COMPUTER SECURITY, ETHICS & PRIVACY

COMPUTER CRIMES

An intentional breach of computer security often involves a deliberate act that is against the law. Any illegal act involving a
computer generally is referred to as a computer crime. The term cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.
 Computer theft of funds
 Unauthorized entry into a computer system
 Stealing computer time
 Stealing computer hardware or Hardware theft

Safeguard techniques:
 User names and passwords
 Possessed objects
 Biometric devices
 Encryption

ROGUE SOFTWARE

Rogue software is defined as any program that runs on a computer without prior consent or knowledge of the user.
Sub-Classifications of Rogue Software:
 Back Door (Trap Door) – refers to a special password or code which is used to bypass the normal security measures of
computer systems
 Chameleons – a program that can imitate another program in order to gather user information.
 Logic Bombs – are programs which can destroy programs and/or data when a certain trigger is encountered; commonly
used by programmers in order to ensure payment of software
 Trojan Horse – named after the Greek myth, is a readily accepted by a user because it presents itself as something useful
 ANSI Bombs – programs which makes the keyboard act in a peculiar way
 Worm – is a program that copies itself repeatedly, for example in memory or on a network, using up resources and
possibly shutting down the computer or network.
 Computer Virus – widely-distributed type of rogue software; Vital Information Resource Under Siege; a program that
duplicates itself by infecting other programs
Indications of an infected PC:
 System Slowdown
 Unexpected display of messages or encrypted files
 Unexpected graphics on screen
 Unexpected file date or time change
 Unexpected music
 Corruption of system and data files

Safeguard against Rogue Software:

 Anti-virus program – protects a computer against viruses by identifying and removing any computer viruses found in
memory, on storage media, or on incoming files.
 Firewalls – is hardware and/or software that protects a network’s resources from intrusion by users on another
network such as the Internet.
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Software Piracy refers to the illegal use and/or distribution of copyrighted computer programs

Safeguards against Software Piracy

 Site License – an agreement through which the buyer of a software has the right to use the program on a given number of
computers
 Shareware – a program that is distributed free on a trial basis
 Freeware – the most effective strategy against software piracy because the programs are distributed for free; not as
powerful as copyrighted software
Public-domain software – the software developed by programmers which are distributed for free

COMPUTER ETHICS

Computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information systems.
 Information accuracy
 Intellectual property rights (IPR)
 Information privacy

PRIVACY LAWS in the U.S.

The concern about privacy has led to the enactment of federal and state laws regarding the storage and disclosure of personal
data.
Common points in some of these laws include the following:
1. Information collected and stored about individuals should be limited to what sis necessary to carry out the function of the
business or government agency collecting the data.
2. Once collected, provisions should be made to restrict access to the data to those employees within the organization who
need access to it to perform their job duties.
3. Personal information should be released outside the organization collecting the data only when the person has agreed to
its disclosure.
4. When information is collected about an individual, the individual should know that the data is being collected and have the
opportunity to determine the accuracy of the data.

GRAPHICS AND MULTIMEDIA

GRAPHICS FILE FORMATS

Computers can create many, many kinds of graphics – from simple line drawings to three-dimensional animations. But all
graphics files fall into one of two basic categories, known as bitmapped and vector files.

Bitmap and Vector Graphics

Graphics files are made up of either

 A grid, called a bitmap, whose cells are filled with one or more colors. The individual cells in the grid can all be filled
with the same color or each cell can contain a different color. Bitmap images also may be referred to as bitmapped
images. It displays images as collections of individual colored pixels. Each pixel is a cell in the grid of a bitmapped
image. In fact, the individual pieces that make up a bitmapped image are often called pixels.
 A set of vectors, which are mathematical equations describing the size, shape, thickness, position, color, and fill or
lines closed graphical shapes.

File Formats

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 A file format is a standardized method of encoding data for storage. File formats are important because they tell the
program what kind of data is contained in the file and how the data is organized.

File formats may be proprietary or universal. The structure of a proprietary file format is under the sole control of the
software developer who invented the format. Universal file formats are based on openly published specifications and are
commonly used by many different programs and operating systems. For example, Adobe Photoshop, by default, saves
images in its proprietary PSD format, but it also can save files in several universal formats, such as TIF, GIF, JPEG, PICT
and TGA. Word processing programs can read and save files in specific formats such as DOC or RTF, or TXT.

GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

Creating a digital image or manipulating an existing image can involve a complex array of processes

 Paint Programs are bitmap-based graphics programs. Because paint programs keep track of each and every pixel
placed on a screen, they also can perform tasks that are impossible with traditional artists’ tools – for example,
erasing a single pixel or changing every pixel in an image from one color to another.

 Draw Programs are vector-based programs that are well-suited for work when accuracy and flexibility are as
important as coloring and special effects. Draw programs are sometimes referred to as object-oriented programs
because each item drawn – whether it is a line, square, rectangle, or circle – is treated as a separate and distinct
object from all the others.

 Photo-Editing Programs are cousins to pain programs which are now taking place of a photographer’s darkroom
for many tasks. Because photo-editing programs (like paint programs) edit images at the pixel level, they can control
precisely how a picture will look. They also are used to edit nonphotographic images and to create images from
scratch.

 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Programs, also called computer-aided drafting or computer-aided drawing, is the
computerized version of the hand-drafting process that used to be done with a pencil and ruler on a drafting table.
CAD Is used extensively in technical fields such as architecture and in mechanical, electrical, and industrial
engineering. CAD software also is used in other design disciplines, such as textile and clothing design and product
and package design.

3-D and Animation Software is a special type of graphics software, which is now used to create 3-D imaging movies,
television, and print. Fast workstations and PCs coupled with 3-D modeling programs can lend realism to even the most
fantastic subjects. An outgrowth of the 3-D explosion is computer-based animation.

MULTIMEDIA BASICS

A medium is simply a way of sharing information. Sound, such as the human voice, is one type of medium. Long
ago, people discovered that messages are more effective when they are presented through a combination of different media.
This combination is what is meant by the term multimedia – using more than one type of medium at the same time.

Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer-controlled integration of text, graphics, drawings, still and moving
images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media where every type of information can be represented, stored,
transmitted and processed digitally.

MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS

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 A Multimedia System is a system capable of processing multimedia data and applications. It is characterized by the
processing, storage, generation, manipulation and rendition of Multimedia information.

Characteristics of a Multimedia System

A Multimedia system has four basic characteristics:

 Multimedia systems must be computer controlled.

 Multimedia systems are integrated.
 The information they handle must be represented digitally.
 The interface to the final presentation of media is usually interactive.

MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

A Multimedia Application is an Application which uses a collection of multiple media sources e.g. text, graphics, images,
sound/audio, animation and/or video.

Examples of Multimedia Applications include:

 World Wide Web

 Hypermedia courseware
 Video conferencing
 Video-on-demand
 Interactive TV
 Groupware
 Home shopping
 Games
 Virtual reality
 Digital video editing and production systems
 ultimedia Database systems

DATABASES

DATABASE & DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A database is a collection of data organized in a manner that allows access, retrieval, and use of that data. Computers
process data in a database into information. With database software, often called a database management system (DBMS),
users create a computerized database.

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS

1. Reduced Redundancy – data stored in separate files as opposed to in a database tends to repeat some of the
same data over and over.
2. Integrated Data – any item of data can be used to satisfy an inquiry or report.

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 3. Data Integrity – identifies the quality of data. Data integrity is very important because computers and people use
information to make decisions and take actions.

DATABASE MODELS

HIERARCHICAL MODEL
The hierarchical data model organizes data in a tree structure. There is a hierarchy of parent and child data segments. This
structure implies that a record can have repeating information, generally in the child data segments. Data in a series of
records, which have a set of field values attached to it. It collects all the instances of a specific record together as a record
type. These record types are the equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the
equivalent of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses Parent Child Relationships.

NETWORK MODEL
The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more
naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. So, the network model permitted the modeling of many-to-many
relationships in data. In 1971, the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) formally defined the network model.
The basic data modeling construct in the network model is the set construct. A set consists of an owner record type, a set
name, and a member record type. A member record type can have that role in more than one set, hence the multiparent
concept is supported. An owner record type can also be a member or owner in another set.

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RELATIONAL MODEL

A database based on the relational model developed by E.F. Codd. A relational database allows the definition of data
structures, storage and retrieval operations and integrity constraints. In such a database the data and relations between them
are organized in tables. A table is a collection of records and each record in a table contains the same fields. Relational-
organize data in table format consisting of related rows and columns.

Parts of a Table:
Data item - each box in the table contains a single piece of data.
Field- it is each column of the table.
Record-is the full set of data in any given row

Creating Database

1. Designing the structure of the file.

2. Entering the data in a file.
Field name - names of the types of data you want to use.

Field Data types:

1. Character Field – contains descriptive data.
2. Numeric Field – contains numbers used of for calculations.
3. Date Field – can usually limit to eight characters including slash used to separate the months, days and years.
4. Logical Field – used to keep track of true or false, yes/no conditions.

