two tangents can be drawn from that point.
15
LAW
Properties on tangents
 Tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.

 The length of tangent to a circle from an external point are equal.
 The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to the inscribed angle on the opposite side of the chord.
16
DEFINITION
Theorem on chords in a circle intersecting internally and externally
If two chords ABAB abd CDCD of a circle intersect inside or outside the circle, then PA.PB=PC.PD.PA.PB=PC.PD.
17
LAW
Theorem on chord and tangent of a circle intersecting externally
If PABPAB is a secant to a circle intersecting it at AA and BB and PTPT is a tangent then PA.PB=PT2.PA.PB=PT2.
18
DEFINITION
Tangent secant theorem
Tangent PS and a secant PR are drawn to a given circle from a point P outside the circle, then
PS2=PR×PQPS2=PR×PQ
19
DEFINITION
Secant theorem
When two secant lines intersect each other outside a circle, the product of their segments are equal.
20
EXAMPLE
Solve problems involving tangents drawn from a point to a circle
PAPA and PBPB are tangents drawn from P(2,3)P(2,3) to the circle x2+y2+4x+2y+1=0x2+y2+4x+2y+1=0. lf CC is the centre of the
circle and PACBPACB is a cyclic quadrilateral then the circumcentre of the ΔPABΔPAB is...
Solution:
Given Quadrilateral PACB is cyclic. i.e. P,A,C and B are lie on a one circle.
Circle passing C, through points ΔΔ, A and B also passes through point c, because PACB is cyclic quadrilateral.
By ΔΔ PAC, <PAC=900<PAC=900
Then point P (2,3) and C (-2,-1) are extremities of diameter of circle passing through P,A,B. So, centre of circle is mid-point of P and C.
∴center=(0,22)∴center=(0,22)
=(0,1)=(0,1)
21
DIAGRAM
Construct a line segment of given length
1)Take measure on scale.

2)mark this two points on the paper as A and B.
3)Join AB.
22
DIAGRAM
To draw a circle of given radius
The rounder is used to draw circle of given radius,

23
EXAMPLE
Construct tangent using the centre of the circle
1. Draw the circle with centre O.
2. Draw any line OP and extend it.
3. Taking P as centre, draw two arc to cut the line OP at Q and R.
4. Now draw the perpendicular bisector of QR to get the tangent PS.
24
EXAMPLE
Construct tangent without using the centre of the circle
1. Draw a circle.
2. take any point P on the circle. and draw a triangle PQR such that al points P, Q and R lie on circle.
3. Draw a line PX such that ∠QPX=∠QRP∠QPX=∠QRP.
4. Now extend the line PX to get the tangent.
25
SHORTCUT
Construct tangents to a given circle
To draw a tangent from a given point A:
 Construct a line joining the point to the centre of the circle O.

 Draw the perpendicular bisector of that line.
 By placing the compass at the midpoint D of perpendicular bisector, measure length equal to the distance between centre and midpoint and
draw arc passing through circle intersecting the circle at two points.
 These two points B and C where the arc intersects the circle will be the point of contact of tangent.
 Join points B and A and points C and A.
26
EXAMPLE
Construction to tangent to a circle by tangent- chord Theorem
Draw a circle of radius 3.2 cm3.2 cm. At a point PP on it, draw a tangent to the circle using the tangent - chord theorem.
Given: The radius of the circle is 3.2 cm3.2 cm
Step 1: With OO as the centre, draw a circle of radius 3.2 cm3.2 cm
Step 2: Take a point PP on the circle
Step 3: Through PP , draw any chord PQPQ
Step 4: Mark a point RR distinct from PP and QQ on the circle so that PP and QQ and RR are in counter clock wise direction
Step 5: Join PRPR and QRQR
Step 6: At PP, construct ∠QPT∠QPT =∠PRQ∠PRQ
Step 7: Produce TPTP to T′T′ to get the required tangent T′PTT′PT
27
DEFINITION
Number of measurements to construct different polygons
We need to know at least 33 independent quantities in order to construct a triangle.
We need to know at least 55 independent quantities in order to construct a quadrilateral.
28
DIAGRAM
Construct regular hexagon given its side
Start with a line segment AF = side length. Because we are constructing a regular hexagon, the other five sides will have the same length.
1. Set the compasses' point on A, and set its width to F.

2. From points A and F, draw two arcs so that they intersect. Mark this as point O. This is the centre of the hexagon's circumcircle.
3. Move the compasses to O and draw a circle.
4. Move the compasses on to A and draw an arc across the circle. This is the next vertex of the hexagon.
5. Move the compasses to this arc and draw an arc across the circle to create the next vertex.
6. Continue in this way until you have all six vertices.
7. Draw a line between each successive pairs of vertices.
These lines form a regular hexagon where each side is equal in length to AF.
29
SHORTCUT
Construct circles circumscribing and inscribing a regular hexagon
 Draw a circle with centre O. Mark a point A on the circumference.

 Join OA , OA is the radius of circle.
 By putting the sharp end of the compass at point A, measure OA.
 Now, draw an arc intersecting circumference at point B such that OA = AB.
 Similarly, mark other end points of hexagon. A, B , C, D, E and F are the end points of hexagon.
30
EXAMPLE
Three sides and one diagonal of a cyclic quadrilateral are given
Construct a cyclic quadrilateral ABCDABCD in which AB = 6 cm , AC= 7 cm , BC = 6 cm and AD = 4.2 cm

Given:
ABCDABCD in which AB = 6 cm , AC= 7 cm , BC = 6 cm and AD = 4.2 cm
Step 1: Draw a line segment AB = 6 cm
Step 2: With A and B as centers, draw arcs with radii 7 cm and 6 cm respectively, to intersect at C. Join AC and BC
Step 3: Draw perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC to intersect at O
Step 4: With O as center and OA(OA= OB = OC) as radius draw a circumcircle off △ABC△ABC
Step 5: With A as center and radius 4.2 cm, draw an arc intersecting the circumcircle at D
Step 6 Join AD and CD
Then ABCD is the cyclic Quadrilateral
31
DEFINITION
Circumscribed circle and inscribed polygon
Inscribed represents the inside shape and the circumscribed represents the outside shape.
In the figure, the pentagon ABCDEABCDE is inscribed in the circle and the circle is circumscribed around the pentagon.
32
DEFINITION
Inscribed circle and circumscribed polygon
In the figure, the pentagon is circumscribed around the circle, and the circle is inscribed in the pentagon.
33
LAW
Properties of cyclic quadraliteral
Sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180o.180o.

34
DEFINITION
Cyclic Polygon
A cyclic polygon which has circumscribed circle is called cyclic polygon.
35
FORMULA
Area of quadrilateral
Let ABCDABCD be any quadrilateral where AB=a BC=b ,CD=c, DA=d.AB=a BC=b ,CD=c, DA=d. The
diagonalACAC andBDBD intersect at PP. And ∠DPA=α∠DPA=α
Then, Area of quadrilateralABCDABCD
=(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)(s−d)−abcdcos2α−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)(s−d)−abcdcos2⁡α
where 2α=A+C2α=A+C
36
FORMULA
Area of cyclic quadrilateral
Let ABCDABCD be any cyclic quadrilateral where AB=a, BC=b ,CD=c, DA=d.AB=a, BC=b ,CD=c, DA=d.
Then, Area of cyclic quadrilateral ABCDABCD
=(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)(s−d)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)(s−d)
37
DEFINITION
Arc
A part of the circumference of the circle.
38
DEFINITION
Major and minor arc
Two points lying on a circle divide the circumference into two arcs.
The shorter arc is called the 'minor arc.'
The longer arc is called the 'major arc.'
39
DEFINITION
Diameter and semi-circle
A diameter is a chord that passes through the centre point of the circle.
Line DOEDOE is the diameter.
A semicircle is a half circle formed by cutting a circle along the diameter.
The part of circle DSEODSEO is the semi-circle.
40
DEFINITION
Sector of circle
A part of the circle formed in interior of circle when two radii are drawn from its center.
41
DEFINITION
Segment
The two parts formed in the interior of circle when a chord or secant is drawn in it.
42
LAW
Relation between angle subtend at center and at any point on circle
Angle subtend by arc at center is twice the angle subtend by arc at any point on circle.
43
DEFINITION
Central Angle
A central angle is an angle with endpoints located on the circumference and vertex located at the center.
Here, θθ is the central angle.
SETS,RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
01
DEFINITION
History of sets, relations and functions
Theory of sets was developed by mathematician Georg Cantor.
02
DEFINITION
Sets and example
Collection of well defined objects.
Sets are represented by capital letters A,BA,B and C.C.
For example : A={1,2,3,4}A={1,2,3,4}
03
DEFINITION
Elements of a set
Individual object present in the set.
If aa is an element of set AA, then we say a∈Aa∈A.
For example : In set A={1,2,3,4},A={1,2,3,4}, 1,2,31,2,3 and 44 are the elements.
04
DEFINITION
Cardinal number of a set
Number of elements in a finite set is called its cardinal number.
Example:
The set {36,21,34,45}{36,21,34,45} has four distinct elements, so the cardinal number is 44.
05
DEFINITION
Roster form
This is also known as Listing Method.
For the numbers 543764,543764,
The set of digits in the number is represented as {5,4,3,7,6}{5,4,3,7,6}.
06
DEFINITION
Representation of Sets in Roster Form
We know that a Set is Collection of well-defined objects.
This collection can be represented in two forms
1. Roster Form
2 .Set Builder Form.
In Roster Method, a set is described by listing elements, separated by commas,
within curly brackets { }
Example:
 Set A is a set of all natural numbers ,this can be represented in Roster form as
A={1,2,3,4......}={1,2,3,4......}
 Set B is a set of all vowels,this can be represented in Roster form as
B={a,e,i,o,u}={a,e,i,o,u}
07
DEFINITION
Set builder form
All the elements have a unique property which is used to represent them.
For the set A={1,4,9,16,25}A={1,4,9,16,25},
AA can be represented as A={a|a=n2,1≤n≤5}A={a|a=n2,1≤n≤5}
08
DEFINITION
Representation of Sets in Set Builder form
Lets consider a set of Natural numbers greater than 11 but less than 55.
We can represent such a set in Roster (listing) form as
A={2,3,4}A={2,3,4}.
Now, consider a set of Real Numbers greater than 11 but less than 55.Lets call it Set BB.
Real numbers include decimal numbers along with integers.
Hence,it is not possible for us to come up with a list of real numbers between 11 and 55.
Hence, we cant use roster method.
In such a case we make use of Set Builder method.
In this method we take a variable xx and state a RULE which the variable xx has to follow.
Thus, we can represent set BB as,
B={x:xϵR,1<x<5}B={x:xϵR,1<x<5}
Here, xx is defined as real number,which follows a rule 1<x<51<x<5
09
DEFINITION
Finite set
The process of counting elements in this case comes to end at a certain point.
Example :
(i) {10,20,30,40}{10,20,30,40}
(ii) {a|a{a|a is the number of continents in the world }}
10
DEFINITION
Finite Sets.
A set is called as a finite set if either it has no elements at all or elements can be listed(counted,labelled) by natural numbers 1,2,3....and the
process of listing ends at a certain natural number n(say).
Examples
1. A={1,5,6,3}A={1,5,6,3}
2. A=A={All vowels in English alphabets}
11
DEFINITION
Infinite set
The process of counting elements does not come to end at any point.
Example :
(i) {1,4,9,16....}{1,4,9,16....}
(ii) {x|x{x|x is a composite number }}
12
DEFINITION
Equivalent sets
Equivalent set is a set with an equal number of elements. These sets do not need to have the same exact elements.
Example :
A={1,2,3}A={1,2,3}
B={Monday,Tuesday,Wednesday}B={Monday,Tuesday,Wednesday}
13
DEFINITION
Disjoint sets
Sets that have no element in common.
Example :
A={1,4,8}A={1,4,8}
B={5,6}B={5,6}
A∩B={ϕ}A∩B={ϕ}.
14
SHORTCUT
Conditions for naming of sets
Sets can be represented in two ways :
Set builder form and Roster form
Roster form is used to describe small set.
If the number of elements in a set is large, it can be denoted using set builder form.
15
DEFINITION
Singleton set
This set has only one element.
Example :
(i) {5}{5}
(ii) {x|x−3=0}{x|x−3=0}
16
DEFINITION
Empty or Null Set
This set has no element.
It is denoted by ϕϕ.
Example :
(i) {{ }}
(ii) {a|a{a|a is prime number between 88 and 10}10}
17
DIAGRAM
Null Set
A Null set is a set having no element.
It is denoted as { } or ϕϕ
Examples
 A={x:xϵN,X<1}A={x:xϵN,X<1}
 B=B={x:x is a capital of India \}$$
18
DEFINITION
Problem on types of sets
Let G={x|xG={x|x is boy of your class}} and H={y|yH={y|y is a girl of your class}}. What type of sets G and H are finite or infinte?
Since the number of boys and girls in a class are always finite.
Therefore, set G and H are finite sets.
19
DEFINITION
Defination of a Subset
Let AA and BB be two sets.
BB is called a subset of AA,
If every element of set BB is also an element of set AA.
It is denoted as B⊂−AB⊂_A
Lets consider two sets AA and BB.
A={1,2,3,4,5,6}A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B={2,3,4}B={2,3,4}
In the above example,set BB contains elements 2,3,42,3,4.
Now,these elements are also a part of Set AA
Hence, we conclude that BB is a Subset of AA.
Note: Every set is a subset of itself , A⊂−AA⊂_A
20
DEFINITION
Super set
For two sets AA and B,B, if BB is a subset of A,A, then AA is a superset of B.B. It is represented by A⊇BA⊇B
If AA is a proper superset of B,B, then it is represented by A⊃B.A⊃B.
21
DEFINITION
Equal sets
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B
and if every element of B is also an element of A, then the sets A and B
are said to be equal. Clearly, the two sets have exactly the same
elements.
Example
If,F=20,60,80F=20,60,80
And,G=80,60,20G=80,60,20
Then, F=GF=G, that is both sets are equal.
22
DEFINITION
Universal set
It is non-empty set which contains all the sets under consideration including itself.
It is denoted by UU.
Example :
A=A= set of all people in India
B=B= set of all people in USA
U=U= set of all people in the world
A⊂UA⊂U, B⊂UB⊂U
Here U is Universal set
23
FORMULA
Number of Subsets
If
a set contains nn elements, then the number of subsets of the set is 2n2n
If
a set contains nn elements, then the number of proper subsets of the set is 2n−12n−1..
24
EXAMPLE
Subsets and proper subset
If A=1,3,5A=1,3,5, then write all the possible subsets of AA. Find their numbers.
Solution:
The subset of A containing no elements - { }

The subset of A containing one element each - {1} {3} {5}
The subset of A containing two elements each - {1, 3} {1, 5} {3, 5}
The subset of A containing three elements - {1, 3, 5)Therefore, all possible subsets of A are { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}, {1, 3, 5}
Therefore, number of all possible subsets of A is 8 which is equal 2323
Proper subsets are = { }, {1}, {3}, {5}, {1,3}, {3, 5}
Number of proper subsets are 23−1=723−1=7
25
DEFINITION
Open and closed intervals
An open interval does not include its endpoints, and is indicated with parentheses.
For example : set of values 0<x<10<x<1
(0,1)(0,1) means greater than 00 and less than 1.1.
A closed interval includes
its endpoints, and is denoted with square brackets.
For example : set of values 0≤x≤10≤x≤1
[0,1][0,1] means greater than or equal to 00 and less than or equal to 1.1.
26
DEFINITION
Length of an interval
Length of an interval is the absolute value of the difference of the two endpoints.
For [a,b],[a,b], length of interval is |b−a|.|b−a|.
27
DEFINITION
Power set
Power set is a set of all the subsets of a set.
Power set P({0,1,2})P({0,1,2}) is the set of all subsets of {0,1,2}{0,1,2}
P({0,1,2})={0},{1},{2},{0,1},{0,2},{1,2},{0,1,2},{ϕ}P({0,1,2})={0},{1},{2},{0,1},{0,2},{1,2},{0,1,2},{ϕ}
28
EXAMPLE
Difference of two sets(Basic functions)
Given any two sets AA and B,B, the difference A−BA−B is the set that contains elements or objects that belong to AA but not in BB.
And the difference B−AB−A contains the elements or objects that belong to BB but not in AA.
Let's take an example
A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}, B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}
Here, common elements are 6,12,186,12,18
Hence, A−B={2,4,8,10,14,16,20}A−B={2,4,8,10,14,16,20} and B−A={3,9,15,21}B−A={3,9,15,21}
29
EXAMPLE
Find intersection of two or more sets (simple problems)
Given two sets A and B, the intersection is the set that contains elements or objects that belong to both A and B. So, we basically include the
elements which are common to both Sets A and B. Intersection of A and B is denoted as A∩BA∩B
A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}, B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}
Here, common elements are 6,12,186,12,18
Hence, A∩B={6,12,18}A∩B={6,12,18}
30
DEFINITION
Union of Sets
For two sets AA and BB, the set of elements which are in set AA or in the set BB is called the union of two sets.
This is represented by A∪BA∪B.
Example :
A={1,2,3,4}A={1,2,3,4}
B={4,5,6}B={4,5,6}
A∪B={1,2,3,4,5,6}A∪B={1,2,3,4,5,6}
31
DEFINITION
Intersection of Sets
For two sets AA and BB, the set of all common elements of AA and BB is called the intersection of AA and BB.
It is denoted by A∩BA∩B.
Example :
A={1,5,8}A={1,5,8}
B={5,6}B={5,6}
A∩B={5}A∩B={5}
32
LAW
Distributive property
Distributive property:
A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C)A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C)
A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C)A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C)
33
FORMULA
Cardinal properties of sets
n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
If A∩B=ϕA∩B=ϕ, then n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)
Also,
n(A−B)=n(A)−n(A∩B)n(A−B)=n(A)−n(A∩B)
n(B−A)=n(B)−n(A∩B)n(B−A)=n(B)−n(A∩B)
34
EXAMPLE
Complement of basic functions
For a set A,A, the complement of AA is the set of elements in the universal set UU that are not in A.A.
It is represented by Ac.Ac. or A′A′
Example :
If U={1,2,3,4,5}U={1,2,3,4,5} and A={1,2,3},A={1,2,3}, then Ac={4,5}.Ac={4,5}.
35
DEFINITION
Complement set
For a set A,A, the complement of AA is the set of elements in the universal set UU that are not in A.A.
It is represented by Ac.Ac. or A′A′
Example :
If U=RU=R and A=(−1,6]A=(−1,6], then Ac=(−∞,−1]∪(6,∞)Ac=(−∞,−1]∪(6,∞)
36
FORMULA
Complement law
(i) A∪A′=A′∪A=UA∪A′=A′∪A=U
(ii) (A∩A′)=ϕ(A∩A′)=ϕ
37
LAW
Idempotent law and law of null & universal set
For any finite set A;A;
(i) A∪A=AA∪A=A
(ii) A∩A=AA∩A=A
(iii)ϕ′=Uϕ′=U
(iv)ϕ=U′ϕ=U′
38
FORMULA
De Morgan's laws
(i) (A∪B)′=A′∩B′(A∪B)′=A′∩B′ (De Morgan's law of union).
(ii) (A∩B)′=A′∪B′(A∩B)′=A′∪B′ (De Morgan's law of intersection).

