2016

Handout in
Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics

DERICK R. REBAY
Subject Teacher
CVNHS| Senior High School
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LESSON 1: Gender

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to discuss gender roles in Philippine
society from pre-colonial to the present era.

How do gender roles vary across cultures according to a particular culture’s beliefs
and expectations concerning men and women’s roles?

Learn about it!

Gender and Gender Roles
People play different roles in society depending on age and occupation. There are
jobs that require a specific gender to perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men
and women.
Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related
to males and females based on certain social contexts.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish
a male from a female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine
or feminine.
Gender Roles
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person
to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain
housewives and take care of their children, while men are expected to be
professionals and provide the needs of their family.
 Another example is that society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive
while men are expected to be strong and capable of doing things that women
cannot do.

Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society

In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and
privileges. Different social functions were assigned to different members of society. There
were functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.
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Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan was also considered a healer, an adviser, and
a seer.

Gender Roles in Philippine Society during the Colonial Period

Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were restrained
from other activities outside their homes, while men were given more social functions.
These roles also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.
 With the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism,
the babaylan lost their role in the religious life of the community. This role was
taken over by Catholic priests. Women were relegated to doing household chores
and taking care of children. More often than not, young women were not sent to
school but instead trained to be good wives and mothers for their future families.
Some women were also forced to marry for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women had more freedom in society. They were
allowed to study and work in any field they wanted. They also adopted American
values. Men and women became equal in the sense that it became acceptable for
both genders to have jobs and be educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during
the Japanese period, women were usually kept inside their houses to protect
them from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy defending the
country, with most of them serving as soldiers.

Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society

At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing both men and women to
perform different tasks not based solely on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities and
strengths. For example, fields like engineering, architecture, and medicine, which are
often associated with men, have long been open to women. Likewise, there are also lots
of male teachers, nurses, chefs, and hairdressers nowadays.

Explore!
What are your hobbies? Do you have a hobby that is typically done by the opposite
sex? What do people say about your "unusual" hobby?

Try it!
Ask five of your friends about their dream jobs. Does any of these jobs tend to be
associated with men or women? What do you think about your friends’ dream jobs?
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What do you think?

Is it proper to limit a person’s choices based on his or her gender? Why or why
not?

Tips
Gender is a set of characteristics that pertains to a person’s masculinity or
femininity while biology determines sex. For example, a man is male because he has male
sex organs. He, however, can be considered effeminate because the things he likes are
often associated with women.

Keypoints
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related
to males and females based on certain social contexts.
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person
to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and
privileges. Different social functions were assigned to different members of society.
There were functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.
 Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were
restrained from other activities outside their homes, while men were given more
social functions. These roles also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new
colonizers.
 The present Filipino society has become more open in allowing people of
different genders to do things not based on their sex but based on their capabilities.
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LESSON 2: Socioeconomic Class

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss the different
socioeconomic classes that exist in Philippine society.

 What are the different socioeconomic classes in the Philippines?

 How did these socioeconomic classes change through time?

Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During

prehistoric times, our ancestors developed a society where people were assigned with
different social functions. However, as society changed, differences in societal functions
became wider and more diverse.

Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period

Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community was called a barangay. It
was headed by a datu or rajah. Our ancestors were divided into three different groups-
−maharlika, timawa, and alipin.

Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

 first social class
 composed of community leaders (datu) and their families
 also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat

Timawa (Freemen)
 second or “middle” social class
 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consisted of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who were not under debt
bondage
 had their own properties such as houses and pieces of land to cultivate

Alipin (Slaves)
 third class
 served another person or family as payment for debt
 became slaves when their families lost to a war with another
 were not bound to their masters for life
 could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they
marry a maharlika, who will then pay for their debt
 had two kinds-−aliping saguiguilid and aliping namamahay

Aliping Namamahay
 had their own properties such as houses or pieces of land
 often from the timawa class and became slaves because of debt or as punishment
for a wrongdoing
 could go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt

Aliping saguiguilid
 did not have the right to own any property
 often came from a family of slaves or were captives in war
 could also be sold or exchanged for goods or other slaves
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Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period

Upon the coming of the Spaniards, Philippine society changed and a new set of
socioeconomic classes was created. During this period, the people were divided based on
their ancestry—peninsulares, insulares, mestizo, and indio.

Peninsulares
 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain
 came from the word “peninsula,” which was in direct reference to the Spanish
peninsula

Insulares
 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
 came from the word “insular,” which means "from the islands"

Mestizos
 those of mixed ancestry
 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and indio couples
 had economic and political power because of their mixed heritage

Indios
 consisted of the natives
 the lowest class in society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom
 were forced to bow down to Spanish colonizers
This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until the time when
some insulares and mestizos were able to gain some form of power. In the 19th century,
the so-called “middle class” emerged—the principalia and the ilustrados.

Principalia
 consisted of native leaders in the government and their families
 were often educated and served as gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de
barangay (barangay leader)

Ilustrados
 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe
 consisted mostly of the popular artists and scholars of the period, including Jose
Rizal

Modern Socioeconomic Classes

Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from
Spain. The Americans introduced democracy and did not impose any form of
socioeconomic class in the country.
At present, a person’s position in society is based mainly on his or her family’s economic
status. Social stratification or the division of society based on occupation, income,
wealth, or power is simpler at present than in the past.
In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population
into high-income, middle-income, and low-income classes.

High-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per month
 the “rich” class that accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total
population

Middle-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per month
 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs
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Low-income Class
 people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month
 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners

Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific class have no choice
but to die as part of the same class, people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity
to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one.
This process, called social mobility, is:

 the movement of people or families within or between different levels in society,

and
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one
possibly through education or marriage.

Explore!
Have you ever wondered why young children are often asked what they want to
be when they grow up? Most children choose to be doctors, engineers, lawyers, or any
high-earning profession that often comes from long years of education. In some cases,
students will choose their college degrees based solely on their socioeconomic capabilities.

Try it!
Research more about your community, and compare it to other communities in
your city or province. If possible, ask local leaders for basic information about the budget
and spending of your barangay. Compare your data with those of your classmates'. Note
the differences in budget and spending in each barangay. What may have caused the
differences you noted? Where did each barangay focus its spending?

What do you think?

In which socioeconomic class does your family belong? What can you do to help
your family climb up the modern socioeconomic ladder?

Tips
 Knowing about one’s socioeconomic class is not a cause for discrimination.
Everyone in the Philippines has the same set of rights regardless of socioeconomic
class.
 If one can move from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one, it is also possible
for the opposite to occur.

Key points
 Anyone can move from one socioeconomic class to another, depending
on educational attainment and life decisions.
 Social mobility is the movement of people or families within or between different
levels in society.
 Social stratification is the division of society based on occupation, income,
wealth, or power.
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LESSON 3: Ethnicity

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss different concepts
and issues regarding ethnicity and ethnic groups in the Philippines.

 What is ethnicity?
 What is race and how is it related to ethnicity?
 What are the issues regarding ethnicity?
 What are the ethnic groups in the Philippines?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Ethnicity and Race
Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races.
This makes society very diverse and unique.

Ethnicity
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a
common or shared culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
 Here, people are divided into groups based on different social factors.

Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.

Race
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as
skin color, height, and facial features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races-−Caucasoid, Mongoloid,
and Negroid.
 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face and
eyes, texture of the hair, and other prominent physical features.

Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For
example, Asians belong to the Mongoloid race but consists of different ethnic groups like
the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Malays. They all share the same physical features but
have different cultures, histories, and languages.
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Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines

There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are
based on the language each group uses.

 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:

1. Ilokano,
2. Kapampangan,
3. Pangasinense,
4. Tagalog,
5. Bikolano,
6. Ilonggo,
7. Cebuano, and
8. Waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are
the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan, and Zamboangueño.

There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same
ethnolinguistic groups, but have different cultures or traditions. Some of them are
the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the Mountain Province, and the Moros of
Mindanao.
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Issues about Race and Ethnicity

Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinities
or physical similarities. However, differences in ethnicity and race make some people
believe that one ethnic group is superior to others. This belief creates discrimination and
prejudice against people from minorities who are perceived to be of “inferior” ethnicity or
race.

There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race.

Racism
 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.
 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids) discriminated black Americans
(Negroids) who were descendants of immigrants from African countries.

Ethnocentrism
 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s culture.
 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim
countries because of their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and discrimination in Christian-
dominated regions like Metro Manila. Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao
between the government and Islamic militants, Christians tend to think that all
Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are discriminated and
prejudiced against in Muslim-dominated areas.

Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause crimes against it.

Genocide
 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group,
religion, or nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from another ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, executed by the Nazis of Germany led by
Adolf Hitler, killed millions of Jews all over Europe.

Ethnic cleansing
 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group
to banish them from a certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.

Explore!
Research about your family. Look into the ethnicity of your parents as well as your
grandparents. Is there anyone from your family who is part of a different race or ethnic
group? If so, how did your parents introduce you to the different cultures and languages
of your family?

Try it!
Pick five of your classmates or friends and ask them about Philippine languages
that they know. Ask them to share a characteristic or practice that distinguishes their
ethnic group from other groups.

What do you think?

In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of being ethnocentric?
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Key points
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a
common culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
 People from the same ethnic group share a
common culture, language, religion, belief, and tradition.
 There are more than 180 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as
skin color, height, and facial features.
 Racism is prejudice or discrimination against people of other races with the idea
that one’s race is superior to others'.
 Ethnocentrism is similar to racism, but it discriminates based on differences in
culture.
 Ethnocentrism and racism may lead to genocide or ethnic cleansing which are
crimes against a specific ethnic group or race.
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LESSON 4: Religion

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain religion as a form of cultural variation,
 describe the diversity of religions in the world and in the Philippines, and
 Analyze issues regarding religion in the world and in the Philippines.

 How is cultural variation explained in terms of religion?

 What are the existing religions in the world and in the Philippines?
 What are the issues surrounding differences in religion?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Religion as a Cultural Variation

 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies,
one of which is religion.
 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group
of people's belief in a god or a group of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.

Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.
 Among the major religions in the world
are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed
by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist, and since religion affects an individual’s
way of life, we can observe cultural variations in the form of different religions.

Religion in the Philippines

 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not
prescribe a specific set of activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to
choose his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain
portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the
country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of
inhabitants in the archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today. This variation in
religion is a product of the evolution of Philippine society across time.

Religion in the Philippines

 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not
prescribe a specific set of activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to
choose his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
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 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain
portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the
country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of
inhabitants in the archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today. This variation in
religion is a product of the evolution of Philippine society across time.

Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion

 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world,
more so in Philippine society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, Hindus believe in many
gods, and Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of
its followers and their interaction with other members of society.

Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion

Because people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious
groups or denominations cannot be prevented.

Problems or Conflicts
 Since differences in religion do not only mean worshipping different gods, conflicts
sometimes arise between believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while
some feel like those following other religions are taking advantage of their number.
 It may be easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer
or follower of a particular religion may offend a follower of another religion if he or
she imposes his or her religious beliefs or practices.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and
unfortunately, conflicts continue until now due to varying religions.

