Figures of Speech

Figures of speech lend themselves particularly well to literature and poetry. They also pack a
punch in speeches and movie lines. Indeed, these tools abound in nearly every corner of life.
Let's start with one of the more lyrical devices, alliteration.

Alliteration is the repetition of the beginning sounds of neighboring words.

Examples include:
She sells seashells.
Walter wondered where Winnie was.

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds (not just letters) in words that are close together.
The sounds don't have to be at the beginning of the word.
Examples include:
A - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore. (Poe)
E - Therefore, all seasons shall be sweet to thee. (Coleridge)

Euphemism is a mild, indirect, or vague term that often substitutes a harsh, blunt, or offensive
term.
Examples include:
'A little thin on top' instead of 'going bald.'
'Fell of the back of a truck' instead of 'stolen.'

Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect.

Examples include:
I've told you to stop a thousand times.
That must have cost a billion dollars.

Irony occurs when there's a marked contrast between what is said and what is meant, or between
appearance and reality.
Examples include:
"How nice!" she said, when I told her I had to work all weekend. (Verbal irony)
A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. (Situational irony)

A metaphor makes (direct) comparison between two unlike things or ideas.

Examples include:
Heart of stone
Time is money
The world is a stage
She's a night owl
He's an ogre
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the term for a word that sounds like what it is describing.
Examples include:
Whoosh
Splat
Buzz
Personification gives human qualities to non-living things or ideas.
Examples include:
The flowers nodded.
The snowflakes danced.

A simile is a (indirect) comparison between two unlike things using the words "like" or "as."
Examples include:
As slippery as an eel
Like peas in a pod
As blind as a bat
Synecdoche occurs when a part is represented by the whole or, conversely, the whole is
represented by the part.
Examples include:
Wheels - a car
The police - one policeman
Plastic - credit cards
Coke - any cola drink

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but
by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept.
Examples:
Here are some examples of metonymy:
Crown. (For the power of a king.)
The White House. (Referring to the American administration.)
Dish. (To refer an entire plate of food.)

Synecdoche is a figure of speech referring to when a part of something is used to refer to the
whole, such as in the phrase "all hands on deck," where "hands" are people. It's easy to confuse
with metonymy, which refers to using one thing to describe something related to it, such as
referring to the Queen as simply "the crown, or a sports team as simply the city they are from as
in "Boston led by 2 points."

Definition of Apostrophe
More commonly known as a punctuation mark, apostrophe can also refer to an exclamatory
figure of speech. The definition of apostrophe as a literary device is when a speaker breaks off
from addressing one party and instead addresses a third party. This third party may be an
individual, either present or absent in the scene. It can also be an inanimate object, like a dagger,
or an abstract concept, such as death or the sun. Because there is a clear speaker and change of
addressee, apostrophe is most commonly found in plays. It does, however, sometimes occur in
poetry and prose.

A writer or speaker, using apostrophe, speaks directly to someone who is not present or is dead,
or speaks to an inanimate object..

KINDS OF NOUN
Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories.
Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific people, places or things.
Concrete nouns are nouns that refer to things that exist physically and can be touched, seen,
smelled, felt, or tasted.
More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Ideas, qualities or
conditions like love, hate, power, and time are all examples of abstract nouns.
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in particular. Often, collective
nouns are used to refer to groups of animals.
Traditionally, we are taught that nouns are words that refer to people, places, things, or ideas.
Modern linguistics find this definition to be problematic because it relies on a non-specific term,
such as "thing," to define what a noun is. Yet, most people's understanding of nouns is based on
this traditional definition.
Under that umbrella term, there are several types of nouns, so, let's clear things up and take a
look at each type separately. Below, you'll find the major classifications of the different types of
nouns in English, along with examples so you can see these types of nouns in action.
To learn more, click on the links for each type of noun to read fuller explanations and see further
examples.
Common Nouns
Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories. So, while "Nebraska" is a proper noun
because it names a specific state, state is a common noun because it can refer to any state. While
"Harvard" refers to a particular place of higher learning, the common noun university can refer
to any school of that type.
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific people, places or things. Proper nouns
like Nebraska, Steve, or White House are capitalized to show their distinction from common
nouns, such as "state," "man" or "building."
Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that refer to things that exist physically and can be touched, seen,
smelled, felt, or tasted. Here are some examples:
Can I pet your dog?
Please pass the salt.
Your sweater is made of such soft wool.
Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our five senses.
Abstract Nouns
More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Ideas, qualities or
conditions like love, hate, power, and time are all examples of abstract nouns.
All you need is love.
I hate my new school.
We must use this time wisely.
In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to concepts or feelings that cannot be understood
concretely or touched physically.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in particular. Often, collective
nouns are used to refer to groups of animals. Consider the following sentences.
Look at that gaggle of geese.
There used to be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie.
A crowd of kids is in the pool today.
The team did a great job in the competition.
Compound Nouns
A compound noun contains two or more words that join together to make a single noun.
Countable nouns can occur in both single and plural forms, can be modified by numbers, and can
co-occur with quantifying determiners, such as many, most, more, several, etc.
On the other hand, some nouns are not countable, you'll see them referred to as uncountable,
non-countable or mass nouns. For example, the word "clutter" is an uncountable noun.
Possessive nouns demonstrate ownership over something else. The best way to spot them is to
look for an apostrophe