39
DEFINITION
De'Morgan.s Law
De Morgans law : The complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their complements and the complement of the intersection of
two sets is the union of their complements.These are called De Morgans laws.These are named after the mathematician De Morgan.
The laws are as follows :
(A∪B)′=A′∩B′(A∪B)′=A′∩B′
(A∩B)′=A′∪B′(A∩B)′=A′∪B′
Examples on De Morgans law :
1) Let U={1,2,3,4,5,6}U={1,2,3,4,5,6}, A={2,3}A={2,3} and B={3,4,5}B={3,4,5}. .
A∪B={2,3}∪{3,4,5}={2,3,4,5}A∪B={2,3}∪{3,4,5}={2,3,4,5}
(A∪B)′=1,6(A∪B)′=1,6
Also, A′=1,4,5,6A′=1,4,5,6
B′=1,2,6B′=1,2,6
A′∩B′={1,4,5,6}∩{1,2,6}A′∩B′={1,4,5,6}∩{1,2,6}
={1,6}={1,6}
Hence (A∪B)′=A′∩B′(A∪B)′=A′∩B′
Similarly it can be verified that (A∩B)′=A′∪B′(A∩B)′=A′∪B′
40
DEFINITION
Symmetric difference of two sets
Symmetric difference is represented by AΔBAΔB and is defined by AΔB=(A−B)∪(B−A)AΔB=(A−B)∪(B−A)
Example:
If A={2,4,6,7,9}A={2,4,6,7,9} and B={2,1,7,8,9}B={2,1,7,8,9},
then AΔB={1,4,6,8}AΔB={1,4,6,8}
41
DEFINITION
Union of Sets
Given two sets AA and BB, the Union is the set that contains elements or objects that belong to either AA or BB or both. Union
of AA and BB is denoted as A∪BA∪B
A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}A={2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20}, B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}B={3,6,9,12,15,18,21}
Hence, A∪B={2,3,4,6,8,10,12,15,16,18,20}A∪B={2,3,4,6,8,10,12,15,16,18,20}
42
DEFINITION
Problems on basics of sets
Represent A={1,4,9,16,25}A={1,4,9,16,25} in set builder form.
For the set A={1,4,9,16,25}A={1,4,9,16,25},
AA can be represented as A={a|a=n2,1≤n≤5}A={a|a=n2,1≤n≤5}
43
DEFINITION
Overlapping sets
Two sets AA and BB are said to be overlapping if they contain at least one element in common.
Example :
A={a,b,c,d}A={a,b,c,d}
B={a,b,r,s,e}B={a,b,r,s,e}
The two sets contain two elements in common (a,b).(a,b).
44
FORMULA
Problems on application of sets and subsets
If n(U)=60,n(A)=21,n(B)=43n(U)=60,n(A)=21,n(B)=43, then the greatest value of n(A∪B)n(A∪B) and least value of
n(A∪B)n(A∪B) are ?
Since n(U)=60n(U)=60
Greatest value of n(A∪B)=n(U)=60n(A∪B)=n(U)=60
Least value of n(A∪B)n(A∪B) occurs when A⊂BA⊂B

⇒n(A∪B)=n(B)=43⇒n(A∪B)=n(B)=43
45
DEFINITION
Problems on operations of Sets
For two sets, A and B the set difference of set B from set A is the set of all element in A but not in B.
Example:
A={1,2,3,4}A={1,2,3,4}
B={3,4,5}B={3,4,5}
A−B={1,2}A−B={1,2}
Some properties :
(iv) A∩B⊆A;A∩B⊆BA∩B⊆A;A∩B⊆B
(v) If A⊆B,A⊆B, then A∪B=BA∪B=B
(vi) If A⊆B,A⊆B, then A∩B=AA∩B=A
(vii) A∩ϕ=ϕA∩ϕ=ϕ and A∩A=AA∩A=A
46
DEFINITION
Venn diagrams
Venn diagrams are diagrams representing sets as circles within a rectangle which represents universal set.
The people living in Mumbai, London and Boston can be represented using the given Venn diagram.
47
DEFINITION
Subsets
If every element of a set BB is an element of set AA, then BB is said to be a subset of AA.
It is represented as B⊆A.B⊆A.
Example :
A={1,2,3,4,5,6}A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B={1,3,6}B={1,3,6}
Here, B⊂A.B⊂A.
If B={1,2,3,4,5,6},B={1,2,3,4,5,6}, then also B⊆A.B⊆A.
48
DEFINITION
Proper Subset
If BB is a subset of AA and set AA has atleast one element which is not present in BB, then set BB is the proper subset of AA.
It is represented as B⊂A.B⊂A.
Example :
A={1,2,3,4,5,6}A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B={1,3,6}B={1,3,6}
Here, B⊂A.B⊂A.
B={1,2,3,4,5,6}B={1,2,3,4,5,6} is not a proper subset of A.A.
49
EXAMPLE
Difference of sets
A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.
Find the difference between the two sets:
(i) A and B
(ii) B and A
Solution:
The two sets are disjoint as they do not have any elements in common.
(i) A - B = {1, 2, 3} = A
(ii)B - A = {4, 5, 6} = B
50
EXAMPLE
Different regions in Venn diagram
Draw appropriate Venn diagram for each of the following:

(i) (A∪B)′(A∪B)′, (ii) A′∩B′A′∩B′, (iii) (A∩B)′(A∩B)′, (iv) A′∪B′A′∪B′
51
DEFINITION
Venn diagrams
Referring to the given Venn diagram, the number of students who took both History and Geography among other subjects is ?
The required set of students is denoted by the regions common to the circles representing History and Geography.
∴∴ Required number =(20+13+12+18)=63=(20+13+12+18)=63
52
DEFINITION
Improper Subset
When set AA is a subset of BB and set BB is a subset of AA, then set AA is the improper subset of BB.
It is represented by
A⊆BA⊆B
53
DEFINITION
Defination of Proper subset
Let AA and BB be two sets.
BB is called a proper subset of AA if,
 If every element of set BB is also an element of set AA

 Set AA contains atleast one element which does not belong to set BB.
It is denoted as B⊂AB⊂A
Lets understand this with an example.
We have three sets A,BA,B and CC
A={1,2,3,4,5}A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={2,3,4}B={2,3,4}
C={2,1,3,5,4}C={2,1,3,5,4}
Here, set BB has elements 2,3,42,3,4, these elements are also a part of set AA and set AA has elements 1,51,5 which are not a part of set BB.
Thus we conclude that BB is proper subset of AA.
However, the same can't be said about set AA and CC.set AA and CC have exactly identical elements.Hence, we conclude that though CC is a
subset of AA,but it is not a proper subset.
Key point: for BB to be a proper subset of AA,it should follow the below given conditions
1. BB should be a subset of AA (i.eB⊂−A)(i.eB⊂_A)

2. n(B)<n(A)n(B)<n(A)
54
EXAMPLE
Representation of sets
A={x:x<5}A={x:x<5}
B={y:y>2}B={y:y>2}
55
EXAMPLE
Arrow diagram representation
Arrow diagram :
56
EXAMPLE
Function as a set of ordered pairs
A ={1,3,4,7} B= {-1,1,2,5,6}
The function A →→ B can be represented as :
{(1,−1),(3,1)(4,2),(7,5)}{(1,−1),(3,1)(4,2),(7,5)}
57
EXAMPLE
Representation of function based on a rule
Here, the function follows the equation
y=x−2y=x−2
58
EXAMPLE
Function in tabular form
xx f(x)f(x)
1 -1
3 1
4 2
7 5
59
DEFINITION
Domain of a function
Domain is the set of the first elements of ordered pairs, i.e. the set of x-coordinates.
60
DEFINITION
Range of a function
Range or image is the set of the second elements of ordered pairs, i.e. the set of y-coordinates.
61
DEFINITION
Value of a function
To find value of function at x=2,x=2, put x=2x=2 in the function.
f(x)=x3f(x)=x3
Here, for finding f(2),f(2), put x=2x=2
f(2)=23=8f(2)=23=8
62
DEFINITION
Real valued function
A real-valued function is a function whose range is in the real numbers.
Example : f(x)=xf(x)=x
63
DEFINITION
Real function
A real function is a function whose domain and co-domain are subsets of the set of real numbers R.
64
DEFINITION
Pre-image/image of function
Image is the range of the function.
Pre-image is the set of elements of domain that map to the elements in codomain.
65
DEFINITION
Composite functions
In composition of a function, output of one function becomes the input of other function.
Example : f(x)=x+1,g(x)=2x2+6,f(x)=x+1,g(x)=2x2+6,
then g(f(x))=2(f(x))2+6=2(x+1)2+6g(f(x))=2(f(x))2+6=2(x+1)2+6
=2x2+4x+8=2x2+4x+8
66
SHORTCUT
Determining nature of composite function
Considering f(x)=x+1,g(x)=2x2+6,f(x)=x+1,g(x)=2x2+6, we see both are polynomial functions, so the composite function g(f(x)) is also a
polynomial.
Considering f(x)=sinx,g(x)=2x2+6,f(x)=sinx,g(x)=2x2+6, we see f is trignometric function and g is polynomial function, so the composite
function g(f(x)) is also a trignometric function.
Nature of composite function depends on nature of one of the two functions.
67
DEFINITION
Invertible function
A function is said to be invertible when it has an inverse. It is represented by f−1.f−1.
Condition for a function to have a well-defined inverse is that it be one-to-one.
Example : f(x)=2x+11f(x)=2x+11 is invertible since it is one-one.
68
EXAMPLE
Finding inverse
Inverse of f(x)=x+7=?f(x)=x+7=?
Put f−1xf−1x in place of f(x)f(x) in the given equation,
⇒f(f−1x)=f−1x+7⇒f(f−1x)=f−1x+7
Since f(f−1x)=x,f(f−1x)=x, then
⇒x=f−1x+7⇒x=f−1x+7
⇒f−1x=x−7⇒f−1x=x−7
69
LAW
Properties of Inverse Function
 Inverse exists for only one to one functions. If g is the inverse of f, then f is the inverse of g.
 If f and g are inverses of each other then both are one to one functions.
 f and g are inverses of each other if (fog)(x) = x , x ∈∈ the domain of g.
 Domain of f is equal to the range of g and the range of f is equal to the domain of g.
70
DEFINITION
Property of composite of three functions
If f,g,h are three functions then,
fo(goh) = (fog)oh (associative property)
71
FORMULA
Inverse of composite function
For two functions f and g, composition of inverse and inverse of the composition are equal.
(fog)−1x=g−1of−1x−1x=g−1of−1x
Also, (f−1of)(x)=x,(f−1of)(x)=x, for x in domain of ff
and (fof−1)(x)=x,(fof−1)(x)=x, for x in domain of f−1f−1
72
EXAMPLE
Intersection of a curve and curve
Find number of points of intersection of the two curves y=2sinxy=2sinx and y=5x2+2x+3y=5x2+2x+3.
2sinx=5x2+2x+32sinx=5x2+2x+3
2sinx=5(x+15)2+45+2>2≥2sinx2sinx=5(x+15)2+45+2>2≥2sinx
So, no solution.
73
DIAGRAM
Graph of log function
74
DIAGRAM
Exponential function graph
75
DIAGRAM
Signum function
76
DIAGRAM
Modulus function Graph
77
DIAGRAM
Greatest function graph
LOGARITHMS
01
DEFINITION
Exponential Notations
We have seen calculations where a number is multiplied with itself many times .Eg, 2×2×2×2×22×2×2×2×2.
We can represent such multiplications in a simpler manner using Exponents.
To understand the concept of exponents, lets focus on the above example, i.e 2×2×2×2×22×2×2×2×2.
Here, the number 22 is multiplied with itself for 55 times.Hence, we write it as 2525.
Thus, 2×2×2×2×2=252×2×2×2×2=25.
Such a representation is known as exponential representation.
In 2525 , 22 known as the base and 55 is known as exponent or power or index.
Few more Examples:
 3×3×3×3=343×3×3×3=34
 12×12×12=12312×12×12=123
Exponential notation can also be used to write large numbers in shorter notations.
Example:
560000=5.6×105560000=5.6×105
02
DEFINITION
Index and base
Given a number 4343, can you find its base and index ?
For this, you need to know what index and base are ?
Index of a number says how many times to use the number in multiplication.
Base is a number which is being multiplied.
Here, 44 is multiplied by 33 times.
So, index is 33 and base in 44.
03
DEFINITION
Identify Base and Index
If a number aa is multiplied nn times,
i.e a×a×a×a........n timesa×a×a×a........n times then we write it as anan
Here aa is known as the Base and nn is known as the exponent or index or power.
04
DEFINITION
Positive index
The index of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.
So any number such as mnmn is said to be of positive index or power if nn is a positive number
05
EXAMPLE
Exponents with positive index
When the index of a number has a value greater than zero, we say that the number has an exponent with a positive index.
A positive index may also be a fraction, which is greater than 0.
For example in the number 4343, we already know that 4 is the base and 3 is the index.
Hence, 3>03>0. Therefore, the base 44 has a positive index 33.
Another example 345345

Here, we can say that 345345=30.8=30.8
Hence, 0.8>00.8>0. Therefore, the base 3 has a positive exponent 0.80.8.
06
DEFINITION
Introduction to Exponents
We have seen calculations where a number is multiplied with itself many times .Eg, 2×2×2×2×22×2×2×2×2.
We can represent such multiplications in a simpler manner using Exponents.
To understand the concept of exponents, lets focus on the above example, i.e 2×2×2×2×22×2×2×2×2.
Here, the number 22 is multiplied with itself for 55 times.Hence, we write it as 2525.
Thus, 2×2×2×2×2=252×2×2×2×2=25.
Such a representation is known as exponential representation.
In 2525 , 22 known as the base and 55 is known as exponent or power or index.
Few more Examples:
 3×3×3×3=343×3×3×3=34
 12×12×12=12312×12×12=123
07
EXAMPLE
exponents
75=7×7×7×7×775=7×7×7×7×7
34=3×3×3×3=8134=3×3×3×3=81
08
DEFINITION
Defination of Logarithm
If ax=max=m, value of xx is given by
x=logamx=logam, where aa is known as the base of the logarithm.
logamlogam is read as logarithm of mm to the base aa
09
DEFINITION
Introduction to Logarithm
In order to understand the concept of logarithm lets answer a few simple questions
 What should be the power of 22 so that the answer is 88.In other words if 2x=82x=8 what should be the value of xx.
we know that 23=823=8
∴x=3∴x=3
 Similarly if 3x=93x=9 , then x=2x=2
However it is not always possible to find the value of an unknown power so easily.
For eg, What should be power of 44 so that we get the answer as 4040.
In other words if 4x=404x=40 then what is the value of xx.
In the above question we cannot find the unknown power merely by inspection.
In such cases we use Logarithm.
Thus, In an equation involving exponential function,if the value of the index is unknown,we can find its value using Logarithm.
10
LAW
logarithmic form vis-a-vis exponential form
Change logarithmic to exponential form:
To change the log to exponent form take the base of the log as the power of the exponent form.
logbx=y⇒x=bylogb⁡x=y⇒x=by
Example:
log39=2⇒9=32log3⁡9=2⇒9=32
Change exponent form to logarithm notation:

To change exponent form to logarithm form, identify the base of the exponential notation and move the base to the other side of the equal sign
and add the word log.
Example:
43=64⇒log464=343=64⇒log4⁡64=3
11
LAW
Changing Logarithm to Exponential form and Vise -a -versa
Exponential to Logarithmic Form:
If ax=max=m ......(exponential form)
then, x=logamx=logam......(logarithmic form)
Logarithmic to Exponential form
If x=logamx=logam.....(logarithmic form)
then, ax=max=m ......(Exponential Form)
Key Point:
The base of log and base of the exponential term remains the same.
12
FORMULA
Power rule
The log x raised to the power of y is y times of the log x.
logb(xy)=y.logb(x)logb⁡(xy)=y.logb⁡(x)
13
EXAMPLE
Using law of exponent in logarithms
Example:
To find the value of log10(64).log10⁡(64).
log10(64)log10⁡(64)
=log10(24)=4.log10(2)=log10⁡(24)=4.log10⁡(2)
By inserting the value of log102,log1064,log102,log1064, can be calculated.
14
FORMULA
Product rule
According to the product rule the log of a product is equal to the sum of the log of the factors.
⇒logb(xy)=logbx+logby⇒logb⁡(xy)=logb⁡x+logb⁡y
15
EXAMPLE
Using law of product in logarithms
Example:
log1064=log10(16×4)=log1016+log104=log1042+log104=3log104log10⁡64=log10⁡(16×4)=log10⁡16+log10⁡4=log10⁡42+lo
g10⁡4=3log10⁡4
16
FORMULA
Quotient rule
The logarithm of division of x and y is the difference of log x and log y.
logb(xy)=logb(x)−logb(y)logb⁡(xy)=logb⁡(x)−logb⁡(y)
17
EXAMPLE
Using law of quotient in logarithms
Example:
To find log10(37)log10⁡(37)
log10(37)=log10(3)−log10(7)log10⁡(37)=log10⁡(3)−log10⁡(7)
We can find log10(37)log10⁡(37) from the values of log10(3)log10⁡(3) and log10(7)log10⁡(7)
18
EXAMPLE
Problems on rules of logarithm
The value of logy3x2×logz2y×logx5z3logy3⁡x2×logz2⁡y×logx5⁡z3 is equal to
Applying change of base rule.
=logx2logy3⋅logylogz2⋅logz3logx5=log⁡x2log⁡y3⋅log⁡ylog⁡z2⋅log⁡z3log⁡x5
=2logx⋅logy⋅3logz3logy⋅2logz⋅5logx2log⁡x⋅log⁡y⋅3log⁡z3log⁡y⋅2log⁡z⋅5log⁡x
After cancelling we get=15After cancelling we get=15
19
FORMULA
Base rule
We can change the base of the logarithm by using the following formula-
logax=logbxlogbaloga⁡x=logb⁡xlogb⁡a
Where a,ba,b is not equal to 11.
Example:
log23log2⁡3 convert base in to 1010.
⇒log23=log103log102=0.47720.30103=1.585⇒log2⁡3=log10⁡3log10⁡2=0.47720.30103=1.585
20
DEFINITION
N=a(logaN)N=a(logaN)
N=a(logaN)N=a(logaN) for N,a>0N,a>0
Example : 2(log26)=?2(log26)=?
Using the above formula,
2(log26)=62(log26)=6
QUADRATIC EQUATION
01
DEFINITION
Factorization of a polynomial
In factorization, we represent a given polynomial as a product of two or more terms.
Example:
2x2+10x2x2+10x can be represented as 2x(x+5)2x(x+5)
Here we have taken 2x2x as common and represent the given polynomial as a product of 2x2x and x+5x+5.
There are various methods to factorize a given polynomials
Consider the following examples.
Polynomial After Factorization Method used
4x2+18x4x2+18x 2x(2x+9)2x(2x+9) Rearranging the terms
Using Identity a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b):

x2−16x2−16 (x−4)(x+4)(x−4)(x+4)
x2−16=x2−42=(x+4)(x−4)x2−16=x2−42=(x+4)(x−4)
x2+7x+10x2+7x+10 (x+5)(x+2)(x+5)(x+2) Splitting the middle term*

Note: For the third polynomial we have used Splitting the middle term method.
we will discuss this method in detail in the next topic.
02
EXAMPLE
Solved Example on Completing Squares Method
Find roots of x2−2x−1=0x2−2x−1=0
Solution:
Step 1: Shift constant term to the RHS
x2−2x=1x2−2x=1
Step 2:Add (12×coefficient of x)2=(12×(−2))2=(−1)2=1(12×coefficient of x)2=(12×(−2))2=(−1)2=1 on both sides
∴x2−2x+1=2∴x2−2x+1=2
Step 3: using a2−2ab+b2=(a+b)2a2−2ab+b2=(a+b)2 LHS have becomes (x−1)2(x−1)2
∴(x−1)2=2∴(x−1)2=2
Step 4: Taking Square root on both side
x−1=±2√x−1=±2
x=1±2√x=1±2
03
FORMULA
Steps to Solve Problems On Completing Square Method
1. Shift the constant term to the RHS
2. Add (12×coefficient of x)2(12×coefficient of x)2 on both sides of the equation
3. Complete the square on the LHS by using a2+2ab+b2=(a+b)2a2+2ab+b2=(a+b)2
4. Take square root on both sides of the equation and find values of xx
04
DEFINITION
Roots of Quadratic Equation Using Formula
Let Quadratic Equation be ax2+bx+c=0ax2+bx+c=0, then the Roots by Quadratic Formula are given by
x=−b+b2−4ac−−−−−−−√2ax=−b+b2−4ac2a or x=−b−b2−4ac−−−−−−−√2ax=−b−b2−4ac2a
Example:
3x2+6x+1=03x2+6x+1=0
Comparing with ax2+bx+c=0ax2+bx+c=0
a=3a=3, b=6b=6, c=1c=1
∴x=−b+b2−4ac−−−−−−−√2a∴x=−b+b2−4ac2a and x=−b−b2−4ac−−−−−−−√2ax=−b−b2−4ac2a
x=6+62−4.3.1−−−−−−−−√2×3x=6+62−4.3.12×3 or x=6−62−4.3.1−−−−−−−−√2×3x=6−62−4.3.12×3
x=6+26√6x=6+266 or x=6−26√6x=6−266
05
DEFINITION
Quadratic Inequality
If an inequality sign exists in quadratic expression, then that inequality is termed as quadratic inequality.
Example:
x2−x−12>0x2−x−12>0
06
EXAMPLE
Sign of quadratic function for the given range
From the figures, we can see that sign of equation depends on coefficient of a and discriminant.
In first, figure we can see that between the roots (α,β)(α,β) the sign of quadratic function is negative and elsewhere it is positive.
Similarly, by plotting graph we can find the sign of quadratic function in a given range.
07
EXAMPLE
Range of x depending on sign of equation
Range of xx for x2−x−12>0x2−x−12>0 is ?
x2−x−12>0x2−x−12>0
x2−4x+3x−12>0x2−4x+3x−12>0
(x−4)(x+3)>0(x−4)(x+3)>0
The solution set is (−∞,−3)∪(4,∞)(−∞,−3)∪(4,∞)
08
EXAMPLE
Method of intervals
Find the set of values of x which satisfies (x+5)(x−1)(x+1)<0.(x+5)(x−1)(x+1)<0.

For the given equation , f(x)=(x+5)(x−1)(x+1)<0−−1)f(x)=(x+5)(x−1)(x+1)<0−−1)
check where x+5=0,x−1=0,x+1=0x+5=0,x−1=0,x+1=0
Plot points −5,−1−5,−1 and 11 in a number line.
Change of sign between the points is depicted using a curve.
If we put x=0,x=0, in equation 1),f(x)<01),f(x)<0
so curve will be below the axis between −1−1 to 1.1. (since f(x)<0f(x)<0 at 00 which lies between −1−1 and 11)
Solution is (−∞,−5)∪(−1,1)(−∞,−5)∪(−1,1)
09
EXAMPLE
Inequalities in fractions
Find the set of values of x which satisfies (x+4)(x−1)(x+2)<0.(x+4)(x−1)(x+2)<0.
For the given equation , f(x)=(x+4)(x−1)(x+2)<0−−1)f(x)=(x+4)(x−1)(x+2)<0−−1)
check where x+4=0,x−1=0,x+2=0x+4=0,x−1=0,x+2=0
Plot points −4,1−4,1 and −2−2 in a number line.
Change of sign between the points is depicted using a curve.
If we put x=0,x=0, in equation 1),f(x)<01),f(x)<0
so curve will be below the axis between −2−2 to 1.1. (since f(x)<0f(x)<0 at 00 which lies between −2−2 and 11)
Solution is (−∞,−4)∪(−2,1)(−∞,−4)∪(−2,1)
10
EXAMPLE
Quadratic inequalities containing modulus functions
The value of xx which satisfies the equality ∣∣x2+x−1∣∣=2x−1|x2+x−1|=2x−1 for xx and inequality x<3√x<3
is
|x2+x−1|=2x−1|x2+x−1|=2x−1 ......(1)
case 1:
x2+x−1=2x−1x2+x−1=2x−1
⇒x2−x=0⇒x2−x=0
⇒x=0,1⇒x=0,1
But x=0x=0 does not satisfy (1)
case 2:
x2+x−1=−2x+1x2+x−1=−2x+1
⇒x2+3x−2=0⇒x2+3x−2=0
⇒x=−3±17−−√2⇒x=−3±172
Then only x=1x=1 satisfies the equation and x<3√x<3
11
RESULT
Nature of quadratic curve based on aa and DD
If a>0,a>0, curve is upward opening parabola.

If a<0,a<0, curve is downward opening parabola.
If D>0,D>0, curve cuts the xx axis twice.
If D=0,D=0, curve touches xx axis.
If D<0,D<0, curve never touches xx axis.
12
DEFINITION
Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is of the form p(x)=ax2+bx+c,p(x)=ax2+bx+c, where a,ba,b and cc are real numbers and a≠0.a≠0. The curve parabola
is the graph of a quadratic function.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
01
EXAMPLE
Replacement for solving Inequations
Find the solution set of x−5>12x−5>12 from the replacement set {10,15,20,25}{10,15,20,25}.
Solving, we get
x>17x>17
From replacement set x={20,25}x={20,25}
02
DIAGRAM
Rules of tranposition of inequality
1. If a<ba−b−a>−b
If a>ba>b then −a<−b−a<−b
2. When aa and bb are both positive or both negative:

If a<ba1b1a>1b
If a>ba>b then 1a<1b1a<1b
But when either a or b is negative (not both) the direction stays the same:
If a<baba>b then 1a>1b1a>1b
3. If abab then a√≤b√a≤b
03
DEFINITION
Properties of Inequations
If a<baba>b , then a+c>b+ca+c>b+c.
If a>ba>b , then a−c>b−ca−c>b−c.
If a<baba>b and cc is a negative integer, then ac>bcac>bc.
04
DEFINITION
Linear Equations
An inequality which contains linear equation is called linear inequality.
Eg: x<5x<5
05
EXAMPLE
Solution of inequality on number line
The dark line represents all the numbers that satisfy x≤2x≤2 . If we pick any number on the dark line and plug it in for xx , the inequality will be
true. The following graph represents the inequality x<2x<2 . Note that the open circle on 22 shows that 22 is not a solution to x<2x<2
06
EXAMPLE
Solution of linear inequality in one variable
Consider the inequality −6x+12>−7x+17−6x+12>−7x+17

7x−6x>17−127x−6x>17−12
x>5x>5 which can be represented in graph as shown in the figure
07
EXAMPLE
Solution of linear inequalities in two variables on graph
Consider the inequality 2x+3y≥32x+3y≥3
Draw the line representing 2x+3y=32x+3y=3 in intercept form we get
x3/2+y1=1x3/2+y1=1
Hence xx intercept is 1.51.5 units and yy intercept is 11 unit
Consider any arbitrary point in the shaded region such that it does not lie on the line 2x+3y=32x+3y=3
Let us consider (4,4)(4,4)
(4,4)(4,4) clearly does not lie on the line but it does lie in the shaded region.
2(4)+3(4)=202(4)+3(4)=20 and 20>320>3
Therefore in the shaded region 2x+3y>32x+3y>3
Since the line on the graph is not dotted therefore the shaded region includes
2x+3y=32x+3y=3 or 2x+3y>32x+3y>3
08
DEFINITION
Linear programming problem
A linear programming problem which we shall abbreviate as LPP involves a linear function of a number of variables in the form of equations or
inequations, subject to certain conditions or the variables and the task is to maximize or minimize the function.
09
DEFINITION
Fields of application of linear programming
Linear programming technique is found useful in solving problems pertaining to a number of areas. Some of them are
1. Diet problems
2. Manufacturing problems
3. Investment problems
4. Transportation problems
5. Blending problems
6. Advertising media selection problems
10
DEFINITION
Optimization problems
The type of problems which seek to maximise( or minimise) profit (or cost) from a general class of problems are called optimization problems.
They may involve finding maximum profit, minimum cost, or minimum use of resources etc.
11
DEFINITION
Overriding Conditions
In linear programming problems, often over riding constraints are provided to us, which has to be met in any case.
12
DEFINITION
Mathematical formulation of LPP
1.Identify the decision varibales ad assign symbols xx and yy to them. These decision variables are those quantities whose values we wish to
determine.
2. Identify all the constraints and express them as linear equations/inequations in terms of the decision variables. These constraints are the
decision variables.
3. Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables. it might take the form of maximizing profit or
production or minimizing cost.
4. Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as is the physical problems. Negative values of decision variables have no valid
interpretations.
13
DEFINITION
Objective function
The linear function ax+by+cax+by+c whose maximum or minimum value is determined is called the objective function.
14
DEFINITION
Associated Equation
Consider the inequalities of the
form ax+by+c>0,ax+by+c≥0,ax+by+c<0,ax+by+c≤0ax+by+c>0,ax+by+c≥0,ax+by+c<0,ax+by+c≤0. ax+by+c=0ax+by+c=0 is the
associated equation of each of these inequalities.
15
DEFINITION
Constraints
The system of inequalitions or equations involving the variables of a LPP which describe the conditions under which the optimization to be
attained are called constraints. The constraints in a LP problem involve the region ≤,=,≥≤,=,≥.
16
DEFINITION
Decision Variables
Let the ax+by+cax+by+c be the objective function. Here xx and yy are called decision variables.
17
DEFINITION
Optimization Problem
Optimization problem is the problem best solution from all feasible solution.
A mathematical optimization problem is one in which some function is either maximized optimized relative to given set of alternatives
18
DEFINITION
Optimal Solution
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (Maximum or minimum) of the objective function is called the optimal solution
SEQUENCES AND SERIES

01
EXAMPLE
Observe the Pattern and find the next number
Find the next two term in the series 0,5,10,15,....0,5,10,15,....
Solution: We can see that in the series each of the previous number is added to 55 to get the new number hence the next numbers will
be 15+5=2015+5=20 and 20+5=2520+5=25
02
DEFINITION
Sequence
A sequence is a list of numbers in a special order.
Each number in a sequence is called term.
Example- 3,5,7,9,........3,5,7,9,........
2,4,6,8,....2,4,6,8,....
03
EXAMPLE
General term
General term in sequence a,ar,ar2,ar3,....,arna,ar,ar2,ar3,....,arn is arkark.
04
DEFINITION
Identify number pattern in Pascal's Triangle
Pascal's triangle is formed as follows:

1. Start with 11 at the top
2. Continue placing numbers below it in triangular pattern.
3. Each number is the sum of numbers directly above it in triangular pattern.
05
DEFINITION
Identify number patterns in Pascal's triangle
The patterns followed in pascal's triangle are :
1. Each number is a numbers directly above it added together.
2. The first diagonal contains 11's.
3. Second diagonal contains counting numbers i.e. 1,2,3,4,...1,2,3,4,...
4. Third diagonal contains triangular numbers i.e. 1,3,6,10,15,...1,3,6,10,15,...
5. Fourth diagonal contains tetrahedral numbers i.e. 1,4,10,20,..1,4,10,20,..
06
DEFINITION
Geometric Progression
A geometric sequence is a sequence in which any element after the first is obtained by multiplying the preceding element by a constant called the
common ratio which is denoted by rr.
The sequence 1,4,16,64,2561,4,16,64,256 is a geometric sequence. Note that after the first term, the next term is obtained by multiplying the
preceding element by 44.
07
EXAMPLE
General form of a GP
The general form of a GP:
a1,a1r,a1r2,a1r3....a1rn−1,a1rna1,a1r,a1r2,a1r3....a1rn−1,a1rn
08
DEFINITION
Finite and Infinite GP
Finite Geometric Series:
A finite geometric series has finite number of terms. Its general form is as follows :
a,ar,ar2,ar3,....,arna,ar,ar2,ar3,....,arn
Infinite Geometric Series:

An infinite geometric series does have infinite terms in it. Its general form is as follows
a,ar,ar2,ar3,....a,ar,ar2,ar3,....
09
DEFINITION
Geometric series
In geometric series the ratio rr between two successive term is constant.
If aa is the first term then
Sn=a+ar+ar2+ar3+...+arn−1Sn=a+ar+ar2+ar3+...+arn−1
10
DEFINITION
Common ratio of a GP
The common ratio is obtained by dividing any term by the preceding term:
r=a2a1r=a2a1
11
FORMULA
Derive the formula for sum of first n terms of a GP
Let the each term of GP are a1,a2,a3,a4......ana1,a2,a3,a4......an
a1=a1a1=a1; a2=a1ra2=a1r
a3=a2r=(a1r)r=a1r2a3=a2r=(a1r)r=a1r2 ........ an=a1rn−1an=a1rn−1
The sum in G.M is

S=a1+a2+a3+.....+anS=a1+a2+a3+.....+an
S=a1+a1r2+a1+r3+.....+a1rnS=a1+a1r2+a1+r3+.....+a1rn ...(i)
Multiply the (i) by rr from both side