Solutions or Actions
 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, started recognizing
some of the special days celebrated by different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week, when Catholics
commemorate the suffering and death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the
Chinese celebrate the start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their
religious obligations without work getting in the way.
 To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word is respect.
This entails a conscious effort to acquire cultural knowledge and understand which
this course is mainly about.

Explore!
Do some research about the beliefs and practices of your religion and of others'
religions. List down their similarities and differences.

Try it!
Find some of your friends or friends of your family who belong to other religions. Ask them
how their religion affects the way they behave and interact in society. You may also ask
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them how much they know about other religions and their perceptions of the people who
belong to those religions.

What do you think?

In your opinion, why is it important to respect differences in religion and religious
practices?

Key points
 Cultural variation takes many forms, one of which is religion.
 Religion is a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief
in a god or group of gods.
 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism,
and Buddhism.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain
portion of the population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the
country, while some inhabitants practice Buddhism, Taoism, or Hinduism.
 Protestants also believe in Jesus Christ, but they do not share the same practices
as Catholicism.
 The Philippine government started to recognize special days in different
religions to give believers freedom to practice their own religions.
 Despite being largely Catholic, the Philippines remains a secular country. A
citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine
Constitution.
 Many conflicts happened because of cultural variations such as differences in
religion.
 Recognizing cultural variations and showing respect to different religions can
help avoid conflict.
 Respect can effectively be achieved through the conscious effort of acquiring
cultural knowledge and understanding.
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LESSON 5: Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 describe exceptionality and non-exceptionality as a form of social category or one’s
source of identity,
 explain the characteristics that make a person “exceptional,”
 discuss the challenges and problems affecting exceptional people, and
 suggest solutions to the problems.

 What makes a person exceptional?

 How similar/different are they from “non-exceptional” people?

Learn about it!

Exceptionality and the Exceptional People
People have different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges.
However, there are people who, from one reason or another, are described or categorized
by the society as exceptional.

What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or "different" mean to you?

How does society influence your knowledge and attitudes toward people with such labels
and differences?

Exceptionality
 a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from an
established norm in a society
 various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a person and
which makes it difficult for him or her to function properly in society

Exceptional People

 differ from societal and community standards of normalcy

 have learning or behavioral problems and physical and sensory disabilities
 are intellectually gifted

The characteristics that make a person exceptional may have been acquired from birth,
through a medical condition, or through an accident.
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Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems

Exceptional people, the disabled, or the intellectually gifted, encounter challenges
and issues in dealing with other members of the society.

Here are some common problems and challenges that exceptional people experience.

Overcoming Challenges and Problems

In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta
for People with Disabilities (PWDs) in 1991, there are still significant barriers that
keep exceptional people from fully participating in society-−including the stigma
surrounding disability and society’s poor understanding of the abilities and aspirations of
exceptional people. However, the government, private sectors, media, and some
concerned groups have been working together to solve these existing problems.

Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have been helping them.

The picture below shows the International Symbol of Access (ISA). It is found in locations
or spots that are designated for all persons with disabilities.
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Explore!
Aside from those already mentioned, what other rights and privileges do PWDs enjoy?

Try it!
Take note of areas where you see the ISA in malls and public transportations.
Compare the number of these spots to the number of PWDs in the Philippines. Are there
enough areas reserved for them in the country?

What do you think?

Research on some notable persons with disabilities who made a difference in the
world. What do you think made their achievements unique? What do their
accomplishments say about a person’s “disability”?

Key points
 Society categorizes people based on their characteristics, needs, desires,
lifestyles, and challenges.
 Exceptionality refers to a characteristic of a person that makes him or her
different from the established norms in society.
 Exceptional people are individuals who differ from societal and community
standards of normalcy.
 Some of the problems and challenges that the exceptional people experience
are discrimination, limited access to educational opportunities,
and isolation from society.
 Philippine Republic Act 7277 gives special rights and privileges to persons with
disabilities (PWDs).
 The International Symbol of Access (ISA) is placed in all areas that are
reserved for PWDs, regardless of their disability.
 By law, all public schools in the Philippines are mandated to offer special
education classes for all students with physical or learning disabilities.
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LESSON 6: Nationality

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define nationality as a concept in cultural variation and social differences,
 explain different concepts regarding nationality, and
 discuss issues regarding nationality and statelessness.
 What is nationality and how is it related to nation and citizenship?

 What does Philippine law say about Filipino nationality?

 How does the United Nations Organization resolve issues regarding the right to
have a nationality?
 What is statelessness? What happens to a stateless person?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship

The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality" is quite thin.
Most of the time, "nationality" and "citizenship" are used interchangeably. However, it is
important to note that these words do not mean the same thing and actually pertain to
different concepts.

Nation
A nation is a large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture,
language, and economic life through inhabiting a particular country or territory.

Example:
The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four nations:
English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh.

A nation emphasizes a particular group of people, and a country emphasizes the

physical dimensions and boundaries of a geographical area. On the other hand, a state is
a self-governing legal and political entity.

Nationality
 It is a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or country.
 It can be acquired by an individual from the country where he or she was born (jus
soli).
 It can be acquired by an individual through his or her parents (jus sanguinis)
 An individual is a national of a particular country by birth. Nationality is acquired
through inheritance from his or her parents.
 People with the same nationality often share the same language, culture, territory,
and in some cases, ancestry. They share the same rights and are protected by the
same laws.

Citizenship
 It is a person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which means that an
individual has been registered with the government in some country.
 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he or she is accepted into
that country’s political framework through legal terms.
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Examples:
 An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino nationality. He may, however,
apply for citizenship in another country, should he wish to (e.g. a Filipino national
applying for citizenship in Mexico).
 Some people from European Union member countries may have European
citizenships that are different from their nationalities (e.g. an Italian national who
is registered as a German citizen).
 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have a different
citizenship.

Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine Nationality Law is based on the principles of jus sanguinis or
"right of blood." Therefore, anyone with a parent who is a citizen or national of the
Republic of the Philippines can acquire Philippine citizenship. This is the primary
method of acquiring citizenship.
 For people born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents, the Administrative
Naturalization Law of 2000 (R.A. 9139) provides an avenue for administrative
naturalization.

Learn about it!

Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness
What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?

Right to a Nationality
 Every person has a right to a nationality.
 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an individual’s right
to acquire, change, or retain his or her nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot
deprive a person the right to gain a nationality, in case he or she loses it.

Statelessness
 People who do not have a nationality are considered as stateless people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless
Persons of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), "a
stateless person is someone who is not considered as a national by any State under
the operation of its law."
 Most stateless people are considered "refugees," while others lose their
nationalities due to war or conflict, or if their country is annexed by another country
and loses its sovereignty.

Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah

Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered "stateless." Thus, they are
not recognized as people with a nationality. They do not belong to any country or nation.

Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the Philippines, the people in
Sabah experience problems in securing their nationalities. Filipinos from nearby Sulu and
Tawi-tawi, even those who are born in Sabah, are not recognized by the Malaysian
government as Malaysians. They are also denied of their Filipino nationality since they are
not properly registered in the Philippines. As a result, they do not enjoy the rights and
privileges that citizens of either country enjoy.

This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and conflict.
 19

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handles all
issues regarding refugees and stateless people. The role of UNHCR is to identify stateless
people and protect their rights, as well as prevent statelessness from happening all over
the world. They also aid stateless people in acquiring new citizenship in other countries.

Explore!
Do some research on the number of stateless people in the world, and list the
reasons why they are considered stateless. How do you think can other countries, like the
Philippines, help them in their plight?

Try it!
Look for a foreigner living in the Philippines or a Filipino residing in another country.
Ask them the same question: Do you want to be a Filipino citizen? Why or why not? You
can use social media to look for respondents.

What do you think?

Why do you think a lot of Filipinos migrate to other countries and give up their
Filipino citizenship?

Keypoints
 Nationality is the person’s automatic membership to a specific nation
while citizenship is a person’s political status in a city or state.
 No one will be able to change his or her nationality, but one can have a different
citizenship.
 Every person has a right to a nationality because it is a fundamental human
right.
 Statelessness is not having a nationality.
 The role of the UNHCR is to identify stateless people, protect their rights, prevent
statelessness from happening all over the world, and aid refugees in acquiring new
citizenship in other countries.
 20

LESSON 7: Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 recognize behavior and phenomena in society which are socially, politically, and
culturally significant, and
 demonstrate curiosity and open-mindedness to explore the origins and dynamics
of society, culture, and politics.

 How should members of society respond toward different social, political, and
cultural behavior and phenomena?
 What is the proper attitude toward different social, political, and cultural behavior
and phenomena?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Social Behavior and Phenomena
Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological
concepts. These involve every event between at least two individuals and include all
knowledge and experiences a person acquires in the entirety of his or her lifetime.

Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that
influence a person’s life and development.

The table below shows some examples of social behavior and phenomena.

Political Behavior and Phenomena

In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which
authority, governance, and public opinion are put into practice.

A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political

views, ideologies, and levels of political participation. An example of an act of political
behavior is the act of voting.
 21

Political phenomena are not only limited to public offices as these also include
how institutions like schools, churches, or companies are ran and governed.

The table below shows some examples of political behavior and phenomena.

Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Also known as the bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is an event where
certain individuals behave a certain way merely because other persons do as well.

A cultural phenomenon happens when something or someone gains widespread

popularity. However, it is noteworthy that it is not the subject that is the cultural
phenomenon but rather the process of becoming famous.

The table below shows some examples of cultural behavior and phenomena.

Interactions within Society

Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the society are results
of interactions within society. People talk and share stories. People share ways of living
among other things. People do things together and work for the attainment of the common
good and social order. These behaviors, be they usual or not, are natural responses to
changes and ideologies developing within society as a result of constant interactions
between its members.

Explore!
 How should a person show curiosity about social, cultural, and political
phenomena?
 22

 Should people always be open to knowledge and experiences brought about by

social, cultural, and political behaviors? Explain your answer.

Try it!
Aside from what was mentioned in this lesson, identify other events and classify
them as either social, cultural, or political phenomena. Write at least two for each.

What do you think?

Is it possible for a person to gain knowledge and experiences without interacting
with other members of society? Explain your answer.

Key points
 Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructs that
influence a person’s life and development.
 Political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority,
governance, and public opinion are put into practice.
 Cultural behavior is emphasized when certain individuals behave a certain way
merely because other individuals do so as well.
 23

LESSON 8: Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain social, cultural, and political changes,
 recognize common concerns or events within society on the phenomenon of
change,
 explain the concept of social and cultural change and highlight the mechanisms,
and
 analyze social, political, and cultural change within society.

How do changes in society take place?

Find out the answer in this lesson!

Social and Cultural Changes

Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural
change, on the other hand, is the transformation of culture or the way people live.

Communication
 Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people
exchange information and thoughts.
 Nowadays, communication is made easier.
 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media - social
networking, text messaging, e-mail, and the like have defied time and distance.
 While it makes the world seem borderless, this form of communication may
produce individuals who lack the basic understanding of direct and personal
connections.