Field width - determines the maximum number of characters or digit to be contained in the field, including decimal point.
Key field is also known as index field. It is the field on which an inquiry to the database can be based.

Database Software Activities:

1. List the records
2. List specific field
3. Query
4. Add new record
5. Modify Existing Records
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6. Delete records.

MANGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

Main Functions of Managers

1. Planning or “devising” both short and long term range plans for the organization and setting goals to help achieve the
plans term range plans
2. Organizing or “deciding” how to use resources such as people and materials
3. Staffing or “hiring” training workers
4. Directing “guiding” employees to perform their work in a
way that supports the organizational goals.
5. Controlling or ”monitoring” the
organizationalprogress toward reaching its goals

Manager’s Pyramid / Levels of Managers

Strategic::high-level managers
Tactical::middle-level managers
Operational::low-level managers

MIS (Management Information System)

-It is a set of formal system designed to provide information for an organization.

MIS Managers - runs the MIS department

- also known as resource manager

DSS (Decision Support System)

It is a computer system that supports managers in a sub-routine decision making tasks.

Model - is a mathematical representation of a real life system.

Independent Variable- is also known as input.

Dependent variable – is also known as output

Simulation - uses a computer model to reach a decision about a real-time situation.

MIS DSS
Emphasis, planned, reports on a variety of subjects Decision-making
Standard, scheduled, routine Quite unstructured an available upon request
Constrained by the organizational system Immediate and friendly

ESS (Executive Support System) - is a decision-support system especially made for senior-level managers.

ESS Considerations:
• The overall vision or broad view of company goals.
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• Strategic long term planning and objectives
• Staffing and labor relations
• Crisis Management
• Strategic control and monitoring of overall operations.

ESS Characteristics
1. easy to use
2. flexible
3. customizable

Personal Computer Management Problems

1. No one person was in charge of the headlong plunge into personal computers.
2. Incompatibility
3. Uses were not as independent as MIS.
4. They (company) did not know how many, or where they were, or what software was on them.
Solutions
1. Creating new position called the personal computer manager, which often evolved to the network manager.
2. Establishing acquisition policies.
3. Creating information centers and providing variety of training opportunities.
4. They use software to locate, count and inventory their personal computers.

Benefits of Personal Computer Manager

1. Increased productivity
2. Worker enthusiasm
3. Easier access of information

4 Areas That A Pc Manager That Needs Attention:

1. Technology overload
2. Cost control
3. Data security and integrity
4. Computer junkies

Information Center-is the place where workers can get help with software problems.

Services of Information Center

1. Software selection
2. Data access
3. Network access
4. Training

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data Communication comes from the words data processing and telecommunications. In its broadest sense, data
communication describes an environment in which data produced by a terminal or computer are transported using some form
of communications medium, such as phone lines, microwave or satellite systems, or fiber-optic channels. Basically, it is the
transmission of data and information over a communications channel between one computer or terminal to another computer

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PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Twisted Pair
The telephone lines used to carry most of the voice and data communications consist of a pair of thin-diameter insulated
copper wires (called twisted pairs).

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for transmission at a high frequency. Coaxial cable consists of a single core of
solid copper. Because of its sturdiness, coaxial cable is often used for telephone lines that must be carried under bodies of
water. Because coaxial cables have very little distortion and are less prone to interference, they have low error rates.

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable consists of tubes of glass through which data are transmitted as pulses of light. Although a fiber- optic cable
is diametrically smaller than a human hair, it has 26,000 times the transmission capacity of twisted pair media.
A major advantage of fiber-optic media is its high level of security. These communications channels are not susceptible to
electronic interference. Therefore, they are a more reliable form of data transmission. Fiber-optic cables are also significantly
less expensive than coaxial cable. A disadvantage of fiber-optic channels is that they cannot carry information over great
distances.

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

Microwave
Microwave data transmission differs from the previously mentioned communications channels in that data is transmitted
through the air instead of through cables or wires. Microwaves are high-frequency radio waves that can only be directed in
straight lines.

Satellites
Instead of antennas, satellites can also be used to transfer microwave messages from one location to another. Satellites rotate
approximately 23,300 miles above the earth in precise locations. Satellite transmission stations that can both send and receive
messages are known as earth stations.
A major advantage of satellite transmission is that large volumes of data can be communicated at once. A particular
drawback of several disadvantages is bad weather can severely affect the quality of satellite transmissions. Another one is
that it has a serious security problem, because it is easy to intercept the transmission as it travels through the air.