Sr=a1r+a1r2+a1r3+a1r4+.........+a1rnSr=a1r+a1r2+a1r3+a1r4+.........+a1rn ...(ii)
Subtract (ii) from (i)
S−Sr=a1−a1rnS−Sr=a1−a1rn
⇒(1−r)S=a1(1−rn)⇒(1−r)S=a1(1−rn)
∴S=a1(1−rn)1−r∴S=a1(1−rn)1−r
Where, r≠1r≠1
12
FORMULA
General (nth ) term of a GP
Each term of GP as a1,a2,a3,a4,..am,..ana1,a2,a3,a4,..am,..an all these terms according to the first term a1a1 will give.
a1=a1a1=a1
a2=a1ra2=a1r
a3=a2r=(a1r)r=a1r2a3=a2r=(a1r)r=a1r2
a4=a3r=(a2r2)r=a1r3a4=a3r=(a2r2)r=a1r3
Like that, nthnth term will be
an=a1rn−1
TRIGNOMETRY
01
DEFINITION
Sexagesimal system of angles
Angle is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds in this system.
degree is represented as oo
minutes is represented as ′′
seconds is represented as ′′″
1 right angle = 9090 degrees or90o90o
1o1o = 6060 minutes or60′60′.
1′1′ =6060 seconds or 60′′60″.
02
DEFINITION
Circular measurement
Angle is measured in radian. A radian is an angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.
90o=π290o=π2
03
FORMULA
Conversion to one to another system of measurement
1rightangle=90degreesor90o1rightangle=90degreesor90o
1=60minutesor60′1=60minutesor60′
1=60secondsor60′′1=60secondsor60″
1rightangle=100g1rightangle=100g
1g=100′1g=100′
100=100′′100=100″
1 rightangle1 rightangle=90o=π290o=π2
From the above relations, we can relate different systems of measurements.
04
DEFINITION
Angles in terms of initial side and terminal side
If its vertex is located at the origin for an angle, then it is in standard position. The ray on the x-axis is called the initial side and the other ray is
called the terminal side.
05
DEFINITION
Trigonometric ratios
For a right angled triangle, ΔABC,ΔABC,

sinA=PerpendicularHypotenusesin⁡A=PerpendicularHypotenuse, cosA=BaseHypotenusecos⁡A=BaseHypotenuse
tanA=PerpendicularBasetan⁡A=PerpendicularBase, cotA=BasePerpendicularcot⁡A=BasePerpendicular
secA=HypotenuseBasesec⁡A=HypotenuseBase, cosec A=HypotenusePerpendicularcosec A=HypotenusePerpendicular

06
DEFINITION
Trigonometric ratios of special angles
Angle 0000 300300 450450 600600 900900
sinsin 1212 12√12 3√232

00 11
coscos 3√232 12√12 1212

11 00
tantan 13√13
00 11 3√3 ∞∞
cotcot 13√13
∞∞ 3√3 11 00
secsec 23√23
11 2√2 22 ∞∞
coseccosec 23√23
∞∞ 22 2√2 11
07
DEFINITION
Standard angle
In trigonometry an angle is usually drawn in what is called the "standard position" as shown.
08
DIAGRAM
Angles in Quadrant
09
DIAGRAM
Quadrant angle
A quadrantal angle is one that is in the standard position and has a measure that is a multiple of 90^90^ (or /2 radians). A quadrantal angle will
have its terminal lying along an xx or yy axis.
10
SHORTCUT
Sign of angle with respect to direction of rotation
The amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side is the measure of angle. If measured in a anticlockwise direction
the measurement is positive. If measured in a clockwise direction the measurement is negative.
11
DEFINITION
Line of sight
A line from an observer's eye to a distant point.

12
DEFINITION
Centesimal system of angles
Angle is measured in grades, minutes and seconds.
Grade is represented as g.g.
Minutes is represented as ′.′.
Seconds is represented as ′′.″.
1 right angle = 100g100g
1g1g = 100′100′
100′100′=100′′100″
13
DEFINITION
Ratio of sides of 45−45−9045−45−90 triangle
A 454590454590 degree triangle (or isosceles right triangle) is a triangle with angles of 45o45o, 45o45o, and 90o90o and sides in the ratio
of 1:1:2√1:1:2
Note that the shape of half a square, cut along the squares diagonal, and that its also an isosceles triangle (both legs have the same length). The
following figure shows an example of a 45o45o- 45o45o- 90o90o triangle.
14
DEFINITION
Ratio of sides of 30-60-90 triangle
In a 300−60o−90o300−60o−90o triangle the sides are in the ratio 1:2:3√1:2:3

15
FORMULA
Reciprocal relation among various trigonometric ratios
cosecθ=1sinθcosecθ=1sin⁡θ
secθ=1cosθsec⁡θ=1cos⁡θ
cotθ=1tanθcot⁡θ=1tan⁡θ
16
FORMULA
Quotient relations among various trigonometric ratios
tanθ=sinθcosθ=secθcosec θtan⁡θ=sin⁡θcos⁡θ=sec⁡θcosec θ
cotθ=cosθsinθ=cosec θsecθcot⁡θ=cos⁡θsin⁡θ=cosec θsec⁡θ

17
FORMULA
trigonometric functions of allied angles
sin(π−θ)=sinθsin(π−θ)=sinθ
cos(π−θ)=−cosθcos(π−θ)=−cosθ
tan(π−θ)=−tanθtan(π−θ)=−tanθ
sin(2π−θ)=−sinθsin(2π−θ)=−sinθ
cos(2π−θ)=cosθcos(2π−θ)=cosθ
tan(2π−θ)=−tanθtan(2π−θ)=−tanθ
sin(3π2−θ)=−cosθsin(3π2−θ)=−cosθ
cos(3π2−θ)=−sinθcos(3π2−θ)=−sinθ
tan(3π2−θ)=cotθtan(3π2−θ)=cotθ
Using reciprocal relationship, similar relation between sec, cosec and cot can be determined.
18
DEFINITION
Trigonometric ratios of special angles
Using formula for compound, multiple and sub multiple angles, we can find the trigonometric ratios of special angles from already known
angles. i)sin9o=185+5√−−−−−−√−185√5+5√−−−−−−√+182√+182√5√sin9o=185+5−1855+5+182+1825
ii)sin15o=sin30o2=1−cos30o2−−−−−−−−−√sin15o=sin30o2=1−cos30o2 =122−3√−−−−−−√122−3
iii)sin18o=14(5√−1)sin18o=14(5−1)
iv)sin22.5o=2+2√−−−−−−√2sin22.5o=2+22
v)sin36o=25√−10−−−−−−−−√4sin36o=25−104
vi)sin72o=(10+25√)−−−−−−−−−√4sin72o=(10+25)4
19
FORMULA
Square relations among various trigonometrical ratios
sin2θ+cos2θ=1sin2⁡θ+cos2⁡θ=1
sec2θ−tan2θ=1sec2⁡θ−tan2⁡θ=1
cosec2θ−cot2θ=1cosec2θ−cot2⁡θ=1
These are also called Pythaogrean identities.

20
FORMULA
Problems on trigonometric ratios
cosA=45,cos⁡A=45, find tanAtan⁡A
secA=54sec⁡A=54
tanA=sec2A−1−−−−−−−−√tan⁡A=sec2⁡A−1
=2516−1−−−−−−√=2516−1
=34=34 (considering AA lies in the first quadrant)
21
SHORTCUT
To find unknown angle
To solve a trigonometric equation, bring all the terms on one side such that there is only zero on the other side.
Reduce the trigonometric equation by using trigonometric identities as trigonometric equation in single trigonometric ratio.
These can be further solved by using factorization.
22
DEFINITION
Angle of elevation and angle of depression
Angle of elevation : The angle formed by the line of sight and the horizontal plane for an object above horizontal.
Angle of depression : The angle formed by the line of sight and the horizontal plane for an object below horizontal.
23
EXAMPLE
Problems on height and distances using trigonometry
Angle of elevation of a ladder inclined against a wall is θθ and the distance of the foot of the ladder from the wall is ACAC, then
ABAB be the length of the wall and BCBC be the the length of the ladder.
Then, length of ladder =BC=AC2+AB2−−−−−−−−−−√=BC=AC2+AB2
or BC=ACsecθBC=ACsec⁡θ, (∵∠ACB=θ)(∵∠ACB=θ)
24
DEFINITION
Co-Terminal Angles
Co-Terminal Angles are angles that have a common terminal side.

25
LAW
Different notations used for angles in quadrants
Quadrant I : From 0o0o to 90o.90o. It is represented by (2nπ+θ)(2nπ+θ), where θθ lies in [0,π2].[0,π2].
Quadrant II : From 90o90o to 180o.180o. It is represented by (2nπ+θ)(2nπ+θ), where θθ lies in [π2,π].[π2,π].
Quadrant III : From 180o180o to 270o.270o. It is represented by (2nπ+θ)(2nπ+θ), where θθ lies in [π,3π2].[π,3π2].
Quadrant IV : From 270o270o to 360o.360o. It is represented by (2nπ+θ)(2nπ+θ), where θθ lies in [3π2,2π].[3π2,2π].

26
LAW
Trigonometric tables
27
LAW
Signs of trigonometric ratios in different quadrants
28
FORMULA
Trigonometric ratios of 180, 270 and 360 degree
x sinx cosx tanx cosecx secx cotx
180o180o 0 -1 0 undefined -1 undefined
270o270o -1 0 undefined -1 undefined 0
360o360o 0 1 0 undefined 1 undefined

29
FORMULA
Apply complementary angle relation betwen sine and cosine
sinθ=cos(900−θ)sin⁡θ=cos⁡(900−θ); cosθ=sin(900−θ)cos⁡θ=sin⁡(900−θ)
tanθ=cot(900−θ)tan⁡θ=cot⁡(900−θ); cotθ=tan(900−θ)cot⁡θ=tan⁡(900−θ)
secθ=cosec (900−θ)sec⁡θ=cosec (900−θ); cosec θ=sec(900−θ)cosec θ=sec⁡(900−θ)
30
SHORTCUT
Periodicity of trigonometric ratios
A function ff is said to be periodic with period pp, if f(x+p)=f(x)f(x+p)=f(x) for all values of xx in its domain.
For example : sin(2π+x)=sinxsin⁡(2π+x)=sin⁡x
Function Period Domain Range
y=sinxy=sin⁡x 2π2π All real numbers −1≤y≤1−1≤y≤1
y=cosxy=cos⁡x 2π2π All real numbers −1≤y≤1−1≤y≤1
y=tanxy=tan⁡x ππ All real numbers but x≠(2n−1)π2x≠(2n−1)π2 −∞<y<∞−∞<y<∞
y=cotxy=cot⁡x ππ All real numbers but x≠nπx≠nπ −∞<y<∞−∞<y<∞
y=cosecxy=cosecx 2π2π All real numbers but x≠nπx≠nπ −∞<y≤−1−∞<y≤−1 or 1≤y<∞1≤y<∞
y=secxy=sec⁡x 2π2π All real numbers but x≠(2n−1)π2x≠(2n−1)π2 −∞<y≤−1−∞<y≤−1 or 1≤y<∞1≤y<∞

31
DIAGRAM
sine function
32
DIAGRAM
cosine function
33
DIAGRAM
tan function
34
FORMULA
Trigonometric identites
A trigonometric identity is an equation based on trigonometry which is always true.
Example : Reciprocal identities :
sinθ=1cosec θsin⁡θ=1cosec θ;
cosec θ=1sinθcosec θ=1sin⁡θ
cosθ=1secθcos⁡θ=1sec⁡θ;
secθ=1cosθsec⁡θ=1cos⁡θ
tanθ=1cotθtan⁡θ=1cot⁡θ;
cotθ=1tanθcot⁡θ=1tan⁡θ
35
FORMULA
sine of sum/difference of two angles
sin(α+β)=sinαcosβ+cosαsinβsin(α+β)=sinαcosβ+cosαsinβ
sin(α−β)=sinαcosβ−cosαsinβsin(α−β)=sinαcosβ−cosαsinβ
36
FORMULA
cosine of sum/difference of two angles
cos(α+β)=cosαcosβ−sinαsinβcos(α+β)=cosαcosβ−sinαsinβ
cos(α−β)=cosαcosβ+sinαsinβcos(α−β)=cosαcosβ+sinαsinβ
37
FORMULA
tan/cot of sum/difference of two angles
tan(α+β)=tanα+tanβ1−tanαtanβtan(α+β)=tanα+tanβ1−tanαtanβ
tan(α−β)=tanα−tanβ1+tanαtanβtan(α−β)=tanα−tanβ1+tanαtanβ
38
FORMULA
Identities of compound angles using two angles
lf cosα=35cos⁡α=35 and cosβ=513cos⁡β=513 , then
cos(α+β)=cosαcosβ−sinαsinβcos(α+β)=cosαcosβ−sinαsinβ
=35×513−1−(35)2−−−−−−−√1−(513)2−−−−−−−−√=35×513−1−(35)21−(513)2
=1565−4865=1565−4865
cos(α+β)=−3365cos(α+β)=−3365
sin(α+β)=1−(cos(α+β))2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=1−(−3365)2−−−−−−−−−√sin(α+β)=1−(cos(α+β))2=1−(−3365)2=0.86150.8615
39
FORMULA
sum/difference of sines in terms of products
1. sinA+sinB=2sin(A+B2)cos(A−B2)sinA+sinB=2sin(A+B2)cos(A−B2)
2. sinA−sinB=2cos(A+B2)sin(A−B2)sinA−sinB=2cos(A+B2)sin(A−B2)
Also,
1. 2 sin A cos B = sin (A+B)+ sin (A-B)
2. 2 cos A sin B = sin (A+B)- sin (A-B)
40
FORMULA
sum/difference of cosines in terms of products
1. cosA+cosB=2cos(A+B2)⋅cos(A−B2)cosA+cosB=2cos(A+B2)⋅cos(A−B2)
2. cosA−cosB=2sin(A+B2)⋅sin(B−A2)cosA−cosB=2sin(A+B2)⋅sin(B−A2)
Also,
1. 2 cos A cos B= cos(A+B) + cos(A−B)2 cos A cos B= cos(A+B) + cos(A−B)
2. 2sin A sin B= cos (A−B)− cos (A+B)2sin A sin B= cos (A−B)− cos (A+B)
41
EXAMPLE
sum/difference of trigonometric ratios in terms of products
cos6osin24ocos72o=12(sin30o+sin18o)cos72ocos⁡6osin⁡24ocos⁡72o=12(sin⁡30o+sin⁡18o)cos⁡72o
Use sinθ=cos(90o−θ)sin⁡θ=cos⁡(90o−θ) and sin18o=5√−14sin⁡18o=5−14
=12(12+5√−14)5√−14=18=12(12+5−14)5−14=18
42
DEFINITION
Principal value
Least angle value which satisfies the given equation is called the principal value.
sinθ=12√⇒θ=π4sinθ=12⇒θ=π4
43
DEFINITION
General solution
General solution is the solution consisting of all possible solutions of a trigonometric equation.
(i) sinθ=0⇔θ=nπsinθ=0⇔θ=nπ
(ii) cosθ=0⇔θ=(2n+2)π2cosθ=0⇔θ=(2n+2)π2
(iii) tanθ=0⇔θ=nπtanθ=0⇔θ=nπ
(iv) sinθ=sinα⇔θ=nπ+(−1)nαsinθ=sinα⇔θ=nπ+(−1)nα where α∈[−π2,π2]α∈[−π2,π2]
(v) cosθ=cosα⇔θ=2nπ±αcosθ=cosα⇔θ=2nπ±α, where α∈[0,π]α∈[0,π]
(vi) tanθ=tanα⇔θ=nπ+αtanθ=tanα⇔θ=nπ+α, where α∈(−π2,π2]α∈(−π2,π2]
(vii) sin2θ=sin2α,cos2θ=cos2α,tan2θ=tan2α⇔θ=nπ±αsin2θ=sin2α,cos2θ=cos2α,tan2θ=tan2α⇔θ=nπ±α.
(viii) sinθ=1⇔θ=(4n+1)π2sinθ=1⇔θ=(4n+1)π2
(ix) cosθ=1⇔θ=2nπcosθ=1⇔θ=2nπ
(x) cosθ=−1⇔θ=(2n+1)πcosθ=−1⇔θ=(2n+1)π
(xi) sinθ=sinαsinθ=sinα and cosθ=cosα⇔θ=2nπ+αcosθ=cosα⇔θ=2nπ+α
44
DEFINITION
Trigonometric equations using composite functions
If f(x)=sinx,g(x)=1+x3f(x)=sin⁡x,g(x)=1+x3, then (fog)(x)(fog)(x) equals
f(x)=sinx,g(x)=1+x3(fog)(x)=f(g(x))=f(1+x3)=sin(1+x3)f(x)=sinx,g(x)=1+x3(fog)(x)=f(g(x))=f(1+x3)=sin(1+x3)
45
EXAMPLE
Trigonometric equations based on quadratic equations
lf sinθ,cosθsin⁡θ,cos⁡θ are the roots of the equation ax2+bx+c=0,ax2+bx+c=0, then what condition holds?
In these type of questions, we can use the formula for sum, product of roots and other trigonometric identities to find the condition.
Given that sinθ andcosθsin⁡θ andcos⁡θ are the roots of the equation
ax2+bx+c=0ax2+bx+c=0⟹sinθ+cosθ=−ba⟹sin⁡θ+cos⁡θ=−baand sinθcosθ=casin⁡θcos⁡θ=ca Now,
(sinθ+cosθ)2=sin2θ+cos2θ+2sinθcosθ(sin⁡θ+cos⁡θ)2=sin2θ+cos2θ+2sin⁡θcos⁡θ⇒(−ba)2=1+2.ca⇒(−ba)2=1+2.ca ⇒a2−b2+2
ac=0⇒a2−b2+2ac=0
46
SHORTCUT
Trigonometric equations based on polynomial equations
These kind of problems can be solved by:
 factorization
 algebraic identities like (a+b)2,a3+b3,a2−b2(a+b)2,a3+b3,a2−b2 etc.
 quadratic equations can be solved by using quadratic formula
47
SHORTCUT
Trigonometric equations based on sequences and series
In these kind of problems, we use the nth term, sum or properties of AP, GP and HP or relation between AM, GM and HM to solve the
trigonometric equations. Example :
cos(x+x3+x32+...to∞)cos(x+x3+x32+...to∞)
To simplify this, we will use sum of infinite GP.
48
SHORTCUT
trigonometric equations based on complex numbers
z=(3+2isinθ)(1−2isinθ)z=(3+2isin⁡θ)(1−2isin⁡θ),where i=−−√1,i=−1,
In questions of above type, to find the real or imaginary part, we apply concepts of both complex numbers and trigonometry.
We rationalize the expression and then find general solution of θ.θ.
after rationalization , the given number is
(3−4sin2θ)+8isinθ1+4sin2θ(3−4sin2θ)+8isinθ1+4sin2θ
for real, imaginary part is zero
so sinθ=0sinθ=0
so θ=πθ=π
49
EXAMPLE
Trigonometric equations of form f(sinkx, coslx, tanmx, cotpx)=0
2sin2((π2)cos2x)=1−cos(πsin22x),x≠(2n+1)π2,nϵI2sin2⁡((π2)cos2⁡x)=1−cos⁡(πsin2⁡2x),x≠(2n+1)π2,nϵI
then cos2xcos⁡2x is equal to ?
2sin2(π2cos2x)=1−cos(πsin22x),x≠(2n+1)π2,n∈I2sin2⁡(π2cos2⁡x)=1−cos⁡(πsin2⁡2x),x≠(2n+1)π2,n∈I
⇒2sin2(π2cos2x)=2sin2(π2sin22x)⇒π2cos2x=nπ±π2sin22x⇒cos2x=2n±sin22x⇒2sin2⁡(π2cos2⁡x)=2sin2⁡(π2sin2⁡2x)⇒π2co
s2⁡x=nπ±π2sin2⁡2x⇒cos2⁡x=2n±sin2⁡2x
By observation, only n=0n=0 holds and
cos2x=sin22xcos2⁡x=sin2⁡2x
→cos2x=0→cos2⁡x=0 or sin2x=14sin2⁡x=14
but, given x≠(2n+1)π2x≠(2n+1)π2
∴cos2x=1−2sin2x=12
SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLE
01
DEFINITION
Sine Rule
In any triangle ABCABC, the sides are proportional to sines of the opposite angles, i.e.
asinA=bsinB=csinCasinA=bsinB=csinC
02
DEFINITION
Cosine Rule
In any triangle ABCABC
cosA=b2+c2−a22bccosA=b2+c2−a22bc
cosB=a2+c2−b22accosB=a2+c2−b22ac
cosC=a2+b2−c22abcosC=a2+b2−c22ab
03
FORMULA
Heron's formula
△=s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√△=s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c) where s=a+b+c2s=a+b+c2
04
DEFINITION
Circumcircle
Triangle passing through each of the triangle's vertices is known as circumcircle.
05
DEFINITION
Incircle
Incircle of a triangle is the circle , which touches all three sides of a triangle.
06
FORMULA
Circumradius in terms of side and an angle
In any triangle ABCABC,
asinA=bsinB=csinC=2RasinA=bsinB=csinC=2R
07
FORMULA
Circumradius in terms of side and area of triangle
In any triangle ABCABC,
R=abc4ΔR=abc4Δ
08
FORMULA
Inradius in terms of side and all half angles
r=asinB2sinC2cosA2r=asin⁡B2sin⁡C2cos⁡A2
r=bsinC2sinA2cosB2r=bsin⁡C2sin⁡A2cos⁡B2
r=csinA2sinB2cosC2r=csin⁡A2sin⁡B2cos⁡C2
09
FORMULA
Inradius in terms of area and semiperimeter
The radius of the inscribed circle of a triangle is called the in-radius. It is denoted by rr.
r=Δsr=Δs
10
FORMULA
inradius in terms of side, angle and semiperimeter
r=(s−a)tanA2=(s−b)tanB2=(s−c)tanC2r=(s−a)tan⁡A2=(s−b)tan⁡B2=(s−c)tan⁡C2
11
DEFINITION
Excircle and exradius
The circle which touches the sidesBCBC and two sides ABAB and ACAC produced of a triangle ABCABC is called the Escribed circle
opposite to the angle AA. Its radius is denoted by r1r1. Similarly r2r2 and r3r3 denote the radii of the escribed circles opposite to the
angleBB and CC respectively.
The centres of the escribed circle is called excentres.
12
FORMULA
Exradius in terms of tan
r1=stanA2r1=stan⁡A2
r2=stanB2r2=stan⁡B2
r3=stanC2r3=stan⁡C2
13
FORMULA
Exradius 1
r1=Δs−ar1=Δs−a
r2=Δs−br2=Δs−b
r3=Δs−cr3=Δs−c
14
FORMULA
Exradius 2
r1=acosB2cosC2cosA2r1=acos⁡B2cos⁡C2cos⁡A2
r2=bcosC2cosA2cosB2r2=bcos⁡C2cos⁡A2cos⁡B2
r3=ccosA2cosB2cosC2r3=ccos⁡A2cos⁡B2cos⁡C2
15
FORMULA
Exradius 3
r1=4RsinA2cosB2cosC2r1=4Rsin⁡A2cos⁡B2cos⁡C2
r2=4RsinB2cosA2cosC2r2=4Rsin⁡B2cos⁡A2cos⁡C2
r3=4RsinC2cosB2cosA2
CONSTRUCTION
01
DIAGRAM
Construct perpendicular bisector of a given line segment
1. Draw a line segment AB .