Transnational Families
 A transnational family is where one or both parents live and work in another
country while the children remain in their country of origin.
 While these families remain secured financially, their members are also exposed to
setbacks.
 Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves facing peer pressure,
too much independence, and lack of family orientation. These may result in alcohol
or drug abuse, unwanted pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.

Political Changes
Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the
type of governance in the country changes. Governance is the kind of system or ideology
used to express authority in a country. It may be a democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and
others.

Local Public Services

Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its
jurisdiction, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing the provision of
services.

Youth Volunteerism
Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community
services.
 24

Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools involved in social and cultural changes.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed,
transmitted, and adopted by another and considered as its own.
Examples:
 Migration
 Globalization

Invention
Invention is the process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and
cultural problems.
Example: Internet

Discovery
Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already
existing elements present in the environment.
Example: Scientific research

Changes within Society

Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. The big question,
however, is what makes it happen? Of course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.
Along with time, persons, environments, and ideologies change. People move in and move
out. People live and die. People's stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and
innovations.
The environment changes as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources
of raw materials, and energy.
New knowledge replaces old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights were granted to
those who were once deprived of them. Same-sex marriage is on its way to worldwide recognition.
Nothing is permanent but change, so they say.
All these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and
culturally.

Explore!
How should a person react to changes within society? Is it with acceptance or with reservation?
Explain your answer.

Try it!
Cite three societal changes. Cite one for each: social, political, and cultural changes. Identify their
positive and adverse effects.
Changes within Society
1.
2.
3.
What do you think?
Is change constant? If yes, what makes it consistent in society?
Keypoints
 Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time.
 Cultural change is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
 Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of
governance in the country changes.
 Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed,
transmitted, and adopted by another and considered as its own.
 An invention is a process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and
cultural problems.
 Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already
existing elements present in the environment.
 Changes are inevitable. Therefore, all changes socially, politically, and culturally must be
for the benefit of all.
 25

LESSON 9: The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize the importance of the study of culture, society, and politics, and
 identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology, political science, and
sociology.

 What is the significance of having scientific knowledge about culture, society, and
politics?
 How do the disciplines of anthropology, political science, and politics help us
understand and make decisions in society?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Culture is the focus of anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for
political science. These are disciplines of the social sciences.

The goal of having these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible
civic engagement through the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of
discipline exposes its learners to the following:

 social diversity and inequality,

 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 advocacy for social change and order.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present.
Dealing with what makes us human, anthropology delves into objects and materials we
have created, our interconnectedness and adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our
modes of communication, and our understanding of the world around us.
 26

Goals of Anthropology
 to describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind
 to describe and assess the cultural development of our species
 to explain and analyze present-day human cultural similarities and differences
 to describe and explain human biological diversity today

Political Science
Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of
government and the analysis of political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps
people gain an understanding of “who gets what, when they get it, and how they get it.”
Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior,
public policy, and philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty,
and how the said subject matters affect economy, public and private life, law, and public
services.

Goals of Political Science

 for people to be immersed in current affairs
 to build an understanding of local, national, and international politics
 to assist people in learning how political activities are organized in and out of our
country
 to provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and
society

Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This
discipline mainly focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.
Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family, the
functionality and relevance of state as an important human institution, social issues on
religion, crime, race, social class, and the stability and instability of societies.
 27

Goals of Sociology

 to guide in understanding intrapersonal factors

 to build a better understanding of mankind
 to aid in decision-making in the micro and macro level
 to gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights
into what is going on in a situation, and present alternatives

Explore!
Why is it important for the study of culture, society, and politics to be included in
the school curriculum?

Try it!
Cite three practical situations where knowledge of anthropology, political science,
and sociology can be applied.

What do you think?

Which among the three social science disciplines is most relevant in your life?

Tips
 The study of culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and
responsible civic engagement through the development of critical thought.
 Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science exposes its
learners to social diversity and inequality, self-reflective knowledge and practice,
appreciation of complexity, and advocacy for social change and order.

Key points
 Anthropology is a social science discipline that studies humans and their society
in the past and present.
 Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of
government and the analysis of political activity and political behavior.
 Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.
 28

LESSON 1: Anthropological and Sociological

Perspectives on Culture and Society

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain anthropological and sociological perspectives on culture and society, and
 describe society and culture as a complex whole.

 Why should people use different perspectives in recognizing the existence of

culture and society?
 Why is culture said to be a product of society?

Learn about it!

Anthropology and Sociology

Humans are interesting subjects to study. The human story has a lot to say from their
way of living to the associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society
colloquially known as the twin social sciences are anthropology and sociology.
Anthropology
 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary
history, how they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and
socialize with one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us
human (such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution)
and their social aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family, and religion).
Sociology
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This discipline
examines how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and
by wider social, economic, and political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the
family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs
of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies.

Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society

In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology,
on the other hand, culture comes first as a subject matter followed by society.

Let us put the two concepts this way.

 When talking about culture, we are mostly talking about tangible factors which
include language, technology, and institutions−like our churches, schools, or
houses.
 However, culture also has intangible aspects such as our values and behaviors. It
also includes norms, the standards or rules of acceptable behavior.
 Culture is what makes society a collective whole. It gives the community its form,
shape, and identity.
 A society, in terms of sociology, is a group of people living and interacting with
one another to create a culture. Its population is bound by a shared culture−beliefs,
attitudes, languages, and institutions.
 29

Society and Culture as a Complex Whole

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art,
belief, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society."
 With this premise, it can be said that culture is a product of society. These two
exist dependently on each other.
 Culture , just like every person in society, is susceptible to change or death.
 Society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture
changes along. New trends exist. New technologies are invented and new means
of interaction have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws,
values, and standards of society.

Explore!
Think about the different factors involved in shaping society and culture. How do
they affect continuous societal and cultural changes?

Try it!
Identify three societies or groups of people. Write at least three characteristics for
each group.

What do you think?

What is the dividing line between anthropology and sociology? Culture and society?

Key points
 Anthropology is the study of humans' evolutionary history and how people
behave, adjust, communicate, and socialize in different environments.
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their interrelationships.
 Culture is a way of life of a group of people. It involves symbols, languages,
values, and norms.
 Society is a community or group of people joined together by sustained bonds and
interactions.
 30

LESSON 2: Aspects of Culture and Society I

(Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive; and Shared & Contested)

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define society and culture,
 explain the relationship of culture and society,
 identify aspects of culture and society,
 prove that culture is dynamic, flexible and adaptive,
 prove that culture is shared and contested, and
 raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.

 Is there something unique that only your family does?

 Do you practice a certain custom or celebrate a special feast in your province?

Learn about it!

Culture and Society
Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.

Culture
 According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex whole which encompasses
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge,
and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society."
 Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family, church, school, and
government.
 Our culture defines who we are.
 Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.

Society
 Society can be defined as the interaction among people where a common culture
can be shared.
 Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same
culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common culture. It can also be formed
by gender, shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.

For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be
sweet and caring.
Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?

The Relationship of Culture and Society

Culture and society are two closely related concepts. For culture to exist and to be
developed, it needs human interaction. It needs people to interact with one another, and
it needs people to practice it continuously. Without a society practicing their common
culture, the culture may cease to exist.

Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and
will not continue to thrive. A society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice
versa. Culture and society need each other so they can both develop and prosper.
 31

Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language, food, daily life,
clothing, and religion to name a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is
dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It

continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore.
It does not remain stagnant.

Examples:

 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The
traditional music during the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and Broadway music
while the popular music during the 1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined to use computers and tablets especially when
playing games, some children are not able to play street games anymore. This pushed
some game developers to introduce Filipino street games as video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times.
We have already developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens,
vines, and others.

Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture
is a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the
learning process with other people.

If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations.
Because of diversity, culture is subjected to debate and analysis.

Explore!
Observe your interaction with your classmates. Try to identify what common
culture you and your classmates share that made you become friends.

Try it!
Try to ask your parents about popular songs and dances during their teenage
years. Find out how different they are from yours and how much they have changed.

What do you think?

What do you think the Philippine culture will be twenty years from now?

Tips
 Our society needs to preserve and promulgate our indigenous culture so that we
can maintain our identity as a nation.
 Culture changes and adapts to current society, but that does not mean that our
traditional culture should be forgotten.
 Different cultures exist in the world, but there is no culture greater than another.
We should learn to accept our differences, help other cultures learn ours, and learn
other cultures as well.
 We should not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because those are
part of their unique culture.
 32

Key points

 Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed. It is a set of characteristics

that help us relate and bond with other people.
 Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place and shares the same
culture.
 It is crucial to preserve and promulgate our culture and traditions if we want to
keep them alive. We are facing lots of changes, developments, and technological
advances today that we tend to forget to look back on our old culture and
traditions.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation
of society. Culture continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
 Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in
our world. We need to share our unique culture with others to get to know theirs
and also spread ours.
 While it is learned and shared, culture is also contested. Because of diversity,
culture is subject to debate and analysis.
 33

LESSON 3: Aspects of Culture and Society II

(Learned Through Socialization/Enculturation and Transmitted Through Socialization)

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define socialization and enculturation,
 discuss the different agents of socialization,
 identify aspects of culture and society,
 prove that culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation,
and
 raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.

Recall the very first person you interacted with. Do you think he or she affected the
development of your personality?

Aspects of Culture
There are different aspects of culture such as art, music, language, food, daily life,
clothing, and religion.

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It
continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore.
It does not remain stagnant.

Shared and Contested

 Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture
is a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to
share the learning process with other people.

Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While
the members of society share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural
groups create some that differentiate them from others in the community.

Socialization
Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand societal
norms or expectations and societal values as members of society.

Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the

Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization the family, community, mass media, and
religion.

Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most
important social group that a person has. It is also the principal agent of
socialization.
 We first start to learn things with the help of our parents and family. They are the
main source of our traits and behaviors, the values, norms or rules that we follow,
and the ideas we initially believe in.

Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our
community. One them is the school. In schools, we become exposed to ideas,
 34

values, norms, and behaviors that may be different from what we learn from our
family.
 We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our
peers. Research shows that since children and teenagers spend most of their time
with peers, peer groups can create youth sub-culture (Mondal, 2015).
 Our peers can also influence us with the different norms, values, and behaviors
that they got from their families.

Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass mediawhich come in the form
of television, movies, books, magazines, and social networking sites. Mass media
plays a major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal,
2015).
 Unfortunately, both good and bad behaviors can be learned through mass media.
It is important that the the youth remain supervised whenever they are accessing
all forms of media.

Religion
Another social agent is religion. Through the family, one is immediately exposed
to the teachings of religion. It helps shape and equip individuals with the attitudes and
behaviors that are deemed appropriate.

Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared
and contested in various ways and situations.
Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed
below.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs,
values, norms to acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn culture. Socialization also
allows us to interact with others and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are
inborn or part of human nature. It is an essential part of building our character and
preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.
Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend
migrated to America with her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after three months
of being in America, she started to act and look differently and she is using some slang
words you only hear Americans say. This is the process of enculturation. Your friend is
slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is necessary so she would fit
in.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one
society to another. One good example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spanish
to the Filipinos during the Spanish colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the
Filipinos is done through both socialization and enculturation. We learned their culture by
socializing with them through the church and the schools they established.

Explore!
Do you notice that when you stay at one place for a period of time, you unknowingly
learn some of its culture?
For example, you went to Vigan during your summer break. After two weeks, you start to
understand their dialect, Ilocano, and speak a little of it. Can you explain why?
 35

Try it!
Try observing a culture different from yours. Try exploring the culture of a classmate that
comes from a different province or has a different religion.

What do you think?

Do you think social media significantly affects and influences our culture nowadays?

Tips
 The people or groups you socialize with will greatly affect your behavior because
you learn most of it from them.
 Socialization begins during childhood, right after a person is born. The first group
that teaches about socialization is the family.
 Throughout your life, you will get to interact with a lot of different people from
different cultures. You will learn different behaviors, norms, or values from them.
It is up to you to identify what you will keep or practice and what you will reject.
 Not all acquired behaviors are helpful. Some learned behaviors can be destructive
in the long run.

Keypoints
 Enculturation is the process of adopting the behavior patterns of the culture in
which a person is immersed in.
 Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs,
values, or norms to acquire a personal identity.
 There are different agents of socialization that aid in acquiring and learning a
specific culture. These include the family, school, peer groups, mass media,
and religion.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in
various ways and situations.
 Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization and enculturation.
 36

LESSON 4: Aspects of Culture and Society III

(Patterned Social Interaction, Integrated and at Times Unstable,
Requires Language, and other Forms of Communication)

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the different patterns of social interaction,
 identify aspects of culture and society,
 prove that culture is a patterned social interaction, integrated and unstable, and
requires language for social interaction, and
 raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.

How are your interactions influenced by culture?

Aspects of Culture
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, may be shared and contested, and
transmitted through socialization and enculturation.

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It
continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore.
It does not remain stagnant.

Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture
is a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the
learning process with other people. However, culture is also contested in different ways
and situations. Because of diversity, culture is always subjected to debate and analysis.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs,
values, norms, and others to acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture.
Socialization also teaches us how to interact with other people and helps us develop the
behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even from one
society to another. One example of this at the micro level is the transmission of an old
family recipe from one generation to the next. This can be done through both socialization
and enculturation.

Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and
contested in various ways and situations, and learned and transmitted through
socialization or enculturation.

Let us continue to identify some aspects of culture.

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify
the good and the bad?
 37

There are five patterns of social interaction exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict,
and coercion.

Exchange
Exchange or social exchange is the expectation that whenever we do something
good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129). It
is the most basic pattern of socialization.

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you come to your
friend's sleepover.

Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a
common goal. Cooperation is considered to be essential for human survival because,
without cooperation, social life would be unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005,
p.129).

Example: A husband and a wife should cooperate in raising their children. Without it,
their children will not grow up the way they want them to.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary in order to develop and
sharpen behavior and culture.

Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation. Instead of working
together towards a common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the
target that only one can have (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Even if you had lost, at
least you were still able got to enhance your spelling skills.

Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other
people just to achieve their goals. However, conflict is not always considered bad. The
existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity within a group because it is threatened by
an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict
arises between you and your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion
Coercion happens when there is a use of threat or force in persuading others.
People usually coerce other people when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you will tell
your mother that he failed his exam.

Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction, language is the most important tool that is always used.

 Language is the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of
our culture are passed on through our mouths. There are no written records
(Young, 1930).
 38

 We can do social interaction through the use of language.

 Language is not only restricted to verbal language. It is also used in non-verbal
communication or body language during interaction. For example, our first
interaction with a friend is usually with a smile. This shows that language, whether
verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.

Integrated and at Times Unstable

The patterns of social interaction are connected to each other and may change
from time to time. The type of our social interaction may change. A simple social exchange
may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.

Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came
to school the next day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You
immediately came to his aid, supported each other, and stopped the bullies. This scenario
shows that even if you and your sibling fight almost every day, you will still opt to unite
in times of need.

Social interaction is a part of our everyday lives. Observe your activities for the
day. You will notice that in everything that you do, you get to interact with another person.
Your interaction varies from day to day. This shows how the patterns of social interaction
are integrated or connected with each other.

Try it!
Try staging a little competition among you and your friends. Observe everyone's
behavior while the game is ongoing. Also see if alliances will be formed along the way or
the initial competition will turn into cooperation or conflict.

What do you think?

How will culture prosper if language will cease to exist?

Tips
 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes,
when we do harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something
wrong to us in return.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push
us to do our best to win and, in the process, enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to
unity and cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We
may be friendly and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change
when we feel threatened

Key points
 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s
behavior.
 There are five patterns of social
interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something
good, we will receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a
common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one
can have.
 39

 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other
people just to achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another
person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find
it difficult to interact with other people.
 Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This
connection affects our behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable. It may change depending on the
situation we are in. We may be in conflict with one person today but may become
friendly with him or her in other situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and contested in various ways
and situations, learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation,
patterned on social interactions, integrated and at times unstable, and requires
language for social interactions.
 40

LESSON5: Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 discuss the differences of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism,
 explain why and how cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism, and
 explain the importance of cultural relativism in the proper understanding of
cultures of other societies.

 How should we view and understand different cultures?

 How can cultural relativism help us better understand and evaluate other cultures?

Learn about it!

Ethnocentrism
People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other cultures in the context of their
own culture. Language, behavior, customs, or religion, which are understandably unique
for every culture are the common subjects of these judgments. Sociologically speaking,
this ideology or tendency is known as ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior than others'.
It is also the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures
may be measured or understood. Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and
its aspects in a wider or encompassing perspective. It may cause people to practice bias
and intolerance.
Seeing the belief and behavior of others which are different from yours as brutish,
confusing, or unbecoming is an ethnocentric thought or behavior. The tendency to be
avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards members of another culture is also a
manifestation of ethnocentrism.

Learn about it!

Cultural Relativism
Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in
associating their culture from another’s. There are people who accept and respect the
evident differences of members of the society. When people recognize that each culture
is naturally different from others that is cultural relativism. Cultural relativism does not
mean that we should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences. Instead, it
requires understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context that is
free from another’s biases.
Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on
their cultural context, and should be treated as such. According to Franz Boas (1887),
"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and
conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes."
With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be
evaluated not based on their own cultural context but on the social community the people
themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means respect and tolerance.
In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to
practice or show cultural relativism. There should be no reservations and blind opinions
while they are immersed in the community of their subjects. One may also practice this
concept by learning and recognizing that there are reasons or cultural significance of why
people of a certain community act and talk the way they do.

How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism

It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possesses an ethnocentric
attitude or behavior. There is nothing wrong with having such because, unlike social
scientists or anthropologists, not all people are equipped with sufficient knowledge and
exposure to cultures across the globe, thus, the hardship in understanding and tolerating
 41

others' acts and values. However, we also have to recognize that ethnocentric behavior,
if not controlled, may cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern time when
everyone calls for social or cultural inclusion.
Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached
the areas populated by the natives whom they considered as uncivilized and savage, they
saw the promise to civilize and tame them through religion (Christianity) and colonialism.
Despite its advantages, we can say that the Age of Exploration changed the course of
world history in a way which deprived the conquered.
It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be
mitigated through the recognition and application of cultural relativism. A person can
practice cultural relativism by recognizing that culture shapes what is considered to be
beautiful, ugly, appealing, disgusting, virtuous, funny, and abhorrent, and that these
should not be the basis for evaluating other cultures. Cultural relativism shapes our
understanding of different issues in the society−as to why certain religions believe in this
and others do not, or how come this group eats this type of dish, wears this weird clothing,
sings and dances along to music while others prefer not to. What we need is an open heart
and an unbiased and critical mind, exposure, education, and involvement in activities, and
programs supporting and recognizing the uniqueness and beauty of every culture for us
to truly grasp what cultural relativism means.

Explore!
What actions can social institutions present to promote cultural relativism and mitigate
ethnocentrism?

Try it!
Give three personal stories wherein you have shown or practiced ethnocentrism or cultural
relativism.

What do you think?

Is it possible for a society to have individuals who do not practice ethnocentrism?

Key points
 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which
other cultures may be measured. It is also the tendency to think of one’s culture
as superior to other cultures.
 Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent
on their cultural context, and should be treated as such. It calls for an unbiased
evaluation and understanding of other cultures.
 Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.
 42

LESSON 6: Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage and the threats to these, and
 recognize the importance of tangible and intangible forms of heritage in writing
down our heritage and history.
What critical roles do tangible and intangible heritage play in the quest for knowing our
heritage?

Learn about it!

Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to
another, legacy magnifies one’s life and living. It is said that legacy is what cultural
heritage is.

According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to

inform.
Examples:
 such as buildings, houses, and structures
 artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
 things that make people who they are, like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals,
and traditions
Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way
of living people of yesterday had. Through these objects, we are presented with facts and
figures which help us draw the landscape of the world as it once was.

Learn about it!

Tangible and Intangible Heritage
Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society
or a group that is passed on from generation to generation. Cultural heritage can be
categorized as either tangible or intangible.

Tangible
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible
heritage is a physical artifact or object significant to the archaeology, architecture,
science, or technology of a specific culture.

Objects that can be stored are included in this category, such as:
 traditional clothing,
 utensils (e.g. beadwork, water vessels),
 vehicles (e.g. the ox wagon),
 documents (e.g. codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
 public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (e.g.
buildings, historical places, monuments, temples, graves, roads, bridges).

Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible
heritage is not a physical or concrete item. Intangible heritage is that which exists
intellectually in the culture.
Intangible heritage includes:
 songs,
 myths,
 beliefs,
 superstitions,
 43

 oral poetry,
 stories, and
 various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and
in a hurry to look for historical materials to display. Due to the increase in demand for
cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an avenue to earn money. They invented
materials and claimed that these were excavated or unearthed and were once owned by
a cultural group.
 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include the Hitler diaries,
crystal skulls of Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status or story of Saint Nicholas'
companion, Black Peter (intangible).
 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage
are one of the issues concerning the sources of our culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation, or the act of making a cultural
heritage last and exist, is also a primary concern.

Preservation of Cultural Heritage

In comparison to intangible heritage, tangible heritage possesses qualities and
properties which make it easier to recover and preserve. Despite this, it is noteworthy
that they remain susceptible to perishing over time especially if not given proper attention.
The government should work on implementing and enriching existing national
policies, projects, training, and researches promoting the preservation of our cultural
heritage. It is true that intangible heritage is harder to preserve, but it should still be given
equal attention like what is given to tangible heritage.
Each nation should take part in maintaining cultural identity and making it a vital
driving force for social progress. This objective is cited in the Convention on the Protection
of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
According to UNESCO, “heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with
today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritage are
both irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration.” Indeed, whatever we had yesterday is
our present, and whatever we make out of it will be the foundation of our future. We
better ensure that it is well taken care of.