PARTS OF A SENTENCE
Required Parts of a Sentence
Subject
In general, the subject refers to the part of the sentence that tells who or what the sentence is
about. The subject is a noun, pronoun or noun phrase. For example:
Kelly walked down the street.
They went to school.
The black cat is sleeping.
There are a few different types of subjects. A simple subject is just one word, without any
modifiers, usually a noun or pronoun. A complete subject is the simple subject plus all modifiers.
A compound subject is made up of more than one subject element. For example:
Simple subject: Kate is a thin girl.
Complete subject: Jeffrey's poem about his mother made the class cry.
Compound subject: Paul and Tommy joined the soccer team at the same time.
Predicate
The predicate of a sentence includes the verb and everything that follows it. This typically tells
what the subject does with an action verb or describes the subject using a linking verb and a
complement.
Let's return to the first example sentence:
Kelly walked down the street.
Object
Objects are noun phrases that are included in the predicate. They are the things being acted upon
by the verb. For example:
Susan bought the gift.
The dog caught the ball.
The boy spilled the milk.
In each of these sentences, there is a direct object in the predicate. It is the thing being acted
upon; for example, the gift is the thing given by Susan.
It's also possible to have an indirect object that includes more information about the person or
thing towards which the action is directed. For example:
Susan bought him the gift.
He wrote them a long letter.
The man gave her an ultimatum.
Modifier
Modifiers are words or phrases that describe parts of the sentence by adding additional
information. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs. It is possible for parts of speech to do this work alone in the sentence in either
the subject or the predicate. For example:
The blue boat sank.
The boat slowly sank.

FOREIGN NOUNS

Foreign Plural forms

These nouns have irregular plural forms. They often make their plurals according to the rules of
the language they were taken from (e.g. Latin or Greek). Sometimes there is more than one
plural form possible or these forms have different meanings. Always use a good dictionary when
using foreign plurals.

MODALS
Modals are those helping verbs, which express the ‘mode’ or ‘manner’ of the actions indicated
by the main verbs. They express modes such as ability, possibility, probability, permission,
obligation, etc. The most commonly used modals are shall, should, will, would, can, could, may,
might, must, ought to, used to, need and dare. Modals are used to:
• Ask permission—may, can, could Examples: May I come in? Could I use your pen, please?
• Make a request—can, could Example: Could you please give me the doctor’s telephone
number?
• Express a possibility—may, might, could Example: It might rain during the night.
• Give advice or suggestion—should Example: You should wear a helmet while riding your
motorbike.
• Express necessity or compulsion—must, have to Examples: We must slow down while driving
in front of a school. I have to submit my project by tomorrow.
• Express prohibition Example: You must not talk loudly in the library.
• Express a promise or intention—will, shall Example: I will mail you my address.
• Express a wish—may Example: May you have a long life!
A modal does not change according to the number or person of the subject. Examples: He can
learn. I can learn. You can learn. They can learn. We can learn.

[ A modal is always used with a verb in its basic form. The modal takes the tense while the main
verb remains in its dictionary form. Examples: I can run. I may run. I could run. I might run.

[ Modals can be used alone in response to a question. Examples: Can you sing? I can. Will you
sing? I will. Will you come? I may./I will.
[ Modals, when joined with ‘not’ to form a negative, can be contracted. Examples: I cannot
run. I can’t run. I do not run. I don’t run. I will not run. I won’t run.

Adverbs describe verbs and modify adjectives and other adverbs. Adverbs, unlike adjectives, do
not modify nouns. Adverbs can also modify phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Adverbs answer one of the following questions: When? Where? Why? How? Under what
conditions? and To what extent? Example: The teacher had to speak loudly to be heard over the
children. (Loudly modifies the verb speak.) The children were really bad during the movie.
(Really modifies the adjective bad.) John approached the wounded dog very slowly. (Very
modifies the adverb slowly.) Clearly, Sarah did not understand the directions. (Clearly modifies
the sentence.) The box is still below the stairs. (Still modifies the phrase “below the stairs.”)

Types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Time An adverb of time answers the question When? Adverbs of time include: after,
always, before, during, early, later, never, now, often, rarely, recently, sometimes, soon, then,
today, tomorrow, usually, yesterday, etc. Example: John will attend the soccer game after he
finishes his homework. (After answers the question: When will John attend the soccer game?)

Adverbs of Manner An adverb of manner answers the question How? Adverbs of manner
include: badly, beautifully, better, bravely, cheerfully, fast, hard, quickly, slowly, inadequately,
healthy, well, etc. Example: Sarah slowly walked over the rocky beach. (Slowly answers the
question: How did Sarah walk?)