2. With A as centre, using compasses, draw a circle. The radius of your circle should be more than half the length of AB.
3. With the same radius and with B as centre, draw another circle using compasses. Let it cut the previous circle at C and D.
4. Join CD. It cuts AB at O. O is the midpoint of AB. Also, COA and COB are right angles. Therefore, CD is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
02
DIAGRAM
Construct an angle of given measure using protractor
Steps:
!) draw segment AC
2) mark point Bon it.
3)Adjust protractor so that its initial line is on AC sand origin point on B.
4)Counting o angle from end A take measure of 70.,mark the point.D
5) Join the Band D.
03
DIAGRAM
Construct angle of 60o60o
1. Draw a line 'll' and mark a point O on it.

2. Place the pointer of the compasses at O and draw an arc of convenient radius which cuts the line PQ at a point say, A.
3. With the pointer at A (as centre), now draw an arc that passes through O.
4. Let the two arcs intersect at B. Join OB.
We get ∠BOA∠BOA whose measure is 60o60o.

04
DIAGRAM
1. Construct an angle of 60o60o.

2. Now, bisect this angle. Each angle is 30o30o.
05
DIAGRAM
Construct a perpendicular to a line from a point lying on it.

This is the required 90o90o angle.
06
DIAGRAM
1. Construct an angle of 90o90o.

2. Now, bisect this angle. Each angle is 45o45o.
07
EXAMPLE
Identify and construct angle of 120 degrees using compass
(i) Draw a ray OAOA.

(ii) With OO as a centre and any suitable radius draw an arc cutting OAOA at BB.
(iii) With BB as a centre and the same radius cut the arc at CC, then with CC as a centre and same radius cut the arc at DD. Join ODOD and
produce it to EE.
08
DIAGRAM
Construct bisector of a given angle
GIF
1. With A as centre and using compasses, draw an arc that cuts both rays of A . Label the points of intersection as B and C.
2. With B as centre, draw (in the interior of A) an arc whose radius is more than half the length BC.
3. With the same radius and with C as centre, draw another arc in the interior of A . Let the two arcs intersect at D. Then AD is the required
bisector of A.
09
DIAGRAM
Construct perpendicular lines
(a) Construction of perpendicular to given line at a point on the line:
1. We have line 'll' and O is a point on it.

2. With suitable radius and O as centre, mark two arcs on line 'll'. Name the points as P and Q.
3. Draw an arc with a radius greater than PO and P as the centre.
4. Draw another arc with the same radius and Q as the centre, so that it intersects the previous arc.
5. Mark the point of intersection of the arcs as S.
6. Join points O and S.
7. Line OS is the required perpendicular to line 'll'.
(b) Construction of perpendicular to given line from a point not on the line:
1. We have line 'll' and O is a point outside it.

2. Repeat steps 2 to 6 as shown above.
3. Line OS is the required perpendicular to line 'll'.
10
DIAGRAM
Construct perpendicular to a line from a given point outside the line
1) draw a line
2) take a point A outside the line.
3)From A draw equidistant arcs to cut the lines.mark points as D and E.
4)From D and E draw two equidistant arcs on the opposite side of line.
5) mark intersecting point of two arcs asF.
6)join A and F.
11
DIAGRAM
Construct parallel lines
Step 1: Draw line 'll' and take point A outside the line.
Step 2: With the help of a compass, we draw line AQ perpendicular to line 'll'. Take A as centre and suitable radius mark two arcs on line
'll'. Name the points of intersection as P and R.
Step 3: Now, take P as centre and radius more than half of PR, draw an arc on the opposite side of the line (not the same side as point A). With
the same radius and R as centre mark another arc. Name the point of intersection of the two arcs as Q. Join points A and Q.
Therefore, line AQ⊥AQ⊥ line 'll'.
Step 4: Take A as centre and a suitable radius, mark two points (on both sides of point A) on line AQ. Name them B and C.
Step 5: Repeat step 3 to to draw line 'mm' perpendicular to line AQ.
Line 'mm' is the required parallel line.
12
EXAMPLE
Construct incircle of a triangle
Incircle of a triangle is inscribed in a triangle and touches each side of the triangle.
Let's take an example to understand the concept
Example:
Construct an incircle of a right angle △ABC△ABC with sides 8 cm,6 cm8 cm,6 cm and 10 cm10 cm.
Solution :-
First we draw a line segment BC=8BC=8 cm.
Open compass 66 cm and draw an arc from point BB.
Again draw an arc of 1010 cm taking centre as CC.
These both arcs intersect each other at a point and name that point as AA.
Join ACAC and ABAB.
Then, triangle ABCABC is the required right angled triangle.
After that we bisect ∠A∠A and ∠C∠C.
The bisectors of these two angle cut at point OO.
Then, draw a circle with centre as OO.
The resultant circle is the required circle with centre OO.
13
EXAMPLE
Construction of a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the median from the vertex to the base are given.
Construct a △ABC△ABC in which BC = 5.5 cm., ∠A=60o∠A=60o and the median AM from the vertex A is 4.5 cm.
Construction
(i) Draw a line segment BC = 5.5 cm.
(ii) Through B draw BX such that ∠CBX=60o∠CBX=60o.
(iii) Draw BY⊥BXBY⊥BX.
(iv) Draw the perpendicular bisector of BC intersecting BY at O and BC at M.
(v) With O as centre and OB as radius, draw the circle.
(vi) The major arc BKC of the circle, contains the vertical angle 60o60o.
(vii) With M as centre, draw an arc of radius 4.5 cm meeting the circle at A and Al.
(viii) △ABC△ABC or △A′BC△A′BC l is the required triangle.
14
EXAMPLE
Construction of a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the altitude from the vertex to the base are given.
Construction of a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the altitude from the vertex to the base are given.
Construct a △ABC△ABC such that AB = 6 cm, +C = 40c and the altitude from C to AB is of length 4.2 cm.
Construction
(i) Draw a line segment AB = 6 cm.
(ii) Draw AX such that ∠BAX=40o∠BAX=40o.
(iii) Draw AY⊥AXAY⊥AX .
(iv) Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB intersecting AY at O and AB at M.
(v) With O as centre and OA as radius, draw the circle .
(vi) The segment AKB contains the vertical angle 40o40o.
(vii) On the perpendicular bisector MO, mark a point H such that MH = 4.2 cm.
(viii) Draw CHC′CHC′ parallel to AB meeting the circle at C and at C′C′.
(ix) Complete the △ABC△ABC, which is one of the required triangles.
15
EXAMPLE
Construction of a triangle when its base and the vertical angle are given.
The various steps involved in the construction of a triangle when its

base and the vertical angle are given.
Construction
(i) Draw a line segment AB.
(ii) At A, make the given angle ∠BAX=θ∠BAX=θ
(iii) Draw AY⊥AXAY⊥AX .
(iv) Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB
which meets AY at O.
(v) With O as centre OA as radius,
draw a circle.
(vi) Take any point C on the alternate segment
of the circle and join AC and BC.
(vii) △ABC△ABC is the required triangle.
16
EXAMPLE
construction of centroid of triangle
Construct medians of the triangle ABC , where AB = 5 cm , BC = 5cm and AC = 7 cm. Locate its centoid.
Solution: Steps of construction
Step 1: Draw the triangle ABC with given measurements
Step 2: Mark the mid point D by drawing perpendicular bisector of BC. Join AD to get a median
Step 3: Similarly draw the medians BE and CF for the sides AC and AB
Step 4: Locate the point of concurrency of medians AD, BE and CF by G . Then G is the centroid of the triangle ABC
17
DIAGRAM
Construct scalene triangle when length of three sides are given
GIF
1. Draw a line segment measuring one of the given side lengths of the triangle. Suppose we draw AB.
2. Draw an arc centred at A with radius equal to length of AC.
3. Draw an arc centred at B with radius equal to length of BC.
4. The point of intersection of these two arcs gives the vertex C.
5. Draw AC and BC. Thus, ABC is the required triangle
18
DIAGRAM
Construct scalene triangle when length of two sides and the included angle are given
GIF
1. Mark a point A that will be one vertex of the new triangle.

2. Draw a ray from point A. This will become the side AB of the new triangle, so make it longer than AB.
3. Set the compasses' width to the length of the given side AB.
4. Set the compasses on A, and mark a point B on the ray just drawn.
5. With the compasses set to any convenient width, from the point A on the given angle, draw an arc across both lines.
6. Without changing the compasses' width, draw a similar sized arc at point A on the new triangle.
7. Set the compasses to the arc width at the given angle A. This the distance between the points where the arc intersects the sides of the angle.
8. Make a similar arc on the new triangle so it crosses the previous arc.
9. Draw a ray from A, through where the arcs intersect and onwards. This will become side AC of the triangle so make it longer than AC.
10. Set the compasses' width to the distance AC.

11. With the compasses on A, make an arc across the second ray, creating point C.
12. Draw the line BC, the third side of the triangle.
The triangle ABC has the desired two side lengths and included angle.
19
DIAGRAM
Construct scalene triangle when two angles and the included side are given
GIF
1. Draw the line segment AB as the base.

2. With the compasses at any convenient width, draw an arc across both lines of the given angle A.
3. Without changing the compasses' width, draw an arc at point A on the new triangle. The arc must cross AB and also cross the future side of
the triangle
5. Near point A draw an arc in a similar position so it crosses the arc drawn earlier. This, in effect, 'copies' the measure of the angle at P to the
angle at A.
6. Draw a line from A through the point where the arcs intersect. This will become the second side of the triangle. Draw it long.
7. Repeat this process at B. Copying the angle measure from the given angle B to the new triangle at B. The point where the lines intersect is C,
the third vertex of the triangle.
20
DIAGRAM
Construct isosceles triangle when base and one base angle are given
For an isosceles triangle, base angles are equal. The construction steps are same as that of a scalene triangle with given base and two base angles.
1. Draw the line segment AB as the base.

2. With the compasses at any convenient width, draw an arc across both lines of the given angle A.
3. Without changing the compasses' width, draw an arc at point A on the new triangle. The arc must cross AB and also cross the future side of
the triangle
5. Near point A draw an arc in a similar position so it crosses the arc drawn earlier. This, in effect, 'copies' the measure of the angle at P to the
angle at A.
6. Draw a line from A through the point where the arcs intersect. This will become the second side of the triangle. Draw it long.
7. Repeat this process at B. Copying the angle measure from the given angle B to the new triangle at B. The point where the lines intersect is C,
the third vertex of the triangle.
21
DIAGRAM
Construct a triangle whose two sides and the altitude corresponding to the third side is given
Given sides BC, AC and altitude to AB
1. Construct side BC and its midpoint.

2. Construct a circle with BC as the diameter.
3. With C as the centre and radius equal to the given altitude, construct an arc to cut the previous circle at D.
4. With C as the centre and radius equal to AC, construct another arc to cut BD extended at A
5. Join A and C
Thus, ABC is the required triangle.
22
DIAGRAM
Construct equilateral triangle when altitude is given
1. Draw a line XY.