Explore!
What actions can social institutions consider to preserve our tangible and intangible
heritage?
Try it!
Give three materials or specific samples of either tangible or intangible heritage. Give a
short background about each object.
What do you think?
“Without document or proof, there is no history.” Agree or disagree?
Key points
 Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society
or a group and passed on from generation to generation.
 Tangible heritage is a physical artifact or objects significant in the archaeology,
architecture, science, or technology of a particular culture. It includes buildings,
historic places, monuments, etc.
 Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in culture. It includes oral
traditions, social practices, performing arts, rituals, festive events, etc.
 Authenticity is the truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural
heritage.
 Preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage last and exist should be a
top priority of the government.
 44

LESSON 1: Biological Evolution of Man

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans, and
 recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and archaeological and
historical sites as venues to appreciate and reflect on the complexities of biocultural
and social evolution as part of being and becoming human.

 What does the biological evolution of man refer to?

 How can we trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans?
 What physical and biological factors have greatly developed throughout the
evolution of the human species?

Learn about it!

Biological Evolution of Man
The current biological makeup of humans has long and complex origins.
The biological evolution of man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human
species from primates to its current form, the Homo sapiens. Evolution is not an overnight
phenomenon. It took millions of years to end up with the specific set of biological traits
that humanity presently has. In this lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved
in this evolutionary process will be discussed.

The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution

Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species
over a period of time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the
environment while some faced extinction for being unable to do so. In this case, modern
humans, belonging to the genus Homo, are seen as by-products of events and processes
that occurred in the past.
Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear process. Scientists argued that
human evolution developed much like the branches of a tree wherein each branch extends
into smaller, more specific stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one
evolutionary profile—the current human being—was able to adapt and further develop.

The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical
and biological makeup took millions of years to complete. Despite this, scientists, through
the help of archaeological pieces of evidence and modern technology, were able to identify
and distinguish distinct transitional stages of human evolution. These stages are described
below.
 45

The Significance of Artefactual Evidences in Understanding Evolution

Artefactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the
lifestyle and the developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution.
Early human species were discovered through fossils which are remains preserved in
rock. Scientists study the structure, shape, and development of skeletal properties
including head shape and teeth to determine biological differences across early to modern
species.
Artefactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or
symbolic writing found in caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the Homo
erectus, though scientists are still hoping to find further evolutionary data on other
species. Below are some authentic examples of artifactual evidences that greatly
contributed in understanding human evolution.
 An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This
prehistoric tool served as evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet
among early stone-tool making humans, the Oldowan hominin.
 A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made
archaeologists believe that cooking food was practiced among early humans.

Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments.
Nowadays, technological advances has made delving into the past more accessible.
Interactive and national museums, for example, make great venues for learning more
about the prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that the human species has been
through is complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to understand
and appreciate these advances.
 46

Explore!
The development of humans have persisted for millions of years. These
evolutionary processes have been greatly influenced by natural phenomenon such as
climate change, natural disasters, or the development of other species. Through research,
explore how these natural phenomena might have affected human evolutionary
development.
Try it!
Visit the National Museum or any museum near your area of residence. Immerse
yourself in the archaeological findings featured in the museum. Since the museum has
several sections, it is highly recommended that you devote time to visit each area. Note
the differences in biological makeup and lifestyle of different human species featured at
the galleries.

What do you think?

Is there a possibility of finding evidence for a new human species that existed in
the past? Why? Why not?
Tips

 Human evolution always moves forward. It is unlikely that humans will regress in
terms of physical and biological makeup in the coming centuries.
 Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first
emerged. They are the earlier part of human evolutionary transition.

Keypoints

 Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species

over a period of time.
 Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather
as branches wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific stems.
 The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo
erectus, and Homo sapiens from the genus Homo.
 Fossils are artifactual remains that were preserved in rock.
 47

LESSON 2: Cultural Evolution of Man

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the concept of cultural evolution, and
 trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans.

 What is cultural evolution?

 How can we trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans?

Learn about it!

Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, they represent
technological advancements due to constant changes in their key features.
This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through
time. From the early writings of the cuneiform up to the present features of the different
units of smartphones and tablets, we can say that the way of life of people constantly
changes. This concept is called cultural evolution.

What is Cultural Evolution?

Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs,
skills, attitudes, and languages of humans over time. It proposes that as humans
transform themselves, their culture becomes progressively complex due to social,
environmental, and biological factors.
The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of
the Stone Age when they started creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the
earliest known period of human culture which started roughly 2-3 million years ago and
ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This period is also known as the prehistoric
period because writing was not yet invented during this time. It is divided into three
separate periods:
 Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),
 Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
 New Stone Age (Neolithic).

Paleolithic Period
The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the
creation and use of crude stone tools which are the most primitive among the three
periods. The word "paleolithic" is derived from the Greek words palaios (old)
and lithos (stone) to collectively mean "old stone age."

The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and
stones that changed their diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the
primary activities of the early humans during the Paleolithic period. They also had their
religious rituals based on nature and developed their own language based on sounds and
hand signals.

Mesolithic Period
The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered
as the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word
"mesolithic" is derived from the Greek words mesos (middle) and lithos (stone) that
collectively mean "middle stone age."

Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They
also started to form their own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food
 48

gathering were the primary activities of the early humans. They also started to use
microliths or smaller and more delicate stone tools.

Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new)
and lithos (stone) that collective translates to "new stone age."
The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point,
modern humans started to exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers
and introduced the concept of farming. They also became herders from being hunters
during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and invented
the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their food
containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started
to have their own tribes and villages.

Explore!
Based on the development of human culture during the Stone Age and the previous
lesson on biological evolution, who were the humans that existed during the Paleolithic,
Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods? What would be your justification or supporting evidence
that these humans existed during those periods?

Try it!
Make a table of the three periods of stone age and compare the different
contributions of each stage. Why do you think these periods are important in the study of
the evolution of human culture?

What do you think?

Following the timeline of the cultural evolution from the Paleolithic period up to the
Neolithic period, what do you think would be the next step of human development?

Keypoints
 Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge,
customs, skills, attitudes, and languages change over time.
 The Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when the
early humans started the use of weapons and tools made out of stones.
 The Paleolithic period was the first stage of the Stone Age. In this age, the early
humans began to use fire and stone tools. Hunting, fishing, and other practices such
as religious rituals based on nature and language based on sounds or hand signals
also emerged during this period.
 The Mesolithic period was the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic
periods. It witnessed the gradual transformation of human culture such as the
domestication of plants and animals, formation of settlements and communities, and
food gathering.
 The Neolithic period was the last stage of the Stone age. This period was when
modern humans started to exist. Modern humans introduced farming, started herding
animals, and formed their permanent homes and settlements.
 49

LESSON 3: Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Neolithic Revolution

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering
to one of agriculture and settlement,
 discuss the implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the evolutionary process, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in
interpreting cultural and sociopolitical processes.

From a prehistoric hunting and gathering society, modern society has indeed faced
lots of changes and development.

How is modern society able to achieve its current form from such simple beginnings?

Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life
also occurred in response to the natural environment. In this lesson, a significant era of
sociopolitical evolution will be tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.

The Neolithic Revolution

The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They were
nomadic people who could easily transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or
gather plants for consumption and survival. This had been the practice until around 12,000
BCE when humans started to domesticate animals and crops. This era of this newfound
lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.

From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers

through domestication, the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or
plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs. The
domestication of animals and plants implied that humans stayed in a particular area to
enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized for
domestication included wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.

One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which
is at present, the country of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other
Neolithic societies in China, the Americas, and Africa.

Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution

Some artefactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the
Neolithic revolution in influencing sociopolitical development.
Here are some actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.

 There were morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size
and mandible and simple dietary changes from solely eating plants to consumption
of meat.
 A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to have been built
during the Neolithic Revolution and served as a communal storage facility.
 Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the Neolithic Revolution,
there was an increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were also more worn down and
pitted, owing to hard inclusions from poorly grounded flour.
 Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the bones of women that
were task-related and associated with cereal grinding.
 50

What do you think?

Why is the Neolithic period called a revolution?

Tips
 The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic Revolution occurred
gradually. It took thousands of years for this change to happen.
 If you look at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you will notice
that all early civilizations were situated near a body of water. This was strategically
done by early humans because bodies of water may also function as a source of
food and other resources.

Keypoints
 The Neolithic Revolution was a period where agriculture and farming became
prominent through plant and animal domestication.
 Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or
plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
 One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamiawhich
is, at present, the country of Iraq.
 The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human
implications to the evolutionary process.
 A form of social stratification was developed. This created idea of inequality and
ideas of social power and influence.
 Many artifactual evidences prove the existence and success of the Neolithic
revolution in influencing sociopolitical development.
 51

LESSON 4: Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Early Civilizations

and the Rise of States

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from the rise of civilizations to the
development of states,
 discuss the implications of the rise of civilizations and development of states to
human biocultural and social evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in
interpreting cultural and social, including political and economic, processes.

From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in

terms of socioeconomic factors of early human life. Despite this already drastic movement,
human lifestyle continued to develop into more organized socioeconomic and political
systems.
 What factors contributed to these changes?
 How did these developments influence future sociopolitical movements and
policies?

Learn about it!

The Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved
the way for the beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the
development and implications of these civilizations will be discussed and explained.

The Rise of Civilizations

Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when the early humans
learned to settle in just one area to domesticate plants and animals for survival. The first
civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq.
The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the ancient Middle East that is
believed to be the “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization,
writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of
water, the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable resources for the early
civilizations.
During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both
genders equally as the first labor only involved farming, domestication, and harvesting.
Though this may be the case, social roles began to emerge, with some members of the
community becoming priests or priestesses, laborers, and farmers.

The Development of States

In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two significant developments took
place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations.
These were:
 the rise of states, and
 the invention of writing.
Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades among
different regions. The early civilizations would have had some form of writing to document
or record traces of their products and deals.
During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with
prosperity, leading to the development of cities and changes in sociopolitical positions with
some civilizations promoting a kingship to replace priestly rule. This was done to foresee
the flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This era gave rise to numerous
developments such as the invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of stone
tools to copper tools.
In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced
with bronze tools. Along with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish, thereby
 52

laying out a foundation for economic and political stability. As a result, more empires,
civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.

Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States

The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political
power, and material development. These changes allowed both positive and negative
implications that directly affected future developments in the sociopolitical evolution of
men.
Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states.
 Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them.
Soon, professional armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.
 Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of
civilizations and states. During this time, people began to discover various raw
materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons.
 Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership among
city-states began to be more organized and developed. With the kingship system
replacing the priestly leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized
decisions and communications with other states.

Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States

Artefactual evidence prove the existence and occurrence of early civilizations and
states.
Here are some of the actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.
 In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-
wheeled wagons that dated back to the time of Mesopotamia.
 Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during
10,000 BCE.