COMMUNICATIONS SPEEDS

The modem handles the dialing and answering of the call and controls transmission speed. Communications speeds are
expressed in bits per second (bps). A baud is commonly and erroneously used to specify bits per second for modem speed.
This is not always true. Modems are classified by the speed at which they operate.
BANDWIDTH
Each type of communications media has different transmission speed. The bandwidth is a measure of the transmission rate of
communications channels.

 Baseband: Digital signals are commonly called baseband signals. Baseband is a communications technique in
which digital signals are placed onto the transmission line without change in modulation

 Broadband: Broadband is a technique for transmitting large amounts of data, voice and video over long distances
simultaneously by modulating each signal onto a different frequency. This bandwidth includes microwave, satellite, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic media.

COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENTS

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MODEMS

All communications must flow through some types of channels. Most of the computer communications are transmitted via
ordinary telephone lines. Therefore, many require devices to convert the digital signals (represented by the presence or
absence of an electronic pulse) into analog signals. This converter is called a modem.

The modem is an acronym for "MOdulator- DEModulator." A modem converts the digital signals into continuous
analog signals (Modulation), and converts from analog to digital (Demodulation). The modem enables digital
microcomputers to communicate across analog telephone lines. Both voice communications and data communications can be
carried over the same telephone line.

Types of Modems:

 External modem is a box that houses the modem’s circuitry outside the computer. It connects to a computer using
a serial, USB, or FireWire port, and then connects to telephone system with a standard telephone jack.

 Internal modem is a circuit board that plugs into one of the computer’s expansion slots.

 Fax modem is used with a personal computer which also can emulate a fax machine. This device can exchange
faxes with any other fax modem or fax machine.

MULTIPLEXER
Multiplexing technology allows the transmission of multiple signals over a single medium. Multiplexers allow the replacement
of multiple low-speed transmission lines with a single high-speed transmission line.

CONCENTRATOR
A concentrator is a line-sharing device with a primary function that is the same as the multiplexer. It allows multiple devices to
share communication circuits. In addition, a concentrator is an intelligent device that sometimes performs data processing
functions and has auxiliary storage.

FRONT-END PROCESSORS
Front- End Processors are often employed at the host end of a communication circuit to perform control and processing
functions required for the proper operation of a data communication network.

NETWORKING BASICS

COMPUTER NETWORK

A network is a series of points that are connected by some type of communication channel. It is a set of technologies –
including hardware, software, and media – that can be used to connect computers together, enabling them to
communicate, exchange information, and share resources in real time.

USES OF A NETWORK

Simultaneous Access. Without a network that allows workers to share files, workers must keep separate copies of data
stored on different disks by each worker who accesses the data.

Shared Peripheral Devices. The ability to share peripheral devices (especially expensive ones such as high volume
laser printers) is one of the best reasons for small businesses to set up a network.

Personal Communications.
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  Videoconferencing enables real-time communication over a distance by allowing people at two or more sites to
communicate with each other by seeing a video picture of the people at the other sites.
 Audio-conferencing provides an audio link similar to that of a conventional telephone, except that it offers much
higher-quality audio and enables more than two sites to be linked together.

 Data-conferencing enables participants at two or more sites to have a shared workspace on their computer desktops.

Easier Data Backup. One way to assure that data is backed up is to keep it on a shared storage device that employees
can access through a network.

APPLICATIONS OF NETWORKING

Videotext is the capability of having a two-way transmission between a television or computer in the home and
organizations outside the home.

Satellite. By using a home satellite TV receiver and transmitter, people will be able to communicate with other people via a
satellite dish located on their property.

Teleconferencing allows people located in different geographical regions to “attend” meetings in both voice and picture
format.

Electronic Mail (e-mail) provides the ability to transmit written messages over short or long distances instantaneously
through the use of a microcomputer or terminal attached to a communication network.

Home Banking. Computers can handle the traditional methods of making payments through home banking.

Electronic Funds Transfer. The ability to transfer funds electronically from one financial institution to another has become
a necessity in today’s banking world. Commercial banks transfer millions of dollars daily through their electronic funds
transfer (EFT) systems.

Electronic Bulletin Boards (BBS or EBBS) consists of a computer or microcomputer that is used to store, retrieve, and
catalog messages sent in by the general public through their modems.

Internet. The Internet is perhaps the most far-reaching of the information services is the Internet.