2. Take any point D on this line.
3. Construct perpendicular PD on XY.
4. Cut a line segment AD from D equal to the given length.
5. Make angles equal to 30 at A on both sides of AD, say CAD and BAD where B and C lie on XY.
Then ABC is the required triangle.
DIAGRAM
Construct isosceles triangle when base and altitude are given
GIF
Start with two line segments AB and CD that define the altitude and the base length of the triangle.
1. Draw a point P that will become one end of the base of the triangle.
2. Place the point of the compasses on the point C and adjust the compasses' width to the desired length CD of the base of the finished triangle
3. With the compasses' point on P, draw an arc.
4. Pick a point R anywhere on the arc. This will become the other end of the base of the triangle.
5. Draw the base line PR.
6. With the compasses' width set roughly to the base length (exact width is not important), draw an arc on each side of the base line from points
P and R.
7. Draw a line through the two arc intersections. This is the perpendicular bisector of the base, dividing it into two equal parts.
8. Set the compasses' width to the distance from A to B. This is the desired altitude of the triangle.
9. Place the point of the compasses on the midpoint of the base line, and draw an arc across the perpendicular drawn earlier. This is the third
vertex of the triangle.
10. Draw the two side lines PQ and RQ
The triangle PQR is an isosceles triangle.
DIAGRAM
Construct isosceles triangle when altitude and angle at the vertex are given
1. Draw a line XY and choose a point D on it.

2. Construct the altitude, i.e., perpendicular AD of the given length.
3. Taking AD as the base, draw the given angles with vertex at A on both sides of AD. Let these angles intersect XY at B' and C' respectively.
4. Draw the angle bisectors of ∠DAB′∠DAB′ and ∠DAC′∠DAC′. Let the angle bisectors intersect XY at B and C respectively.
5. Join AB and AC. ABC is the required triangle.
6. EXAMPLE
Construction of Right angled Triangle
Construct a right angle triangle ABCABC, right angled at BB, when hypotenuse CA=8CA=8 cm and AB=BCAB=BC.
Steps
Let AB=BC=aAB=BC=a
Since ABCABC is a right angled triangle ,
a2+a2−−−−−−√=8.0a2+a2=8.0
=>2√a=8.0=>2a=8.0
=a=5.6cm=a=5.6cm
1. Draw the base side BC=5.6cmBC=5.6cm
2. At point BB, draw an angle of 90o90o
3. At point CC, draw an arc of AC=8.0cmAC=8.0cm intersecting the arm of the angle 90o90o and the arc drawn in step 2
4. Name the point of intersection , as AA
5. ABCABC is the required triangle.
DIAGRAM
Construct scalene triangle when the base, one base angle and the sum of the lengths of the other two sides are given
1. Draw the base BC and at the point B make an angle, say XBC equal to the given angle.
2. Cut a line segment BD equal to AB + AC from the ray BX.
3. Join DC and make an angle DCY equal to BDC.
4. Let CY intersect BX at A
ABC is the required triangle.
DIAGRAM
Construct scalene triangle when the base, one base angle and the difference between the lengths of the other two sides are given
Case 1: Let AB > AC that is AB AC is given
1. Draw the base BC and at point B make an angle say XBC equal to the given angle.
2. Cut the line segment BD equal to AB AC from ray BX.
3. Join DC and draw the perpendicular bisector, say PQ of DC.
4. Let it intersect BX at a point A. Join AC.
Case 2: Let AB < AC that is AC AB is given
1. Draw the base BC and at point B make an angle say XBC equal to the given angle.
2. Cut line segment BD equal to AC AB from theline BX extended on opposite side of line segmentBC.
3. Join DC and draw the perpendicular bisector, sayPQ of DC.
4. Let PQ intersect BX at A. Join AC
DIAGRAM
construct a scalene triangle, given its perimeter and its two base angles
GIF
1. Draw a line segment, say XY equal to BC + CA + AB.
2. Make angles LXY equal to B and MYX equal to C.
3. Bisect LXY and MYX. Let these bisectors intersect at a point A
4. Draw perpendicular bisectors PQ of AX and RS of AY.
5. Let PQ intersect XY at B and RS intersect XY at C. Join AB and AC
Then ABC is the required triangle
AREAS RELATED TO HERONS FORMULA
FORMULA
Area of Triangle (Heron's Formula)
A=s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)
where, s=a+b+c2s=a+b+c2
and a,ba,b and cc are the sides of a triangle.
FORMULA
Area of Quadrilateral
We can find the area of quadrilateral by joining two opposite points of the quadrilateral.
Then we get two triangles and adding their areas gives area of quadrilateral.
Area of Quadrilateral =
12[∣∣∣x1x2y1y2∣∣∣+∣∣∣x2x3y2y3∣∣∣+∣∣∣x3x4y3y4∣∣∣+∣∣∣x4x1y4y1∣∣∣]
SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES
FORMULA
Surface Area of Cuboid
Surface Area of Cuboid =2(lb+bh+hl)=2(lb+bh+hl)
where l=l= length of cuboid
b=b= breadth of cuboid
h=h= height of cuboid
FORMULA
Total Surface Area of Cube
Total Area of Cube =6a2=6a2
aa is the side of the cube.
DEFINITION
Pythagorean Triplets
Pythagorean triplets are integer solutions of the pythagoras theorem a2+b2=c2a2+b2=c2
FORMULA
Surface Area of Cylinder
Curved Surface Area=2πrhCurved Surface Area=2πrh
Plane Surface Area=2πr2Plane Surface Area=2πr2
Total Surface Area=2πr(r+h)Total Surface Area=2πr(r+h)
where,
'r' is radius of the base and 'h' is the height'r' is radius of the base and 'h' is the height
FORMULA
Surface Area of Cone
Cone
Plane Surface Area=πr2Plane Surface Area=πr2
l2=r2+h2l2=r2+h2
Curved Surface Area=π×r×lCurved Surface Area=π×r×l
Total Surface Area=πrl+πr2=πr(r+l)Total Surface Area=πrl+πr2=πr(r+l)
where,
'r' is the radius of the base 'r' is the radius of the base
'l' is the slant height 'l' is the slant height
'h' is the perpendicular height 'h' is the perpendicular height
FORMULA
Surface Area of Sphere
Surface Area of Sphere =4πr2=4πr2
where , r=r= radius if the sphere
FORMULA
Trangular Prism
Volume =12abh=12abh
FORMULA
Trangular Prism
Surface area =ab+3bh=ab+3bh
FORMULA
Prism
Surface area = 2 ×× base area + Lateral surface area

FORMULA
Triangular Prism
Surface area = $$2(lb+bh+lh)44

FORMULA
Triangular pyramid
Surface area= 12ab+32bs12ab+32bs

FORMULA
Square Pyramid
Surface area = 2bs+b22bs+b2

FORMULA
Surface area of pyramis
Surface area = base area + 1212[No. of sides ×× slant height ×× base length]
DEFINITION
Volume
Volume is the space occupied by an object.
DIAGRAM
Compare volume of objects using a measuring cylinder
The volume of two or more objects is calculated with the help of measuring cylinder
then volume is compared.
DIAGRAM
Find volume of object using a measuring cylinder
The object is dipped into a cylinder filled with water.

The volume of displaced water is noted.
volume of displaced water is equal to volume of object.
EXAMPLE
Comparing volume of objects based on capacity of holding water
The volume of different objects being calculated based on the amount of water they can hold and then compare the volume of that objects.
For example
A jar has a capacity of 2.52.5 litres and the bucket has a capacity of 55 litres.
Now, the jar can hold 2.52.5 litres water whereas bucket can hold 55 litres of water.
So, volume of jar is 2.52.5 litres and volume of bucket is 55 litres.
Thus, the bucket has higher volume.
DIAGRAM
volume
The vessel which holds more water has greater volume than others.
FORMULA
Volume of Cylinder
Volume of Cylinder =πr2h=πr2h
r=r= radius of the cylinder
h=h= height of the cylinder
FORMULA
Prism
Volume = base are ×× height

FORMULA
Rectagular Prism
Volume = lbhlbh
DIAGRAM
volume of object using cubes
volume of object 1 is 5×5×4=100cm35×5×4=100cm3

FORMULA
Volume of Cuboid
Volume of Cuboid =l×b×h=l×b×h
l=l= length of cuboid
b=b= breadth of cuboid
h=h= height of the cuboid.
FORMULA
Volume of Cube
Volume of cube =a3=a3
where, a=a= side of the cube.
DEFINITION
Volume of Hollow Cylinder
Volume of Hollow Cylinder =π×h((r1)2−(r2)2)=π×h((r1)2−(r2)2)
r1=r1= outer radius
r2=r2= inner radius
FORMULA
Volume of Cone
Volume of Cone =13πr2h=13πr2h
r=r= radius of the cone.
h=h= height of the cone.
FORMULA
Surface Area of Frustum of Cone
Plane Surface Area =πr21+πr22=πr12+πr22
Curved Surface Area =π×(r1+r2)×l=π×(r1+r2)×l
Total Surface Area =π(r1+r2)l+πr21+πr22=π(r1+r2)l+πr12+πr22
where,
r1r1 is the radius of the lower base,
r2r2 is radius of the upper base,
ll is the slant height
FORMULA
Volume of Frustum of Cone
Volume =13π(r21+r22+r1r2)h=13π(r12+r22+r1r2)h
r1=r1= radius of the lower base
r2=r2= radius of the upper base
FORMULA
Volume of Sphere
Volume of Sphere =43πr3=43πr3
rr is the radius of the sphere.
FORMULA
Volume of Hemisphere
Volume of Hemisphere =23πr3=23πr3
FORMULA
Volume of Spherical shell
Volume of Spherical Shell 43×π(r32−r31)43×π(r23−r13)
FORMULA
Volume of Pyramid
Volume of Pyramid = 13×13× area of base ×× height
FORMULA
Square Pyramid
Volume = 13×l2×h13×l2×h
FORMULA
Rectangular based pyramid
Volume = 13×l×w×h13×l×w×h
FORMULA
Trangular Pyramid
Volume = 16×b×h×H16×b×h×H
EXAMPLE
Conversion of solids from one form to another
A cone is 8.4cm8.4cm high and the radius of its base is 2.1cm2.1cm. It is melted and recast into a sphere. The radius of the sphere is
Solution:
Volume of the cone =13πr2ch=13πrc2h
Volume of the sphere =43πr3s=43πrs3rcrc is the radius of cone =2.1cm=2.1cm (given)Let rsrs be the radius of the spherehh is the height of
cone =8.4cm=8.4cm (given)
Volume of cone == Volume of sphere (given)⇒13πr2ch=43πr3s⇒13πrc2h=43πrs3⇒13r2ch=43r3s⇒13rc2h=43rs3
⇒r3s=9.261⇒rs3=9.261
rs=2.1rs=2.1
DEFINITION
Flow of LIquid
Fluid flow rate =Area of pipe ×× velocity of the liquid.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
DEFINITION
Imaginary number
An imaginary number is a complex number that can be written as a real number multiplied by an imaginary unit ii, which is defined by its
property i2=−1i2=−1
DEFINITION
Expressing purely imaginary number
A purely imaginary number is of the form ibib where b is any real number and ii is −1−−−√−1
DEFINITION
Complex number definition
A symbol of the form a+iba+ib , where a and b are real numbers and i=−1−−−√i=−1 is called a complex number. It is denoted by zz ,
i.e. z=a+ibz=a+ib
DEFINITION
Complex number as an ordered pair of real number
A complex number may also be defined as an ordered pair of real numbers and may be denoted by the symbol (a,b)(a,b) . If we
write z=(a,b)z=(a,b) then aa is called the real part and bb the imaginary part of the complex number zz and may be denoted
by Re(z)Re(z) and Im(z)Im(z) respectively.
DEFINITION
Condition for a complex number to be equal to zero
A complex number is equal to zero if its real as well as imaginary part is zero.
i.e. if z=a+ib=0z=a+ib=0 this means a=0a=0 and b=0b=0
FORMULA
Triangle inequality
Let zz and ww be two complex number then as per triangle inequality
|z+w|2≤(|z|+|w|)2|z+w|2≤(|z|+|w|)2
FORMULA
Generalized triangle inequality
Let zz and ww be two complex number then as per triangle inequality
|z1+z2+......zn|2≤(|z1|+|z2|+......|zn|)2|z1+z2+......zn|2≤(|z1|+|z2|+......|zn|)2
FORMULA
Triangle Inequality
As we know, addition of two complex numbers is simple vector sum in an argand plane.
By the properties of triangle, we can say |z1|+|z2|≥|z1+z2||z1|+|z2|≥|z1+z2|
FORMULA
circm centre of the triangle
Assume the coordinates of the circumcentre as O(h,k)O(h,k).
Let A(x1,y1),A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2)B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3)C(x3,y3) be the co-ordinates of three vertices of the triangle, then distance between
point OO and AA can be represented as:
d(OA)=(h−x1)2+(k−y1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d(OA)=(h−x1)2+(k−y1)2
and, d(OB)=(h−x2)2+(k−y2)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d(OB)=(h−x2)2+(k−y2)2
d(OA=d(OB)d(OA=d(OB) and d(OA=d(OC)d(OA=d(OC)
Since for a triangle, the circumcenter is equidistant from all the vertices. We can use this condition to find circumcenter of a triangle.
EXAMPLE
Problem on properties of circumcenter
The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (0,1),(2,3)(0,1),(2,3) and (3,5).(3,5). Find circumcenter.
Let coordinates of circumcentre is (x,y)(x,y)
Then equating distance of circumcentre from vertices we get
(x−0)2+(y−1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(x−2)2+(y−3)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(x−3)2+(y−5)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√(x−0)2+(y−1)
2=(x−2)2+(y−3)2=(x−3)2+(y−5)2
Solving (x−0)2+(y−1)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(x−2)2+(y−3)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√(x−0)2+(y−1)2=(x−2)2+(y−3)2
⇒x2+y2−2y+1=x2−4x+4+y2−6y+9⇒x2+y2−2y+1=x2−4x+4+y2−6y+9
⇒4x+4y−12=0⇒x+y=3⇒4x+4y−12=0⇒x+y=3 ...(1)
And solving (x−2)2+(y−3)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=(x−3)2+(y−5)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√(x−2)2+(y−3)2=(x−3)2+(y−5)2
⇒x2−4x+4+y2−6y+9=x2−6x+9+y2−10y+25⇒x2−4x+4+y2−6y+9=x2−6x+9+y2−10y+25
⇒2x+4y−21=0⇒2x+4y=21⇒2x+4y−21=0⇒2x+4y=21 ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we get
(x,y)=(−92,152)(x,y)=(−92,152)
FORMULA
Incenter of a triangle
A point where the internal angle bisectors of a triangle intersect is called the incenter of the triangle.
If the coordinates of all the vertices of a triangle are given, then the coordinates of incircle are given by,
(ax1+bx2+cx3a+b+c,ay1+by2+cy3a+b+c)(ax1+bx2+cx3a+b+c,ay1+by2+cy3a+b+c)
where
a,b,ca,b,c are the lengths of sidesBCAC and ABBCAC and AB respectively.
FORMULA
Excenter of a triangle
A point where the bisector of one interior angle and bisectors of two external angle bisectors of the opposite side of the triangle, intersect is called
the excenter of the triangle.
There are in all three excentres of a triangle.
If the coordinates of all the vertices of a triangle are given, then the coordinates of excentres are given by,
I1=(−ax1+bx2+cx3−a+b+c,−ay1+by2+cy3−a+b+c)I1=(−ax1+bx2+cx3−a+b+c,−ay1+by2+cy3−a+b+c)
I2=(ax1−bx2+cx3a−b+c,ay1−by2+cy3a−b+c)I2=(ax1−bx2+cx3a−b+c,ay1−by2+cy3a−b+c)
I3=(ax1+bx2−cx3a+b−c,ay1+by2−cy3a+b−c)I3=(ax1+bx2−cx3a+b−c,ay1+by2−cy3a+b−c)
where
a,b,ca,b,c are the lengths of sides BC, AC and AB respectively.
FORMULA
Orthocenter of a triangle
Orthocenter of a triangle is the point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle.
If the coordinates of all the vertices of a triangle are given, then the coordinates of the orthocenter is given by,
(x1tanA+x2tanB+x3tanCtanA+tanB+tanC,y1tanA+y2tanB+y3tanCtanA+tanB+tanC)(x1tan⁡A+x2tan⁡B+x3tan⁡Ctan⁡A+tan⁡
B+tan⁡C,y1tan⁡A+y2tan⁡B+y3tan⁡Ctan⁡A+tan⁡B+tan⁡C)
or
(ax1secA+bx2secB+cx3secCasecA+bsecB+csecC,ay1secA+by2secB+cy3secCasecA+bsecB+csecC)(ax1sec⁡A+bx2sec⁡B+cx3
sec⁡Casec⁡A+bsec⁡B+csec⁡C,ay1sec⁡A+by2sec⁡B+cy3sec⁡Casec⁡A+bsec⁡B+csec⁡C)
EXAMPLE
Problems on centroid, circumcentre and orthocentre
If the circumcentre of the triangle lies at (0,0)(0,0) and centroid is middle point of (a2+1,a2+1)(a2+1,a2+1) and (2a,−2a)(2a,−2a) then the
orthocentre lies on the line?
Given coordinates of circumcentre is (0,0)(0,0).
Coordinates of centroid is (a2+1+2a2,a2+1−2a2)(a2+1+2a2,a2+1−2a2)
So, centroid is ((a+1)22,(a−1)22)((a+1)22,(a−1)22)
We know that centroid, circumcentre, orthocentre lie on the same line.
Equation of line passing through centroid and circumcentre is
y−0=(a−1)2(a+1)2(x−0)y−0=(a−1)2(a+1)2(x−0)
⇒(a−1)2x−(a+1)2y=0
STATISTICS
DEFINITION
Median
Median is the value of middle term of a set of variables when the variables of the set are arranged in ascending or descending order.
DEFINITION
Mode
The mode is the value that appears most often in a set of data i.e. the value whose frequency is maximum. The mode of a discrete probability
distribution is the value xx at which its probability mass function takes the maximum value.
EXAMPLE
Mode of data
The number of points scored in a series of football games is listed below. Which score occurred most often?
7, 13, 18, 24, 9, 3, 18, 23, 18, 7
As the number 18 has occured the maximum number of times, the mode of the given data is 18.
DIAGRAM
Know the use of tally marks for counting
To count raw data we use tally marks .