Explore!
The developments within the Fertile Crescent, specifically in Mesopotamia,
generated numerous contributions to contemporary lifestyle and practices. Because of
this, the early civilizations became an important aspect of history. It was during this period
that an organized sociopolitical and economic structure was established.
If you were an archaeologist, what aspect of the early civilizations would you prefer to
focus on?

Try it!
Using clay and other art materials, create your structure of the early civilizations
and states. You may choose one civilization (e.g. Mesopotamia) or one area of early life
(e.g. trading or farming). It is your prerogative to incorporate any structure that you think
might exist during the period. Use your learning in this lesson as a guide.

What do you think?

What form of sociopolitical development would have risen from the implications of
the rise of states and civilizations?

Tips
 Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to “between two rivers”. This translation refers
to the rivers Tigris and Euphrates that surround the land.
 The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before the Egyptian civilization. After
the Middle Eastern civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed along
the Nile River.
 53

Key points
 The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly
in China and Mesopotamia which is now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be
the “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing,
trade, and science due to its fertile land area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two important developments
took place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early
civilizations. These were the rise of states and the invention of writing.
 The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare,
developments in metalwork, and changes in political systems.
 54

LESSON 5: Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Democratization

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain democratization as a sociopolitical evolution, and
 explore the significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in
interpreting cultural, social, political, and economic processes.

 What is democratization?
 How did democratization start?

Learn about it!

The early civilizations created new environments, called city-states which
introduced new developments in various aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these
continuous progress and ventures?
The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new
developments during the Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted
the following periods and developments.

Democracy and Democratization

Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.
Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek words demos,
which means "people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced
back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form
of primitive democracy is said to have existed during the hunting and gathering period in
independent tribes.
The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct
democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the
evolved form of democracy−**representative democracy**−that became widespread in
nation-states is where officials are elected to represent a group of people.

Historical Path to a Democratic City-State

Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby
civilizations of Greece and Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming culture
developed by the Mesopotamians, even following the latter’s sociopolitical structure of
kingship. Eventually, they were able to engage in trade as their resources highly developed
and impacted socioeconomic growth.

Greece
 Societal status and groups began to develop:
o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
o the aristocracies and noblemen, then
o the farmers.
 Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social
classes.
 Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform themselves into wealth-laden
rulers just like their predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the
period was iron, a relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king sought
greater power, he would not be able to do so easily since weaponry and machinery,
primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and could be afforded by practically
anyone within the city-state.
 55

In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen
gathered together and ousted him, leading to a successful establishment of the first
republics.

The Beginnings of Democratization

The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the
rise of democratization in societies.

Oligarchy
 Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.
 City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers
were from aristocratic families.
 Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between
city-states, even ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and
rebel against drastic changes.
 The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so
ordinary people also used their collective power against an abusive government.

Tyranny
 Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled
by a tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
 Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and
farmers.
 For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
 In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some
wrong and abusive decisions that eventually lead to another revolution, ousting
the tyrant rule.

Birth of Democracy
 Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states
proposed that power must be held by the common people.
 This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing
the city-states to have a democratic setting.
 In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as
the rise of democracy in Greece.

It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially
the poorer, more backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece soon led Rome to
follow a democratic ruling thereafter.
Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time
was limited to males and therefore, did not encompass the total population.

Significance and Implications of Democratization

The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary
people by reducing inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of
democratization in Greece laid a foundation for modern-day democracy.
Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and
artistic implications that eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any
other ancient civilization.
Below are some artefactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of
democratization.
 Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics, the Iliad and
theOdyssey.
 Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical
Greek structures upon the rise of democratization.
 56

Explore!
Attaining democracy in Greek antiquity involved lots of shifts in leadership and
political functions like kingship, oligarchy, and tyranny. If you were living during this
period, which among these forms of leadership would you have preferred to be part of?
Why?

Try it!
The rise of democracy led to numerous cultural and artistic reforms among Greeks
and Romans. Try to search videos or pictures of Greek and Roman art. Compare them and
cite commonalities and differences that you may observe.

What do you think?

The United States and the Philippines are democratic countries. How do you think
citizens from these countries still affect or influence the decision-making process that
involves the welfare of these nations?

Key points
 In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the king bearing the
highest position in all Greek city-states, followed by the aristocracies and
noblemen, then the farmers.
 In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the king, the
noblemen collectively acted on ousting him, leading to a successful establishment
of the first republics.
 It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was
considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
 The establishment of a democratic government
had cultural and artistic implications.
 Wars and tensions across Greece and between city-states were one of the
primary factors in the rise of democracy.
 57

LESSSON 6: Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social,

Cultural, Political, and Economic Processes

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to explore the
significance of human material remains and artefactual evidence in interpreting
cultural, social, political, and economic processes.
In your home, you have probably seen objects belonging to your great-great
grandparents that were kept by your parents or other relatives. Like artifacts,
these objects help in describing or creating a picture of the past.
 What implications do these objects have at present?
 What do they tell about the past?
 What role do artefactual pieces of evidence play in understanding early
societies?

Artifacts
Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidences even dating
back to the beginning of human evolution. As a result, present-day social and
biological scientists are able to open a window to what life was in the past. In this
lesson, the significance and value of artifacts in several aspects will be described
and discussed.
Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are
recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance. Apart
from serving as windows to the past, artifacts are also deemed significant because
they are tangible or authentic proof that a certain period in history actually
occurred.

The Significance of Artifacts

Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural,
political, and economic processes that occurred in the past. Their existence
proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of artifacts and
the understanding of various processes have provided a stable foundation for
the socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that humans have come to
recognize today.
 58

Importance of Artifact Preservation

There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved and taken care of.
Below are some of them.
 Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made hundreds, even
thousands of years ago, are very delicate objects that cannot be replaced
by any available material in the present time.
 Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that occurred
in the past would not have been known if not for the discovery of artifacts.
 Artifacts give people a sense of identity. Artifacts greatly describe
culture and society. They provide people with an opportunity to further
understand their identities and heritage, as well as some collective qualities
that their culture may have.
 The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great
successes archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still more to
discover about history. Treating artifacts like pieces of puzzles will
eventually provide a general picture of the past.
Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future
Many advances have already been made and discovered within this century.
It is logical to treat these discoveries as significant elements that can help shape
the future. As such, the technologies and developments that the world has today
must also be well-preserved. These must be treated with certainty that one day,
these “artifacts” will be discovered and be understood by future generations.

Explore!
Archaeologists hunt for artifacts for a period of months, some even
extending up to several years. They proceed with their digs with caution to
eliminate the risk of damaging any artifact they may find. If you were to place
yourself in an archaeologist’s shoes, would you be willing to sacrifice so much time
and effort to know about the past? Why? Why not?
 59

Try it!
Create your own artifact by making a time capsule. Find a container that
you can seal. In this container, put anything you want that may have a significant
value to you. You may put in letters, pictures, or toys. Be sure to firmly seal the
container once you are done. Keep the container somewhere safe. Set a specific
date in the future when you will open your time capsule.
What do you think?
What could be the soci implications if no artifact was ever discovered?
Tips
 Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was originally part of the
distant past but was recently discovered. They may include bones, fossils,
tools, and a lot more.
 Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts. Anthropologists
study an area’s culture. Together, they work to create a holistic picture and
identity of a certain group.
Key points
 Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are
recovered after a long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance.
 Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social, cultural,
economic, and political processes.
 It is important to preserve artifacts because they are irreplaceable, help
understand the past, and give people a sense of identity.
 Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts for
the future generation.
 60

LESSON 1: Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation

(Identities, Disciplines, and Aspirations)

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the different concepts regarding enculturation and socialization,
 discuss the development of one’s self and others as a product of enculturation and
socialization, and
 prove that identity, disciplines, and aspirations are necessary for the development
of personal and cultural identity.

 What does it mean to be a person?

 In a society where there are many cultures, how do you form your personal
identity?

Learn about it!

Enculturation and Socialization
What is the difference between socialization and enculturation? How is
enculturation related to socialization?
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members
of society share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups
create ones that differentiate them from others in society.

Enculturation
 the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in
which a person is immersed.
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms,
expectations and values as members of society.
Study the chart that further explains the differences and relationships of socialization and
enculturation.
 61

Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the
culture, behaviors, language, morals, and norms of where he or she belongs in. However,
as a person grows, he or she learns to make his or her own set of beliefs, values, and
morals. This is how a person develops an identity. This is what makes a person different
from others.

Identity
Identity is what makes a person distinct from others. It is the total knowledge
and understanding of an individual about who he or she is.

Types of Identity
1. Personal
 the concept an individual develops about himself or herself
 the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
 may depend on the age and circumstances of a person
Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She
believes that time is gold, so spends her free time studying her lessons.
2. Cultural
 the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in
 the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
 a collective sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests, and
fundamental principles of living
Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for
centuries. Old men wear the bahag, a unique style of clothing. They prefer to stay in the
forest than to stay in lowlands. They mainly look for natural food sources.
Study the chart that further explains the two types of identity.
 62

Discipline
 a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
 behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders
Kinds of Discipline
Discipline is categorized into different types.

1. Discipline of Nature or Reality

A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A
person learns to do things on his or her own without the supervision of others.
Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the
bike. He fell many times, but he did not stop trying. He was so motivated to learn how to
ride the bike that he tried to learn on his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.

2. Discipline of Culture or Society

What this discipline instills in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A
person learns according to what he sees in his society or his culture.
Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she
can be “in” with the latest social trends.

3. Discipline of Superior Force

This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training,
a person learns through supervision and guidance.
Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to
fall in love because of her personal idea that men are cheaters. Even if Patricia does not
know how it feels to be brokenhearted, she does not entertain any suitor.

Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations

Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.
 It may be through enculturation and socialization.
 It may also come through observation of a role model.
 You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
 Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense
of yourself.
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work
hard.
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might
discover that, at 35 years old, he is a different person. Perhaps he is living a good life with
his family. He would like his children to have a comfortable life in the future.
 63

Explore!
Observe the different political parties in our country. Can you describe the
differences between the Liberal Party (LP), the United Oppositions (UNO), and the People’s
Reform Party (PRP) in the context of different cultures?

Try it!
Ask two persons about their personal identity development and aspirations.
Compare them with yours.

What do you think?

Is there a difference between one’s thoughts or feelings and one’s behavior? When
is it enculturation? When is it socialization?

Keypoints
 Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns
of the culture in which an individual is immersed.
 Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal
norms, expectations, and values as a member of the society.
 Identity formation starts when you learn to socialize and be aware of the culture,
behaviors, language, morals, and norms of where you belong in.
 Identity is the total knowledge and understanding of a person of who he or she
is.
 Discipline is the control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed
and punishing bad behavior.
 Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to
work hard.

LESSON 2: Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain different concepts of norms and values,
 discuss the relations and functions of norms and values, and
 prove that norms and values are essential factors in the development of one’s self,
others, and the community as a product of enculturation and socialization.