COMMON TYPES OF NETWORKS

LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LANS)

A computer communications network contained in a small area such as a commercial building is known as a local area
network (LAN). A local area network's linkages usually are accomplished with either telephone, coaxial, or fiber-optic cables.
Often, LANs use a bus configuration.

LAN ARCHITECTURES

Dedicated Server Networks: A dedicated server LAN can connect with almost any other network can handle very large
databases, have a dedicated network server, and uses sophisticated LAN software.

Peer-to-Peer Networks: This network is a local area network that allows all users access to data on all workstations. In this
network, any computer can perform as both a client and a server. Each computer on the network shares its resource such as
hard disk and printer with any other computer on the same network.

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LAN COMPONENTS

 Server: A server is a computer in a network that shared by multiple users. There are many kinds of servers in
dedicated server networks.

 Client Computer: In a communications network, the client computer is the requesting machine from the supplying
machine, server.

 NIC: The Network Interface Card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that plugs into a network server or client computer. It
enables the computer to be physically connected to the network cable, which provides the physical layer connection
among the computers in the network.

 Network Cables/Hubs: Network cable physically connects each computer to the other computers in the network.
The selection of an LAN topology can be influenced greatly by the type of cable.

 Network Cable: Most LANs use a combination of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wires, shielded twisted pair (STP),
coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. The advantage of the shielded and unshielded twisted pair wires is in the low
cost.

 Network Hubs: A network hub is called in many different names such as concentrator, multistation access unit,
transceiver, or repeater.

 Wireless LANs: Wireless LAN is an alternative method of cabling a local area network.

 NOS: The NOS (network operating system) is the control program that resides in a server or workstation within an
LAN. This controls the network. The NOS handles the requests for data from all the users on the networks.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS (MANs)

The metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large-scale network that connects multiple corporate LANs together. MANs usually
are not owned by a single organization; their communication devices and equipment are usually maintained by a group or
single network provider that sells its networking services to corporate customers.

WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WANs)

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that often uses transmission
facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.

CAMPUS AREA NETWORKS (CANs)

A campus area network (CAN) follows the same principles as a local area network, only on a larger and more diversified
scale. With a CAN, difference campus offices and organizations can be linked together.

HOME AREA NETWORKS (HANs)

A home area network (HAN) is a network contained within a user’s home that connects a person’s digital devices, from
multiple computers and their peripheral devices, such as a printer, to telephones, VCRs, DVD, televisions, video games, home
security systems, “smart” appliances, fax machines, and other digital devices that are wired into the network.

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INTRANETS and EXTRANETS
Much of the technology available on the Internet is also available for private network use. The company’s internal version of
the Internet is called an intranet. An extranet is a partially accessible internal company Web site for authorized users physically
located outside the organization.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

An important feature of any LAN is its topology – the logical layout of the cables and devices that connect the nodes of the
network. Network designers consider several factors when deciding which topology or combination of topologies to use.

Star Topology

A star topology is one in which a central unit provides a link

through which a group of smaller computers and devices is
connected. In the star network, all interactions between
different computers in the network travel through the host
computer.

Bus Topology

In a bus configuration, each computer in the network is responsible for carrying

out its own communications without the aid of a central unit. A common
communications cable (the bus) connects all of the computers in the network

Ring Network

A ring configuration features a network in which each

computer is connected to the next two other computers in a
closed loop. Like the bus network, no single central
computer exists in the ring configuration.

Hierarchical Topology
A hierarchical network (or a tree network) resembles a star
network in that several computers are connected to a central host computer (usually a mainframe). However, these "client"
computers also serve as host computers to next level units. Thus, the hierarchical network can theoretically be compared to a
standard organizational chart or a large corporation. This topology is effective in a centralized corporation.
Mesh Topology
This is a net-like communications network in which there are at least two pathways to each node. In a mesh topology,
computers are connected to each other by point-to-point circuits. In the topology, one or more computers usually become
switching centers, interlinking computers with others.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

To avoid chaos in computer communications, rules must be established for the exchange of data from one site to another.
These rules are known as line protocol. Communications software packages control the speed and mode of communications
between computer systems.

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  Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) developed a set of standard protocols called the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI). The OSI model separates each network's functions into seven layers of protocols, or
communication rules.
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of communications protocols developed for
internetworking dissimilar systems.
 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a special type of private leased service. This type of network
allows for simultaneous voice, data, text, and video digital communications. ISDN represents an effort to create a
universal communications network nationwide.

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