on the every fifth count slash line is drawn over the four straight lines.
this makes easy calculation of large and varied data.
FORMULA
Frequency polygon
In a Frequency Polygon, a line graph is drawn by joining all the midpoints of the top of the bars of a histogram.
A frequency polygon gives the idea about the shape of the data distribution.
The two end points of a frequency polygon always lie on the x-axis.
DIAGRAM
Representation of Data in Histogram
The histogram shows the data of the number of people and their grades obtained in the subject of mathematics.
DEFINITION
Histogram
A graph which displays the data by using vertical rectangles of various heights to represent frequencies.
PROBABILITY
DEFINITION
Experiment
A process which results in some well defined outcome is known as an experiment.
DEFINITION
Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment that can be repeated under numerous conditions.
DEFINITION
Outcomes of the Experiment
Outcomes of tossing a coin is {H} and {T}.
DEFINITION
Equally Likely Outcomes
when the outcomes are equally likely to happen , they are known as equally likely outcomes.
For example : Tossing an ordinary coin.
DEFINITION
Probability
The probability of an event denotes the likelihood of its happening.
DEFINITION
Event Probability
Number of events (outcomes) favourable to E=mE=m.
Total number of all possible outcomes =n=n.
P(E)=mnP(E)=mn
DEFINITION
Odds in favour of an event
Odds in favour of a particular event are given by Number of favorable outcomes to Number of unfavorable outcomes.
P(A)=NumberoffavourableoutcomesNumberofunfavourableoutcomesP(A)=NumberoffavourableoutcomesNumberofunfavourabl
eoutcomes
DEFINITION
Odds against an event
Odds against is given by Number of unfavourable outcomes to number of favourable outcomes.
P(A)=NumberofunfavourableoutcomesNumberoffavourableoutcomesP(A)=NumberofunfavourableoutcomesNumberoffavourabl
eoutcomes
EXAMPLE
Find odds of an event
Q. There are three events A, B, and C out of which one and only one can happen. The odds are 7 to 3 against A and 6 to 4 against B. The odds
against C are
Sol: According to question: P(A)′P(A)=73P(A)′P(A)=73
P(A)=310P(A)=310 and P(A)′=710P(A)′=710
P(B)′P(B)=64P(B)′P(B)=64
P(B)=410P(B)=410 and P(B)′=610P(B)′=610
P(A∪B∪C)=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)P(A∪B∪C)=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)
Because A,B, and C are three events out of which one and only one can happen, So: 1=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)1=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)
1=310+410+P(C)1=310+410+P(C)
P(C)=310;P(C)′=710P(C)=310;P(C)′=710
The odds against C P(C)′P(C)=73=7P(C)′P(C)=73=7 to 33
DEFINITION
Properties of Probability
1.Probability of an event lies between 0 and 10 and 1.
2. Probability of impossible event is 00.
3. Probability of sure event is 11.
DEFINITION
Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is known as sample space.
DEFINITION
Classical probability
The probability of an event EE to occur is the ratio of the number of cases in its favour to the total number of cases which are equally likely.
P(E)=n(E)n(S)=no.ofcasesfavourabletoeventETotalno.ofcasesP(E)=n(E)n(S)=no.ofcasesfavourabletoeventETotalno.ofcases
DEFINITION
Axiomatic approach to probability
Let SS be the sample space of a random experiment. The probability PP is a real valued function whose domain is the power set of SS and range
is the interval [0,1][0,1] satisfying the following axioms:
1. For any event EE, P(E)≥0P(E)≥0

2. P(S)=1P(S)=1
3. If EE and FF are mutually exclusive events, then P(E∪F)=P(E)+P(F)P(E∪F)=P(E)+P(F).
FORMULA
Probability of equally likely outcomes
Let a sample set of an experiment be S={E1,E2,E3,.......,En}S={E1,E2,E3,.......,En}.
If all the outcomes are equally likely then the chance of occurrence of each
simple event must be same.
P(Ei)=pP(Ei)=p
Also, ∑ni=1P(Ei)=p+p+p+...........(ntimes)=1∑i=1nP(Ei)=p+p+p+...........(ntimes)=1
Let SS be a sample space and EE be an event, such that n(S)=nn(S)=n and n(E)=mn(E)=m. If
each out come is equally likely, then
P(E)=mnP(E)=mn
DEFINITION
Successive trials
Successive trials are events which are performed one after the other; all of which are mutually exclusive.
DEFINITION
Event
The set of outcomes from an experiment is known as an Event.
DEFINITION
Impossible and Sure Event
Impossible event is the event that cannot happen.
Sure event is the event that will always happen.
DEFINITION
Simple events
If an event EE has only one sample point of a sample space, it is called a simplesimple (or(or elementary)elementary) eventevent.
In a sample space containing nn distinct elements, there are exactly nn simple events.
E.g.: Consider the experiment of tossing two coins simultaneously. The sample space is given by S={HH,HT,TH,TT}S={HH,HT,TH,TT}.
There are four simple events corresponding to this sample space, which are {HH}{HH}, {HT}{HT}, {TH}{TH} and {TT}{TT}.
DEFINITION
Compound events
If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a CompoundCompound eventevent.
E.g.: In the experiment of tossing two coins simultaneously, events like "at leats one head appeared", where the subset of SS associated with the
event is {HH,HT,TH}{HH,HT,TH}, are called compound events as they contain more than one sample point
DEFINITION
Complementary Events
EE and E¯¯¯¯E¯ are complementary events i.e. for any event EE , the event of non-occurence of EE is called its complementary event and is
denoted by E¯¯¯¯E¯.
DEFINITION
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are said to be mutually exclusive when both cannot occur simultaneously.
If A and B are two events, then
then (A∩B)=ϕ(A∩B)=ϕ
P(A∩B)=0P(A∩B)=0
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)
DEFINITION
Exhaustive Events
A set of event is said to be exhaustive if at least one of the events must occur.
If A and B are two events and sample space is S,S, then
(A∪B)=S(A∪B)=S
P(A∪B)=1P(A∪B)=1
DEFINITION
Occurrence of event
The event EE of a sample space SS is said to have occurred if the outcome ωω of the experiment is such that ω∈Eω∈E. If the outcome ωω is
such that ω∉Eω∉E, we say that the event EE has not occurred.
E.g.: Consider the experiment of drawing a card from a pack of cards. Let EE denote the event "drawing of an ace". If actually an ace has been
drawn, we say that event EE has occurred.
DEFINITION
Union of events
Consider sets AA and BB as two events associated with a sample space. Then, A∪BA∪B represents the event "either AA or BB or both".
DEFINITION
Intersection of events
Consider sets AA and BB as two events associated with a sample space. Then, A∩BA∩B represents the events "which are common to
both AA and BB".
DEFINITION
Intersection of event A and event not B
Intersection of event AA and event notnot BB is the set of all those events which belong to AA but not to BB. It is also denoted by A−BA−B.
EXAMPLE
Identification of events
Q. The probabilities of three mutually exclusive events A, B, C are : P(A)=2/3,P(B)=1/4,P(C)=1/6.P(A)=2/3,P(B)=1/4,P(C)=1/6. Is the
statement true or false?
Sol: Since the events A, B, C are mutually exclusive, we have
P(A∪B∪C)=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)P(A∪B∪C)=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)
=23+14+16=1312>1=23+14+16=1312>1
which is impossible since the probability of any event cannot be greater than 1.
FORMULA
Probability of complement of an event
If the complement of an event AA is given by A¯A¯, then
P(A¯)=1−P(A)P(A¯)=1−P(A)
EXAMPLE
Union, intersection or difference of events
Q. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events then P(A∩B)=0P(A∩B)=0
Sol: The basic meaning of the exclusive event is the events are unique and there will be no set of common elements if we compare both the
sets...so the probability is zero.
DIAGRAM
Sample space diagram
Consider the experiment of tossing of 2 coins simultaneously. One way of displaying and finding out the possible combined outcomes is by using
a sample space diagram.
DIAGRAM
Tree diagram
Consider the experiment of tossing of 3 coins simultaneously. One way of displaying and finding out the possible combined outcomes is by using
a tree diagram.
DIAGRAM
Venn diagrams help us in seeing how the events relate to each other.
Consider the experiment of tossing two coins simultaneously.
Event A: First coin shows tail
Event B: Second coin shows tail
The Sample space is represented by a rectangle and the elements of the sample space by points within.
EXAMPLE
Diagrammatic representation of outcomes
Q. If A⊂BA⊂B, then P(A∩Bc)=P(A∩Bc)=

Sol: Since A⊂B⇒AA⊂B⇒A and BcBc are disjoint sets
⇒A∩Bc=ϕ∴P(A∩Bc)=0⇒A∩Bc=ϕ∴P(A∩Bc)=0
DEFINITION
Conditional Probability
The probability of occurrence of an event A1A1, given that A2A2 has already occurred is
called conditionalconditional probabilityprobability of occurrence of A1A1 on the condition that A2A2 has already occurred.
It is denoted by P(A1|A2)P(A1|A2).
P(A1|A2)=P(A1∩A2)P(A2)P(A1|A2)=P(A1∩A2)P(A2), provided P(A2)≠0P(A2)≠0

FORMULA
Properties of Conditional Probability
1. If A1A1 and A2A2 are independent events, then P(A2|A1)=P(A2)P(A2|A1)=P(A2).
2. If A1,A2,A3,......,AnA1,A2,A3,......,An are independent events,
then P(A1∪A2∪A3∪.......∪An)=1−P(A1¯)⋅P(A2¯)⋅P(A3¯)........P(An¯)P(A1∪A2∪A3∪.......∪An)=1−P(A1¯)⋅P(A2¯)⋅P(A3¯).
.......P(An¯).
3. If A1A1and A2A2 are two events such that A2≠ϕA2≠ϕ, then P(A1|A2)+P(A1¯|A2)=1P(A1|A2)+P(A1¯|A2)=1.
4. If A1A1 and A2A2 are two events such that A1≠ϕA1≠ϕ,
then P(A2)=P(A1)⋅P(A2|A1)+P(A1¯)⋅P(A2|A1¯)P(A2)=P(A1)⋅P(A2|A1)+P(A1¯)⋅P(A2|A1¯)
5. If A1,A2A1,A2 and A3A3 are three events such that A1≠ϕ,A1A2≠ϕA1≠ϕ,A1A2≠ϕ,
then P(A1∩A2∩A3)=P(A1)⋅P(A2|A1)⋅P(A3|A1A2)P(A1∩A2∩A3)=P(A1)⋅P(A2|A1)⋅P(A3|A1A2).
EXAMPLE
Conditional probability
Q. If A and B are independent events then P(BA)=P(BA)=
Sol: If A and B are independent events then: P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B)P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B)
P(BA)=P(A∩B)P(A)=P(A)P(B)P(A)=P(B)P(BA)=P(A∩B)P(A)=P(A)P(B)P(A)=P(B)
DEFINITION
Dependent and independent events
Events are said to be dependentdependent if the happening (or non-happening) of one event is affected by the happening (or non-happening)
of another event.
Events are said to be independentindependent if the happening (or non-happening) of one event is notnot affected by the happening (or non-
happening) of others.
DEFINITION
Multiplication theorem of probability
If AA and BB are two events then
P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B|A)P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B|A), if P(A)≠0P(A)≠0
P(A∩B)=P(B)P(A|B)P(A∩B)=P(B)P(A|B), if P(B)≠0P(B)≠0
FORMULA
Multiplication theorem of probability for 3 or more events
If A1,A2,A3,.....,AnA1,A2,A3,.....,An are nn events related to a random experiment, then
P(A1∩A2∩......∩An)=P(A1)P(A3A1∩A2)......P(AnA1∩A2∩......∩An−1)P(A1∩A2∩......∩An)=P(A1)P(A3A1∩A2)......P(AnA1
∩A2∩......∩An−1)
where P(AiA1∩A2∩......∩Ai−1)P(AiA1∩A2∩......∩Ai−1) represents the conditional probability of the event AiAi, given
that A1,A2,A3,.....,Ai−1A1,A2,A3,.....,Ai−1 have already occurred.
DEFINITION
Nature of independent events using multiplication theorem
If AA and BB are two independent events associated with a random experiment,
then P(A|B)=P(A)P(A|B)=P(A) and P(B|A)=P(B)P(B|A)=P(B). Also,
P(A∩B)=P(A)⋅P(B)P(A∩B)=P(A)⋅P(B)
FORMULA
Simultaneous occurrence of two or more independent events
If A1,A2,A3,......,AnA1,A2,A3,......,An are independent events associated with a random experiment, then
P(A1∩A2∩A3∩.........∩An)=P(A1)⋅P(A2)⋅P(A3).......P(An)P(A1∩A2∩A3∩.........∩An)=P(A1)⋅P(A2)⋅P(A3).......P(An)
EXAMPLE
Occurrence of at least one event
Q. A card is drawn and replaced four times from an ordinary pack of 52 playing cards. The probability that at least once heart is drawn
Sol: Probability, when one card is drawn from a card pack of 52 and not a heart, is =1−1352=34=1−1352=34 (There are 13 spade cards in a
pack of 52 cards)
Probability of at least one heart is drawn == 1 −− Probability that none of the four is heart
=1−(34)4=1−(34)4
EXAMPLE
Multiplication theorem
Q. The odds against a certain event are 5 to 2 and the odds in favour of another event independent of the former are 6 to 5. The probability that
none of the events will happen is
Sol: Let's say odds against a certain event are 5 to 2 is case A: P(A)=27P(A)=27
And another case is favour of an other event are 6 to 5 is case B: P(B)=611P(B)=611
Probability that none of the events will happen is=1−P(A)−P(B)+P(A∩B)=1−P(A)−P(B)+P(A∩B)
=1−P(A)−P(B)+P(A)P(B)=1−P(A)−P(B)+P(A)P(B)
=1−27−611+(27×611)=1−27−611+(27×611)
=2577=2577
EXAMPLE
Addition and multiplication theorem
A and B alternately throw a pair of symmetrical dice. Who ever throws a sum of 9 points first will be declared as winner. If A starts the game, the
probability of his winning is ?
Let's denote event S for sum to be 9.
Then S will happen when the dice show the combination of {3,6 and 4,5}
P(S)=2!×{P(3)P(6)+P(4)P(5)}⇒P(S)=2×{162+162}=19P(S)=2!×{P(3)P(6)+P(4)P(5)}⇒P(S)=2×{162+162}=19
If A starts the game then:
P(Awins)=P(S)+P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)P(S)+P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)P(S)+........................∞P(Awins)=P(S)+P(S¯)P(S¯)P(S)+
P(S¯)P(S¯)P(S¯)P(S¯)P(S)+........................∞
This is an infinite G.P sum with first term=P(S)P(S) and common ratio=P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯)P(S¯)
Hence P(Awins)=P(S)1−P(S¯¯¯)P(S¯¯¯)=19×8181−64=917P(Awins)=P(S)1−P(S¯)P(S¯)=19×8181−64=917
DEFINITION
Partition of a sample space
A partition of the sample space SS is a collection of
disjoint events B1,B2,...BkB1,B2,...Bk whose union is SS. Such a
partition divides any set SS into disjoint pieces.
In other words, B1∪B2∪B3∪......∪Bk=SB1∪B2∪B3∪......∪Bk=S