What characteristics should a person demonstrate to be considered as a useful member

of society?

Learn about it!

For society to function well, it must be guided by cultural principles of behavior to
maintain stability, peace, and harmony. Every society has its set of accepted norms and
values of its culture that is socially accepted.

Norms
Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to
follow or exemplify in the society where he or she belongs in. It pertains to specific
guidelines of conduct in society that guides its members on how to act in particular
situations.
Classification of Norms
Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.
 64

Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is
distinguished from the intensity of feelings they initiate and the consequences that flow
from violations of them.

Folkways
They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.
Examples:
 the practice of waiting in line
 courtesy to older people
Mores
 stricter than folkways
 determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
 dictates what is right and wrong
Examples:
 religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex
 the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical (e.g.racism
and sexism)
Taboos
 very strong negative norms
 strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly
 violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society
Examples:
 cannibalism
 incest
Laws
 formally instituted by the government
 exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
 impose sanction on people who disobey the authority
Examples:
 curfews for minors
 laws against domestic violence

Values
Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile.
Values are general guidelines that are fundamental parts of our lives. They stand for the
things we believe in. Most of the values we have are learned from family, friends, school,
media, and other sources in society.

Classification of Values
Values can be classified into two types.
1. Individual Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.
Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor
2. Collective Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community
or society.
 65

Examples: equality, justice, solidarity

Relationship Between Norms and Values

Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.

Functions of Social Norms and Values

Values are general guidelines which govern our daily behavior. They are the
guidelines for our judgments, thereby playing a vital role in the maintenance of stability
and harmony in society.
Norms are specific guidelines which allow us to function or act appropriately in society.
They are a set of behaviors that is perceived to be acceptable to its members. Following
norms results in social order and gives a feeling of security, safety, and harmony.
Social norms and values perform the following primary functions:

Explore!
What are the norms that should be observed during class discussions and examinations?

Try it!
Form a group composed of five persons. Discuss and decide on the top five critical values
that society must uphold based on the issues and challenges that the nation is currently
facing.

What do you think?

If a person leaves his present society and transfers to a new one, it is possible that his
personal values will also change?

Keypoints
 66

 Norms are the standard or accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow
in society. They are either formal or informal.
 Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. They
are folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
 Values may be explained as measures of goodness or desirability. They are
classified as either individual values or collective values.
 Values provide the justifications for accepting or rejecting specific norms.
 Norms and values are critical factors in the development of one’s self, others, and
the community as a product of enculturation and socialization.
 67

Lesson 3: Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain the different concepts regarding statuses and roles as part of
the social structure,
 identify statuses and roles played by oneself and others in the community, and
 evaluate the impact of the various statuses and roles of people for the attainment
of society's goals.
You have a friend named Paulene, a 30-year-old Filipino-Indian female from New Delhi.
She grew up in slum areas. Paulene knew at an early age that she wanted to be a lawyer.
She graduated from college with flying colors and was eventually accepted as a scholar at
a prestigious law school. Now, at the age of 30, she works as a lawyer in a private company
in the United Kingdom. It was there that she met her better half with whom she has four
children.
 Can you name Paulene’s roles and statuses?
 What typical roles and statuses do people play in society?

Learn about it!

Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human
interactions that we call social structure. It also refers to the manner in which society is
arranged into predictable interactions.
Status
 describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or
in society
 defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person
Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender

Classifications of Statuses
There are three kinds of statuses.
1. Ascribed Status

 a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by

birth
 inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
 can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is
often involuntary
Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor,
a firstborn
2. Achieved Status
 a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
 acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards
that can be controlled
 a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills,
and life choices
Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist
3. Master Status
 the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general
position in society
 can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious
or spiritual tradition, employment status, or family responsibility such as a parent
or grandparent
 68

 may come with a sense of prestige for some−the consensus from the community
around them that a status is to be desired
Example: a CEO, an activist, a Pope
The chart shows the differences among the three statuses.

Roles
 expectations that are set for a person given the status he or she occupies
 pertains to the norms, behaviors, values, and personal characteristics that are
attached to the status of the person
Examples:
 Status: student
Roles: attending classes, studying lessons, communicating with the teacher
 Status: teacher
Roles: teaching, giving feedback, assessing or evaluating the performance of the students
 Status: call center agent
Roles: answering questions, solving problems, researching information
The chart below shows the different statuses and their corresponding roles.

Role Exit and Role Conflict

What are some issues concerning roles?
Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that
is essential to his or her self-identity.
Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role
of an employee with responsibilities to someone just living a comfortable life, or when an
individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.
Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more
statuses that a person is occupying. Performing the assigned role of one status makes it
challenging for the person to play the assigned role of another status.
Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children
and the best employee to her company all at the same time.
 69

The Impact of Statuses and Roles in Attaining Society’s Goals

As members of society, people acquire statuses and roles which are necessary for
socializing within their society. These statuses and roles are important elements in the
process of socialization because they serve as agents for the fulfillment of society’s goals.
We are all encouraged to fulfill the roles of the statuses we are occupying at present and
in the future stages of our lives for us to be better members of the community.

Explore!
Think of your parents or your guardians. What are the multiple statuses they are
occupying at present and the roles attached to those statuses?

Try it!
List at least three (3) roles for each status.
 male or female
 police officer
 business tycoon

What do you think?

What do you think will happen to society if its members fail to fulfill the roles of their
respective statuses?

Keypoints
 Status refers to the particular position that a person occupies in a particular
scenario or setup.
 Roles refer to the norms, customs, values, and personal characteristics that are
attached to the status of the individual.
 Ascribed status is a position a person holds in a social system that one attains
involuntarily or by birth.
 Achieved status is an acquired position due to unique skills, knowledge, or ability
and are based on standards that can be controlled.
 Master status pertains to the status of the person which determines his or her
general position in society.
 Role conflict takes place when two or more statuses are incompatible.
 Role exit pertains to the course of disengagement of a person from his or her role
that is essential to his or her self-identity.
 70

LESSON 4: Conformity and Deviance: Social Control

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain the inevitable existence of conformity, deviance, and social control in the
social processes of our everyday lives,
 discuss the significant part or role of gossip, social ostracism, laws, and
punishments to social control,
 analyze the societal goals and socially acceptable means to survive,
 and discuss the consequences of defying and conforming to social order.

Suppose that in one exclusive school, it is the norm for students to be at their best
behavior at all times while inside the school premises. All students therefore continuously
make an effort to maintain their grace, poise, and good appearance in order to avoid any
sanctions.

Liz, a difficult and problematic student, transferred to the same school last year. In
just one year of stay, she was able to set up at least 5 pranks on her classmates and
teachers. Despite being punished for several times, she still cuts classes and comes to
school not wearing the prescribed uniform. There was also a time when she punched two
of the school's guards because they did not let her vandalize the principal's office. Liz's
classmates do not want to be friends with her because of her behavior. They call her
"Crazy Liz" behind her back.

Analyze the scenario.

 What qualities characterize conformity and deviance?
 How does deviance affect a person's social status?
 Will actions have an effect on social status if they were unintentional?

Learn about it!

Conformity and Deviance
In our everyday lives, we notice that there are specific standards for our actions,
simple or complex, set by society. People tend to have different responses with these
imagined pressures depending on their upbringing, values, or ideals. These reactions are
called conformity and deviance.

Conformity
 is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms in order to be acceptable in a
particular society, group, or social setting
Example: The majority of the class members, through a group consensus, agreed to
accept the proposal.

Deviance
 is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or
norms of a particular group or society
Example: There are power struggles among netizens who disagree on the re-imposition
of the death penalty.

Social Control
It is believed that society must have a social order to function smoothly. The social
order includes social standards, laws, rules, and norms which are set by society, whether
they are by the majority or by a hierarchy. Ideally, people must exhibit social order, but
in reality, no society succeeds in getting all its members to behave as expected all the
 71

time. If social order is seen as the only way for communities to survive, they must have
ways of making people conform to social norms.

Social Control Theory

 This is based on the idea that a person's fundamental belief system, values, morals,
commitments, and relationships promote a protected environment.
 Oftentimes, individuals who have these beliefs and commitments have a level of
self-control over their actions.
 It examines or evaluates how society affects criminal behavior.
 It emphasizes the idea that when people are involved and in contact with their
community, they are less likely to perpetrate criminal acts.

Gossip, Social Ostracism, and Laws and Punishments

Failure to embrace the accepted norms and values of society or inability to perform
the roles of a person’s status may lead to consequences in the form of gossip, social
ostracism, and laws and punishments.
Gossip
 refers to the idle talk or rumors about the personal or private matters of others
 may lead to the discrediting of the reputation of the subject
Social Ostracism
 refers to the exclusion of an individual from being socially accepted
 includes the removal of social privileges and friendship with the general members
of the society
 a result of one's actions that give him or her an impression of not being a worthy
member of that society

Laws and Punishments

Laws refer to the set of rules by the government to regulate the way in which
society behaves.
Punishments pertain to the pain, penalty, or suffering that is imposed on a person
who violates a law.
People learn the mechanisms of social control through interactions with other
people. Couples who are expected to have a respectable family choose not to quarrel out
loud to avoid being talked about around their neighborhood.
An individual will conform with his peers to avoid social rejection or ostracism. To
avoid punishment, people must follow the law.

Social Processes and Relationships

The illustration below shows the social processes and relationships of deviance,
conformity, and social control.
 72

In the given scenario earlier, the school was the representation of society−the
students were the conformists and Liz was the defiant one. The school had particular rules
and standard of behaving, and Liz's actions caused disturbance within the school. They
did not only cause chaos, but they also led Liz to be stigmatized.
Negative sanctions will be given to people who exhibit deviant acts, while effective
sanctions will be given to those who observe or conform.

Explore!
Bert is invited to an event that requires a particular costume. Not well-informed
and not so serious about it, he arrives with no costume at all.
Will Bert be criticized for not conforming to the required attire? Will he feel shy
throughout the event? How will Bert behave at the start of the event? Do you think this
deviant behavior will have a psychological effect on him?

Try it!
During recess or class break, try wearing your shirt differently−with its front
displayed at your back−and walk backwards as if it is your normal way of walking. Expect
students to stare at you, look confused, and talk about you.

What do you think?

Given the reality in this modern time, do you think that complete conformity to the rules,
laws, standards, and norms will result in social order and deviance will lead to chaos?
Why? Why not?

Tip
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior
deviant, but the same behavior may be acceptable in another society.

Keypoints
 Conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms that are acceptable
in a particular society, group, or social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct,
expectations, or norms of a particular group or society.
 Social control theory is based upon the idea that an individual's underlying belief
system, values, morals, commitments, and relationships foster a proper
environment.
 Social order is considered to be the only solution to achieve societal survival and
social control. Conformity is the only way to achieve this.
 Gossip, social rejection or ostracism, and laws and punishments are forms
of social pressures that contribute to the exhibition of social control.
 Deviance, conformity, and social control are always present in a given society
or group. These are not limited to a high number of people but to a group that is
capable of setting standards, rules and norms.
 73

LESSON 5: Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 describe deviance as explained by the Structural Strain Theory, and
 identify the forms of deviance.

 What causes deviant responses or behaviors as explained by the Structural Strain

Theory?
 What are the different forms of deviance?

Learn about it!

Deviance as Explained by the Structural Strain Theory
The forms of deviance are the responses or adaptations by people in a society
caused by the imbalance or “strain” between the valued goals in the society and the
legitimate or acceptable means to achieve such goals. This idea is taken from
the Structural Strain Theory conceptualized by sociologist Robert K. Merton. Two
variables taken into account in this theory are valued goals and legitimate means to
achieve goals.

Valued Goals
These are goals that are defined by society as valuable, or simply, the goals that
are typically pursued in a society.
Example: financial success

Legitimate Means to Achieve Goals

These are the acceptable ways people can do to achieve such valued goals in a
society.
Example: get a good education

Types of Adaptation
In our everyday lives, we would notice that there are actions considered to be
legitimate or acceptable for a particular society toward achieving valued goals.
While people usually conform to legitimate or acceptable means to achieve goals,
there are people who will not. One reason for this is because the legitimate means are
just not available for them, and so unequal opportunities exist to achieve these goals.
Merton identified five typologies of how people adapt to their value system or the goals-
means dynamics of their respective society.
These typologies are:

 conformity–accepts goals and the institutionalized, acceptable or legitimate

means of obtaining them,
 ritualism–rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of
obtaining them,
 retreatism–rejects both goals and means of obtaining them,
 rebellion–creates new goals and new means of obtaining them, and
 innovation–accepts goals and rejects institutionalized means of obtaining them.
Ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation are forms of deviance.

Forms of Deviance
Merton conceptualized four responses that are considered deviant and caused by
a strain or imbalance between valued goals and legitimate means in a particular society.
 74

Ritualism
Ritualism is exhibited when someone rejects traditional cultural goals but still
adheres to the culturally approved methods or rules for making progress towards the same
goals.
Example: An employee still stays in his job even though he is aware that it is a dead-end
job. In ritualism, people experience feelings of despair and anomie (social instability) that
result to modification or abandonment of the idealized cultural goals, but still persist at a
ritualized, unfulfilling line of work.

Retreatism
Retreatism is the response that rejects or abandons both cultural goals and the
institutionalized or legitimate means for attaining them.
Example: Examples of people who exhibit retreatism are drug addicts and alcoholics. The
ultimate form of retreatism is suicide.

Innovation
Innovation entails the acceptance of the valued goal but the rejection of
legitimate or institutionalized means to achieve them (resorting to criminal or delinquent
acts).
Example: An example of this is when a person wants a nice car but does not have enough
money, so he steals money from the bank. Some people may resort to stealing or dealing
drugs to achieve cultural goals.

Rebellion
Rebellion not only rejects the valued goals and the legitimate means of the
established society but also actively attempts to substitute new goals and means. This can
be applied to political deviants who attempt to modify the existing structure of society.
Example: Examples for this are neo-Nazis and other hate groups. The rebels will publicly
acknowledge their intention to change the norms and the social structure.
The table below summarizes Merton’s typology of individual adaptations.

Legend:

 "+" signifies acceptance

 "–" signifies rejection
 "+ and -" signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new
goal or means
Explore!
In the particular society that you live in, you can observe different people and groups that
exhibit any of the five types of adaptations or responses. Notice their way of expressing
 75

their beliefs toward specific ideals, values, norms, or cultural goals and categorize them
according to their action or statement.

What do you think?

In today’s time, different ideologies, religions, cultures, and traditions have already
emerged and are recognized, resulting in a diverse society. Different needs and
expectations are expressed by groups and individuals according to their social status.
Given this situation, do you think that the presence of these five adaptations is inevitable
in a given society? Why or why not?

Tip
A person can exhibit different types of adaptations depending on the situation. He or she
might be a conformist in school, following all the rules, while also being an innovator when
it comes to his or her interests. A person’s response and adaptation is not always linear.
It clearly depends on how the person weighs the situation according to his or her needs.

Keypoints

 Conformity is the obedience to the norms that make a person acceptable to a

particular society, group, or social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct,
expectations, or norms of a group or society.
 Robert K. Merton developed the Structural Strain Theory to explore how people
respond to cultural values and how they are supposed to achieve them.
 There are five typologies of how people adapt to the value system of their
respective society and these are conformity, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and
innovation.
 The four forms of deviance are ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
 A person’s response or adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how
the person weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
 76

LESSON 6: Human Dignity and Rights

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain human dignity and rights as part of everyone's freedom,
 discuss inclusive citizenship as it advocates policies promoting human rights, and
 help improve the protection of human dignity and rights.

It was on the 10th of December 1948 in Paris when the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) was proclaimed to have a common standard of achievement for all peoples
and all nations.

According to its Article 1:

“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed
with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”
Given these, why do you think some people are still repressed from these privileges based
on their race, citizenship, or color?

Learn about it!

Human Dignity and Rights
As stated, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” No
color of skin, physical disability, sexual orientation, or religious belief can stop anybody
from protecting his or her dignity and enjoying his or her rights as a person. Human
dignity and rights go together and are essential to the attainment of common interest.

Human Dignity
There are two ways to understand human dignity.
The religious aspect believes that humans have a unique place in the world and
that human life is sacred.
In moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions, human dignity is used to
express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive
ethical treatment.
Human dignity
 an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological
integrity, and empowerment
 affirms that every person is worthy of respect; that our value as people should
never be debated
 means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation
 is uplifted when people are granted with their rights

It is, therefore, true to say that any right safeguarded by the International Human Rights
Law is substantiated by the dignity of the human person.

Human Rights
 are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status
 are the freedom and privileges that belong to every person in the world
 guarantees that all people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security

Characteristics of Human Rights

Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
 77

Universality and Inalienability

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Indivisibility
Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political, or social issues, human rights
are inherent to the dignity of every human person.

Interdependence and Interrelatedness

The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Both human dignity and rights should not be taken away, but sadly, they are denied
to some people as manifested by poverty, illiteracy, crime, and discrimination in society.

Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human
rights.
 It focuses on legal equality for each citizen directed at giving all citizens a strong
feeling that they are part of the overall society.
 Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens,
regardless of their race, gender, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status.
 While a government cannot guarantee equality in all private organizations,
inclusive citizenship focuses on the legal rights of all individuals in cases where the
government determines their rights of inclusion.
 It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security
so that they will feel that their government hears and respects their ideas.
 In return, people will be more inclined to voice out their grievances through proper
channels, such as petitioning a representative to investigate their situation.
 Moreover, this right can motivate the citizens to participate in government
activities, raising voter turnout, civic participation, and serving in the military.

Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its
citizens. Examples of these are the equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military,
same right to marry, similar tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the
government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, and equal rights and
acceptance by national figures.

Protection of Human Dignity and Rights

Laws and declaration support the protection of human rights and the dignity of
people. The International Human Rights Lawconstitutes the basis of fundamental
rights. With this law, dignity is also protected. It must be respected, even where a right
is restricted. Conventions such as the 1997 European Union Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being are also held to promote rights and
dignity through different fields.

Explore!
In our everyday lives, we can observe different people pursuing their rights as humans
and as citizens of the country. Not only government agencies, but also institutions and
organizations promote human rights through billboards, posters, television ads, and even
in outreach programs. Notice these channels in your everyday journey and you can
observe how people practice and advocate their rights.
 Since people have different race, citizenship, beliefs, and values, do you think an
individual or group practicing human rights and dignity would deprive another
person or group of their rights and dignity?
 78

 If yes, how can we ensure complete observation of human rights and dignity?

Try it!
In today's society, human rights are more emphasized and practiced than before. Some
groups promote human rights in different ways. Examples of these are people who initiate
and participate in fun runs for a cause. Protesters are usually seen in open areas or roads,
calling the attention of our countrymen, or in front of government agencies. If you
encounter events like these, try to observe their effects on the audience. If they are hazard
free, try joining one.

What do you think?

Since the concept of dignity is said to be difficult to define, there are claims that it is a
meaningless slogan and a useless concept in bioethics. Moreover, there is considerable
overlap in the idea of personhood as to whether it is an innate quality of human beings or
something that is granted or attributed to a person.

Thus, according to some philosophers, this cues a few questions, like:

 Is dignity a property of a person or of the way others react to him?

 Can one's dignity be affected by the way one is treated?
 Can dignity be inviolable but at the same time something that can be lost or
destroyed?

Keypoints
 Human dignity in a religious sense believes that humans have a special place in
the world and that human life is sacred. In a moral, ethical, legal, and political
sense, it is used to express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued,
respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other
status. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and
interrelated.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that focuses on legal equality for each
citizen.
 Human rights and dignity are protected and promoted through laws,
declarations, and conventions.
 79

LESSON 7: The Common Good

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 define and explain human rights, dignity, and the common good,
 discuss the role played by human rights to the attainment of the common good,
and
 help encourage the protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.
In making a personal decision or a choice, do you think about how such decision would
benefit others? Why or why not?

The Common Good

The common good refers to:
 what is shared and advantageous for all or most members of a given society, and
 what is achieved by citizenship, be it collective action or active participation.
When dignity and rights are granted to people, the common good is achieved. It
happens when society benefits as a whole. The common good is reached when the
majority, a high number of individuals, or society as a whole benefits from a situation or
event.

The recognition of people's dignity and rights is the foundation of "freedom, peace,
and justice in the world," as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948. The common good sustains order and happiness in the community. It is not hard
to achieve.

Protection of Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good

Human dignity, rights, and the common good are not new concepts; neither are the
issues about their existence in society.
 Can they be granted?
 Can they be achieved?
Since ancient times, literature figures have given criticisms on issues of the existence
and absence of human rights, dignity, and the common good. Among the list are the works
of Aristotle, Rousseau, and Machiavelli. In modern times, not much has changed. The
same old questions and problems are asked, but the modern world continues to work
towards addressing such concerns.
International organizations and different countries pledged to the United Nations to
uphold human rights and dignity. If proven to disobey laws and rules, one has to be
punished in accordance with the law.
Ideally, the common good is protected when all people enjoy their rights and preserve
their dignity. For an individual, this means having freedom as a consumer, owner, and
citizen that also includes right to rest and leisure, equal access to public works and
services, freedom of association, religion, or speech and employment.

Explore!
Do you believe that laws and public works were built to function for the common good?
Why or why not?

Try it!
Enumerate three (3) situations or events you witnessed where the common good was
upheld.

What do you think?

Are the efforts of local and national government agencies on upholding the common good
sufficient to ensure its existence in society?
 80

Key Points
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other
status.
 Human dignity is a person's or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical
and psychological integrity, and empowerment.
 The common good refers to what is shared and favorable for all or most members
of a given community. The common good is protected when each person enjoys
his or her rights and preserves his or her dignity.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and
human rights. This focuses on legal equality for each citizen, and is directed at
giving all citizens a strong feeling that they are part of the overall society.