Adverbs of Place An adverb of place answers the question Where? Adverbs of place include:
above, away, below, down, here, inside, near, outside, there, up, etc. Example: Susan placed the
boxes above the file cabinet. (Above answers the question: Where did Susan place the boxes?)

Adverbs of Degree An adverb of degree answers the question How much? It describes the
strength and intensity at which something happens. Adverbs of degree include: almost,
completely, enough, entirely, extremely, hardly, just, little, much, nearly, quite, rather, very, too,
etc. Example: John worked very hard to complete his part of the project. (Very answers the
question: How hard did John work?)

Adverbs of Frequency An adverb of frequency answers the question How often? Adverbs of
frequency include: always, never, usually, frequently, occasionally, rarely, seldom, sometimes,
etc. Example: Bob always forgets to check his email before class begins. (Before answers the
question: How often does Bob forget to check his email?)

There are plenty of ways to sprinkle examples of antonyms, synonyms, and homonyms for
kids into their everyday activities. Let's start with some basic definitions.
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Synonyms are words with the same or similar
meaning. Homonyms are words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have different
meanings.
Masculine nouns refer to words for a male figure or male member of a species (i.e. man, boy,
actor, horse, etc.)

Feminine nouns refer to female figures or female members of a species (i.e. woman, girl, actress,
mare, etc.)

Common nouns refer to members of a species and don't specify the gender (i.e. parent, friend,
client, student, etc.)

Neuter nouns refer to things that have no gender (i.e. rock, table, pencil, etc.)

What is a fact? - A fact generally refers to something that is true and can be verified as such.
That is, a fact is something that can be proven to be true.

What is an opinion? - An opinion refers to a personal belief. It relates to how someone feels
about something. Others may agree or disagree with an opinion, but they cannot prove or
disprove it. This is what defines it as opinion.

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence.

Pronouns are used to avoid repeating the same nouns over and
over again. For example, "Jeremy ran so fast, you'd think his
life was on the line." The pronoun "his" saved us from
repeating the name Jeremy again.
Common pronouns include I, me, mine, she, he, it, we,
and us. In truth, there are many different types of pronouns,
each serving a different purpose.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used as a substitute for a person's name. There are two kinds: subjective
and objective pronouns. That is, they either act as the subject of the sentence or the object of the
sentence.
As the subject of a sentence, they are:
I she they
you it
he we
For example:
They went to the store.
I don't want to leave.
He runs a great shop in town.
You can't leave, either.
As the object of the sentence, they are:
me him them
you it
her us

For example:
Please don't sit beside me.
Go talk to her.
Mary put the gift under it.
Don't look at them.
For more, check out Subject Versus Object Pronouns.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession of a noun. They are:
my his its (note there is no
our her apostrophe)
your their
For example:
Is that my book?
No, that's his book.
That's its shelf.
I'd like to see their bookshelves.
However, there are also independent possessive pronouns. These pronouns refer to a previously
named or understood noun. They stand alone and aren't followed by any other noun. They are:
mine ours yours his hers its
theirs
For example:
That's mine.
Wrong. It's ours.
So, I suppose those clothes are yours?
No, it's theirs.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns don't point to particular nouns. We use them when an object doesn't need to
be specifically identified. As such, it can remain indefinite. They include:
few all anything
everyone some nobody
For example:
Most wealth is held by a select few.
Everyone is here already.
I don't have any paper napkins. Can you bring some?
He's nobody.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. We often see
them when we need to add more information. They are:
who whoever that
whom whomever
which whichever
For example:
The driver who ran the stop sign was careless.
I don't know which pair of shoes you want.
Take whichever ones you want.
No, not that one.
Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify, nouns and pronouns. Typically, we find them right
after the noun they're intensifying. These pronouns typically end in -self or -selves. They are:
myself themselves yourselves
himself itself ourselves
herself yourself
For example:
I myself like to travel.
He himself is his worst critic.
She approved the marriage herself.
We went to hear W.B. Yeats himself speak.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns take the place of a noun that's already been mentioned. They can be
singular or plural. There are five of them. They include:
these those this that such
For example:
These are ugly.
Those are lovely.
Don't drink this.
Such was his understanding.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns do just what they say. They work in sentences that are posing a question.
They are:
who what whichever
whom whoever whatever
which whomever
For example:
Who is going to arrive first?
What are you bringing to the party?
Which of these do you like better?
Whatever do you mean?
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are similar to intensive pronouns. The difference between the two is that
intensive pronouns aren't essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are.
Also, they're used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person or thing.
These pronouns end in -self or -selves. They are:
myself herself yourselves
yourself itself themselves
himself ourselves
For example:
I told myself not to spend all my money on new shoes.
You're going to have to drive yourself to the restaurant today.
We gave ourselves plenty of extra time.
They bought themselves a new car.