FORMULA
Theorem of total probability
If B1,B2,B3,.....B1,B2,B3,..... is a partition of the sample space SS, then for any event AA we have
A=⋃i(A∩Bi)A=⋃i(A∩Bi)
As the pieces are disjoint, we have
P(A)=∑iP(A∩Bi)P(A)=∑iP(A∩Bi)
Applying the multiplication rule gives:
P(A)=∑iP(A∩Bi)=∑iP(A|Bi)P(Bi)
DIFFERENTIATION
DEFINITION
Geometrical Interpretation
The derivative of f(x)f(x) at point P is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x)f(x) at point P.
EXAMPLE
Derivative of polynomial functions using first principle
Q. lf f(x)=x|x|f(x)=x|x| is differentiable in
Sol: f(x)={−x2,x<0x2,x≥0f(x)={−x2,x<0x2,x≥0
f is differentiable at every except at possibly at x=0x=0
check derivability at x=0x=0
f′(x)={−2x,x<02x,x≥0f′(x)={−2x,x<02x,x≥0
clearly, L.H.D. =0==0=R.H.D. ⇒⇒ f is differentiable in RR
EXAMPLE
Derivative of Power Function
d(x√)dx=d(x)dx=
y=x√y=x
dydx=limδx→0x+δx−−−−−√−x√δxdydx=limδx→0x+δx−xδx
Multiply above and below by x+δx−−−−−√−x√x+δx−x
=limδx→0(x+δx)−xδx[(x+δx)−−−−−−−√+(x)−−−√]=limδx→0(x+δx)−xδx[(x+δx)+(x)]
=1(x)−−−√+x√=12(x)−−−√.=1(x)+x=12(x).
DEFINITION
Derivative of Rational Function
f(x)=2x+3x−2f(x)=2x+3x−2
Function is not defined at x=2x=2 .
f′(x)=limh→0f(x+h)−f(x)hf′(x)=limh→0f(x+h)−f(x)h
limh→02(x+h)+3x+h−2−2x+3x−2hlimh→02(x+h)+3x+h−2−2x+3x−2h
Expand the expression and use the property of limits
=−7(x−2)2=−7(x−2)2
EXAMPLE
Derivative of function using first principle
Q. Let f(x) be a defined on R such that f(1)=2,f(2)=8f(1)=2,f(2)=8 and f(u+v)=f(u)+kuv−2vf(u+v)=f(u)+kuv−2v 22 for u,v∈∈ R(k is a
fixed constant). then
Sol: Given, f(x+h)=f(x)+kxh−2h2f(x+h)=f(x)+kxh−2h2
Limf(x+h)−f(x)h=Limkx−2hLimf(x+h)−f(x)h=Limkx−2h
h→oh→o h→oh→o
f′(x)=kxf′(x)=kx
f(x)=kx22+cf(x)=kx22+c
f(1)=k2+cf(1)=k2+c
2=k2+c...(i)2=k2+c...(i)
f(2)=2k+cf(2)=2k+c
8=2k+c...(ii)8=2k+c...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get
k=4k=4 & c=0c=0
Then,
f(x)=2x2f(x)=2x2
f′(x)=4xf′(x)=4x
DEFINITION
Condition for derivative of a function to exist
f(x)f(x) is differentiable at x=cx=c
LHf′(c)=RfH′(c)LHf′(c)=RfH′(c)
DEFINITION
Derivative of sum/difference of functions
If f(x)f(x) and g(x)g(x) are both derivable at x=ax=a , f(x)±g(x)f(x)±g(x) , f(x).g(x)f(x).g(x)
and f(x)g(x)f(x)g(x) will also be derivable at x=ax=a
DEFINITION
Leibinitz Rule
uu and vv are functions of xx
ddx(uv)=udvdx+vdvdxddx(uv)=udvdx+vdvdx
DEFINITION
Quotient Rule
Given functions of g(x)g(x) and h(x)h(x)
f(x)=g(x)h(x)f(x)=g(x)h(x) and h(x)≠0h(x)≠0
f′(x)=h(x)g′(x)−g(x)h′(x)(h(x))2f′(x)=h(x)g′(x)−g(x)h′(x)(h(x))2
EXAMPLE
Derivative of product of 3 functions
Let f(x)=tan2x.tan3x.tan5xf(x)=tan⁡2x.tan⁡3x.tan⁡5x then, f′(π)f′(π) equals
f(x)=tan2xtan3xtan5xf(x)=tan⁡2xtan⁡3xtan⁡5x
f(x)=tan5x−tan2x−tan3xf(x)=tan⁡5x−tan⁡2x−tan⁡3x
f(x)=tan5x−tan2x−tan3xf(x)=tan⁡5x−tan⁡2x−tan⁡3x
f′(x)=5sec25x−2sec22x−3sec23xf′(x)=5sec2⁡5x−2sec2⁡2x−3sec2⁡3x
f′(π)=5−2−3f′(π)=5−2−3
=0
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
DEFINITION
Slope of Tangent
Given the curve y=f(x)y=f(x)
Slope of the tangent =dydx=dydx
DEFINITION
Slope of tangent /normal
If the slope of the tangent to the curve
y=x3y=x3 at a point on it is equal to the ordinate of the point then the point is
dydx=3x2dydx=3x2
3a2=a33a2=a3
a=3a=3
slope=27slope=27
(3,33)(3,33)
(3,27)(3,27)
DEFINITION
Tangent and Normal
Given the curve f(x)f(x) and a point on the curve
1.Differentiate the curve and find dydxdydx .
2.dy/dx=mdy/dx=m
3. Given the co -ordinates of a point and slope , the equation of tangent can be derived using straight line formula.
SHORTCUT
Length of Tangent /Normal
Length of tangent
=∣∣∣y11+[dxdy]2(x1,y1)−−−−−−−−−−−√∣∣∣.=|y11+[dxdy](x1,y1)2|.
Length of normal
=∣∣∣y11+(dydx)2(x1,y1)−−−−−−−−−−−−√∣∣∣=|y11+(dydx)(x1,y1)2|
VECTOR ALGEBRA
LAW
Distributive property of cross product over addition
Let a,ba,b and cc be any three vectors,then
1. a×(b+c)=a×b+a×ca×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
2. (b+c)×a=b×a+c×a(b+c)×a=b×a+c×a
For eg:-
Let a=2i^+4j^−k^,a=2i^+4j^−k^, b=i^−2j^+3k^b=i^−2j^+3k^ and c=i^−5j^+k^c=i^−5j^+k^
b+c=2i^−7j^+4k^b+c=2i^−7j^+4k^
Now, a⃗ ×(b⃗ +c⃗ )a→×(b→+c→)
=∣∣∣∣∣i^22j^4−7k^−14∣∣∣∣∣=|i^j^k^24−12−74|
=i^(16−7)−j^(8+2)+k^(−14−8)=i^(16−7)−j^(8+2)+k^(−14−8)
=9i^−10j^−22k^=9i^−10j^−22k^
a⃗ ×b⃗ a→×b→
=(2i^+4j^−k^)×(i^−2j^+3k^)=(2i^+4j^−k^)×(i^−2j^+3k^)
=∣∣∣∣∣i^21j^4−2k^−13∣∣∣∣∣=|i^j^k^24−11−23|
=i^(12−2)−j^(6+1)+k^(−4−4)=i^(12−2)−j^(6+1)+k^(−4−4)
=10i^−7j^−8k^=10i^−7j^−8k^
And a⃗ ×c⃗ a→×c→

=∣∣∣∣∣i^21j^4−5k^−11∣∣∣∣∣=|i^j^k^24−11−51|
=i^(4−5)−j^(2+1)+k^(−10−4)=i^(4−5)−j^(2+1)+k^(−10−4)
=−i^−3j^−14k^=−i^−3j^−14k^
a⃗ ×b⃗ +a⃗ ×c⃗ =9i^−10j^−22kâ→×b→+a→×c→=9i^−10j^−22k^
Hence, a×(b+c)=a×b+a×ca×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
DEFINITION
Position Vectors
The vector OA which represents the position of the point A with respect to a fixed point O (called origin) is called a position vector of the point
A.
If (x,y,z)(x,y,z) are coordinates of the point A, then OA→OA→ =xi^+yj^+zk^=xi^+yj^+zk^
For eg:- a⃗ =i^+2j^−4kâ→=i^+2j^−4k^
DEFINITION
Zero or null vector
A vector having zero magnitude (arbitrary direction) is called the null (zero) vector. The zero vector is unique.
For eg:- A point have no magnitude and an arbitrary direction.
Unit vector is a vector of unit length.

If uu is a unit vector, then it is denoted by uû^ and |u^|=1|u^|=1
For eg:- v=i^+0j^+0k^v=i^+0j^+0k^
Then v^v^ is a unit vector, since |v^|=1|v^|=1.
DEFINITION
Co-intial vectors
Any two vectors are called co-initial vectors if both have same initial point i.e. they originate from the same point.
For eg:- OA→OA→ and OB→OB→ have initial point OO.
So, they are co-initial vectors.
DEFINITION Collinear points
Two vectors are collinear if they have the same direction or are parallel or anti-parallel.
They can be expressed in the form a=kba=kb where aa and bb are vectors and 'kk' is a scalar quantity.
For eg:- A(4,1,3),B(8,4,6)A(4,1,3),B(8,4,6) and C(20,13,15)C(20,13,15) are three points.
Then, AB→AB→ and BC→BC→ are collinear.
DEFINITION
Direction Cosine
Given a vector (a,b,c)(a,b,c) in three-space, the direction cosines of this vector are
cos(α)=aa2+b2+c2−−−−−−−−−−√cos⁡(α)=aa2+b2+c2
cos(β)=ba2+b2+c2−−−−−−−−−−√cos⁡(β)=ba2+b2+c2
cos(γ)=ca2+b2+c2−−−−−−−−−−√cos⁡(γ)=ca2+b2+c2
Here the direction angles α,β,γα,β,γ are the angles that the vector makes with the positive x,yx,y and zz axes, respectively.
DEFINITION
Equal vectors
Two vectors a⃗ a→ and b⃗ b→ are equal if they have the same magnitude i.e. (|a⃗ |=∣∣b⃗ ∣∣)(|a→|=|b→|), and they are in the same direction.
They may start from different positions.
For eg:- Given 44 points A(−1,3),B(2,4),C(1,−2)A(−1,3),B(2,4),C(1,−2) and D(4,−1)D(4,−1)
Then, AB→AB→ and CD→CD→ are equal, because |AB→|=|CD→||AB→|=|CD→|
DEFINITION
Direction angles
The direction angles of a vector are the angles α,β,γα,β,γ which a vector makes with the positive directions of the coordinates
axes OX,OY,OZOX,OY,OZ respectively.
DEFINITION
Negative vector
The vector which have the same magnitude as the vector aa but opposite direction is called the negative of aa and is denoted by −a−a.
Thus if PQ→=aPQ→=a, then QP→=−aQP→=−a.
DEFINITION
Like and unlike vectors
Vectors are said to be like when they have the same sense of direction.
Vectors having opposite direction with respect to each other are called unlike vectors.
Eg:- In first figure, vector ABAB and vector CDCD are like vectors, because they have same direction.
In second figure, vector ABAB and vector CDCD are unlike vectors, because they have opposite direction.
DEFINITION
Square of a vector
If aa is any vector, then by convention a.aa.a will be denoted by a2a2
a2=a.a=|a||a|cos0=|a|2a2=a.a=|a||a|cos⁡0=|a|2
For eg:- Let a⃗ =5i^+7jâ→=5i^+7j^
Then, (a⃗ )2=a⃗ ⋅a⃗ =(5i^+7j^)⋅(5i^+7j^)=5⋅5+7⋅7=25+49=74(a→)2=a→⋅a→=(5i^+7j^)⋅(5i^+7j^)=5⋅5+7⋅7=25+49=74
And |a⃗ |2=(25+49−−−−−−√)2=74|a→|2=(25+49)2=74
Hence, (a⃗ )2=|a⃗ |2(a→)2=|a→|2
EXAMPLE
Solve problems on different types of vectors
In Figure, identify the following vectors.

(i) Coinitial
(ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
Solution: (i)Vectors a⃗ a→ and d⃗ d→ are coinitial because they have the same initial point.
(ii) Vectors b⃗ b→ and d⃗ d→ are equal because they have the same magnitude and direction.
(iii) Vectors a⃗ a→ and b⃗ b→ are collinear but not equal as they are parallel, their directions are not the same.Vectors b⃗ b→ and d⃗ d→ are
collinear and equal vectors as they are parallel and their directions are same.
FORMULA
Triangular law
Triangle law of vector addition states that when two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in magnitude, and direction taken in same
order then third side of that triangle represents(in magnitude and direction) the resultant of the vectors.
Thus, OR=p,RS=q,OS=rOR=p,RS=q,OS=r then OR+RS=OSOR+RS=OS i.e., p+q=rp+q=r
DEFINITION
Parallelogram law of vector addition
Parallelogram law of vector addition states that when two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram by direction and
magnitude, then the resultant of these vectors is represented(in magnitude and direction) by the diagonal of the parallelogram starting from the
same point.
FORMULA
Polygonal Law of addition
Polygon law of vector addition states that if a number of vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in
the same order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite order.
EXAMPLE
Apply polygonal law of vectors
Example:- ABCDEFABCDEF be a regular hexagon, and AB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯=a¯¯¯AB¯=a¯, BC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯=b¯¯BC¯=b¯ then,
find AD¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯+EB¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯+FC¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AD¯+EB¯+FC¯.
Solution:-
AD−→−=AB−→−+BC−→−+CD−→−AD→=AB→+BC→+CD→
EB−→−=ED−→−+DC−→−+CB−→−EB→=ED→+DC→+CB→
FC−→−=FE−→−+ED−→−+DC−→−FC→=FE→+ED→+DC→
AD−→−+EB−→−+FC−→−=AB−→−+ED−→−+FE−→−+ED−→−+DC−→−AD→+EB→+FC→=AB→+ED→+FE→+ED→+
DC→
=a¯¯¯+2a¯¯¯+FE−→−+DC−→−=a¯+2a¯+FE→+DC→
=3a¯¯¯+b¯¯+a¯¯¯−b¯¯ (FE−→−=BC−→− FE−→−||BC−→−)=3a¯+b¯+a¯−b¯ (FE→=BC→ FE→||BC→)

=4a¯¯¯=4a¯
LAW
Properties of vector addition
Vector addition follows:
1. Associative law: A⃗ +(B⃗ +C⃗ )=(A⃗ +B⃗ )+C⃗ A→+(B→+C→)=(A→+B→)+C→
2. Commutative law: A⃗ +B⃗ =B⃗ +A⃗ A→+B→=B→+A→
3. Distributive law: k(A⃗ +B⃗ )=kA⃗ +kB⃗ k(A→+B→)=kA→+kB→ (kk is a scalar)
Note: There are two other forms of distributive lawA⃗ .(B⃗ +C⃗ )=A⃗ .B⃗ +A⃗ .C⃗ A→.(B→+C→)=A→.B→+A→.C→
A⃗ ×(B⃗ +C⃗ )=A⃗ ×B⃗ +A⃗ ×C⃗ A→×(B→+C→)=A→×B→+A→×C→
LAW
Associative property of vector product
Vector product is not associative i.e. If a,ba,b and cc are any three vectors, then
a×(b×c)≠(a×b)×ca×(b×c)≠(a×b)×c
For eg:- Take any two perpendicular vectors aa and bb
Then, (a×a)×b=0×b=0(a×a)×b=0×b=0
But a×(a×b)≠0a×(a×b)≠0
Hence, a×(a×b)≠(a×a)×ba×(a×b)≠(a×a)×b
DEFINITION Definition
Vectors are those quantities which have both magnitude and direction .
Eg:- velocity, force, acceleration etc
A directed line having certain length is magnitude and an arrow indicating the direction is also a vector.

Mayank Goyals Maths Class 9

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Mayank Goyals Maths Class 9

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

VEDIC MATHEMATICS

DEFINITION Ekadhik (one more)

EXAMPLE Addition by Ekadhikena Purvena

SHORTCUT Multiplication of fractions

If z>xz>x then the difference between the numbers is

If x=zx=z then difference is 00.

1 kilometre (km)= 1000 m

1 Hectometre (hm) = 100 m

1 Decametre (dcm)=10 Metres (m)

1 Metre (m) = 100 cm = 1000 mm

1 decimeter = 0.1 meter

1 Centimetre (cm)=10 Millimetres (mm)

1 centimeter = 0.01 meter

1 millimeter = 0.001 meter

Integers ={..,−5,−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4,5,..}={..,−5,−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4,5,..}, therefore, the number line, marked 00 anywhere on it

System of whole numbers under Subtraction:

System of whole numbers under Multiplication:

System of whole numbers under Division:

Let's subtract two natural numbers 2424 and 99.

Take a natural number 6363 and divide it by 33.

Take two natural/whole numbers 1414 and 33

Decimal point key:-

Four function keys:-

Example: 1212 and 1717 are co-primes to each other.

many natural numbers.

12+34=1×4+3×22×4=4+68=108=5412+34=1×4+3×22×4=4+68=108=54 is a rational number

12−34=1×4−3×22×4=4−68=−28=−1412−34=1×4−3×22×4=4−68=−28=−14 is a rational number

12×34=1×32×4=3812×34=1×32×4=38 is a rational number

1234=1×42×3=1×21×3=231234=1×42×3=1×21×3=23 is a rational number

Group (ii) :5+(−6+23):5+(−6+23)

As, in both the groups the sum is same.

i.e. 3838th of the room.

What about 4848 and 20302030 ?

Hence, 4848 and 20302030 are not equivalent.

4836=48÷236÷24836=48÷236÷2 .... Since 22 is a factor of both numerator and denominator

=2418=24÷218÷2=2418=24÷218÷2 ....... Since 22 is a factor of both numerator and denominator

=129=12÷39÷3=129=12÷39÷3 ...... Since 33 is a factor of both numerator and denominator

=2×8−2×58×5=2×8−2×58×5 ....... Cross multiplying the numbers

Example: Let 6√6 and 6√6 be two irrational numbers then:

Consider 2√2 and 52√52 be two irrational numbers

Find the number 3.7653.765 by magnification.

1. We divide the bigger number by smaller one.

LCM =LCM of NumeratorsHCF of Denominators=LCM of NumeratorsHCF of Denominators

Now, H.C.F. of 120120 and 2250=2×3×5=302250=2×3×5=30

L.C.M. of 120120 and 2250=23×32×53=90002250=23×32×53=9000

PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

SQUARE AND SQUARE ROOTS

(2) 5,125,12 and 1313 are Pythagorean triplets.

CUBE AND CUBE ROOTS

Find the product using appropriate identity:

This is x3−23x3−23, so we get:

Draw a line segment AB=aAB=a units. extend it to C.C.

Draw a square ABCDABCD with AB=aAB=a units

Take OA=aOA=a unit and make a square OABCOABC.

 Divide 4x4+3x3+2x+14x4+3x3+2x+1 by x2+x+2x2+x+2

Dividing 2x3+x2−2x−12x3+x2−2x−1 by (x−1)(x−1),

The H.C.F. of Variables == The H.C.F. of x2y3x2y3 and xy2zxy2z is xy2xy2

Add/Subtract Rational Expression with Different Denominators

Division of Rational Expressions

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLE

A line is parallel to yy-axis when its xx coordinate is zero i.e. x=0x=0

Two lines y=m1x+c1y=m1x+c1 and y=m2x+c2y=m2x+c2 are said to be perpendicular if m1.m2=−1m1.m2=−1

To find equation of line perpendicular to given line: