How to Factor xn − 1?

SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

Applications

SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over

Finite Fields and Their Applications in
Coding Theory

Somphong Jitman
Silpakorn University

June 5, 2019 – @MUIC

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of xn − 1

Could you find a factorization of x7 − 1 in Z[x] into a product of

irreducible polynomial?

x7 − 1 = (x − 1)(x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1)1

Could you find a factorization of x7 − 1 in Z2 [x] into a product

of irreducible polynomial?

x7 − 1 = (x + 1)(x3 + x + 1)(x3 + x2 + 1)

1
Eisenstein’s criterion: 7 is prime.
S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of xn − 1 over Fq
iπ
Let ω (=e n ) be an nth root of unity in C. Then xn − 1 can be
factorization in to a product of irreducible factor as follows.

ring factorization
∏
n
C[x] xn − 1 = (x − ω t )

t=1
n−1

 ∏ 2

(x − 1) pr (x) if n is odd
R[x] xn − 1 = r=1


n−2
∏

2
(x − 1)(x + 1) pr (x) if n is even,
r=1
where pr (x)
∏ = x2 − (ω r + ω −r )x + 1 ∏ ( )
Q[x] xn − 1 = d|n Qd (x), where Qd (x) = x − (ω n/d )k .
1≤k≤d
gcd(k,d)=1

What is about the factorization of xn − 1 in Fq [x]?

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of xn − 1 over Fq

Assume that the characteristic of Fq is p. Then n = pν n′ for

some ν ≥ 0 and p ∤ n′ .

For a, b ∈ Fq , we have (a + b)p = ap + bp .

Hence,
ν n′ ν ′ ν
xn − 1 = xp − 1p = (xn − 1)p .

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of xn − 1 over Fq

Let ω be a primitive n′ th root of 1 in some extension of Fq .

Then
′
∏
xn − 1 = Qd (x).
d|n′

Is Qd (x) irreducible over Fq ? NO!!

In F2 [x], x7 − 1 = (x + 1)(x3 + x + 1)(x3 + x2 + 1) and

Q7 (x) = x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = (x3 + x + 1)(x3 + x2 + 1)
is reducible.
Lemma
In Fq [x], Qd (x) can be factored into a product of irreducible factors of
the same degree.

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

For 0 ≤ j < n′ , let Cq (j) = {jqi modn′ | i = 0, 1, 2, . . . } be the

q-cyclotomic coset of j modulo n. Then

∪
r
{0, 1, . . . , n′ − 1} = Cq (ji )
i=0

is a disjoint union for some r < n′ .

We have the following factorization

′ ∏
r
xn − 1 = mi (x),
i=0
∏
where mi (x) = (x − ω ℓ ) is the minimal poly. of ω ji over Fq .
ℓ∈Cq (ji )

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

For positive integers i and j with gcd(i, j) = 1, the

multiplicative order of j modulo i, denoted by ordi (j), is
defined to be the smallest positive integer s such that
js ≡ 1 (mod i), or equivalently, i | (js − 1).

For a ∈ Z, the additive order of a modulo m, denoted by

ord(a), is defined to be the smallest positive integer s such that
sa ≡ 0modm.

Lemma
Let q be a prime power and let n′ be a positive integer such that
gcd(q, n′ ) = 1. Then Cq (j) = {jqi modn′ | 0 ≤ i < ordord(a) (q)}
and |Cq (a)| = ordord(a) (q) for all 0 ≤ a < n′ .

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Steps in Factorizing xn − 1 over Fq , gcd(n, q) = 1

1 Find a positive integer m such that n|(qm −1).
2 Fix a primitive element β of Fqm .
qm −1
Then α := β n is a primitive nth root of unity.
3 Compute the cyclotomic cosets Cq (ji ) such that (disj)
∪
r
{0, 1, . . . , n − 1} = Cq (ji )
i=0
4 Get the factorization
∏
r
n
x −1= mi (x),
i=0
∏
where mi (x) = (x − ω ℓ ).
ℓ∈Cq (ji )
Note that deg(mi (x)) = |Cq (ji )| = ordord(ji ) (q)
S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

⟨ ⟩
Let F16 = F2 [x]/ 1 + x3 + x4 . Then F16 can be viewed in terms
of α, a root of 1 + x3 + x4 , as follows.

I II III
0 0 0000
1 1 1000
α α 0100
α2 α2 0010
α3 α3 0001
1 + α3 α4 1001
1 + α + α3 α5 1101
1 + α + α2 + α3 α6 1111
1 + α + α2 α7 1110
α + α2 + α3 α8 0111
1 + α2 α9 1010
α + α3 α10 0101
1 + α2 + α3 α11 1011
1 + α α12 1100
α + α2 α13 0110
α2 + α3 α14 0011

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of x15 − 1 in F2 [x].

1 Since 15 | (24 − 1), choose m = 4.
2 Let β be a root of x4 + x3 + 1 ∈ F2 [x]. Then β is a primitive element of
F16=2m and α := β is a primitive 15th root of unity.
3 The cyclotomic cosets of 2 modulod 15 are C0 = {0}, C1 = {1, 2, 4, 8},
C3 = {3, 6, 12, 9}, C5 = {5, 10}, and C7 = {7, 14, 11, 13}.
4 We have the following polynomials.

m0 (x) = (x − α0 ) = (x − 1)
∏
m1 (x) = (x − αj ) = (x − α)(x − α2 )(x − α4 )(x − α8 ) = x4 + x3 + 1
j∈C1
∏
m3 (x) = (x − αj ) = (x − α3 )(x − α6 )(x − α9 )(x − α12 ) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
j∈C3
∏
m5 (x) = (x − αj ) = (x − α5 )(x − α10 ) = x2 + x + 1
j∈C5
∏
m7 (x) = (x − αj ) = (x − α7 )(x − α14 )(x − α11 )(x − α13 ) = x4 + x + 1
j∈C7

5 x15 − 1 = (x − 1)(x4 + x3 + 1)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x4 + x + 1).

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Factorization of x13 − 1 ∈ F3 [x].

1 Since 13 | 33 − 1, choose m = 3.
2 Let β be a root of x3 + 2x + 1 ∈ F3 [x]. Then β is a primitive element of
F27=33 and α = beta26/13 = β 2 is a primitive 13th root of unity.
3 Since the cyclotomic cosets of 3 modulod n = 13 are C0 = {0},
C1 = {1, 3, 9}, C2 = {2, 6, 5}, C4 = {4, 12, 10}, C7 = {7, 8, 11}.
4 The Zech’s log thable is helpful for the following computation. We have the
following polynomials.

m0 (x) = x − 1
m1 (x) = (x − α1 )(x − α3 )(x − α9 ) = x3 + x2 + x + 2
m2 (x) = (x − α2 )(x − α6 )(x − α5 ) = x3 + x2 + 2
m4 (x) = (x − α4 )(x − α10 )(x − α12 ) = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2
m7 (x) = (x − α7 )(x − α8 )(x − α11 ) = x3 + 2x + 2.

5 Thus
x13 − 1 = (x − 1)(x3 + x2 + x + 2)(x3 + x2 + 2)(x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2)(x3 + 2x + 2).

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Theorem
Let q be a prime power and let n be a positive integer such that
gcd(q, n) = 1. Then the number of monic irreducible divisors of
xn − 1 in Fq [x] is
∑ ϕ(d)
T(q, n) = ,
ordd (q)
d|m

where ϕ is the Euler’s totient function.

Proof.
′ ∏
Note that xn − 1 = d|n′ Qd (x) and deg(Qd (x)) = ϕ(d).

Lemma
In Fq [x], Qd (x) can be factored into a product of irreducible factors of
the same degree ordd (q).

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

A non-zero polynomial f(x) over a finite field Fq whose constant

term is a unit is said to be self-reciprocal if f(x)( equals
) its
∗
reciprocal polynomial f (x) := x deg(f(x)) −1 1
f(0) f x .

Example
In F3 [x], let f(x) = x2 + x + 2 and g(x) = x4 + 2x3 + x + 2.
f∗ (x) = 2−1 x2 ((1/x)2 + (1/x) + 2) = 2(1 + x + 2x2 ) =
x2 + 2x + 2 ̸= f(x) is not self-reciprocal.
g∗ (x) = x4 + 2x3 + x + 2 = g(x) is self-reciprocal.

A polynomial is said to be self-reciprocal irreducible monic

(SRIM) if it is self-reciprocal, irreducible and monic.

In F2 [x],
x15 − 1 =
(x − 1)(x4 + x3 + 1)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x4 + x + 1).
S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Let q be a prime power and let n be a positive integer such that

gcd(q, n) = 1.
Denote by Bq,n and Γq,n the set of SRIM factors of xn − 1
and the set of pairs of RIM polynomial pairs in the
factorization of xn − 1 in Fq [x], respectively.
Then xn − 1 can be factorized into a product of irreducible
monic polynomials in Fq2 [x] of the following form

|Bq,n | |Γq,n |
∏ ∏ ( )
n
x −1= fi (x) gi (x)g∗j (x) , (1)
i=1 j=1

where fi (x) is a SRIM polynomial and gj (x) and g∗j (x) are a
RIM polynomial pair for all 1 ≤ i ≤ |Bq,n | and
1 ≤ j ≤ |Γq,n |.

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Let
{
1 if there exists a positive integer e such that i|(qe + 1),
χ(q, i) =
0 if i ∤ (qe + 1) for all positive integers e.

Lemma
Let n be a positive integer such that gcd(q, n) = 1. Then the
following statements are equivalent.
mi (x) is SRIM in Fq [x].
Cq (i) = Cq (−i).
χ(q, i) = 1.

Hence, the number of SRIM factors of xn − 1 over Fq is

∑ ϕ(d)
|Bq,n | = χ(q, d) (2)
ordd (q)
d|n

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

∑
In Fq2 [x], the conjugate of a polynomial f(x) = ni=0 fi xi is
defined to be f(x) = f0 + f1 x + · · · + fn xn , where ¯ : Fq2 → Fq2 is
the field automorphism given by α 7→ αq for all α ∈ Fq2 .

A polynomial f(x) over Fq2 (with f(0) ̸= 0) is said to be

self-conjugate-reciprocal if f(x) equals its conjugate-reciprocal
polynomial f† (x) := f∗ (x).

If, in addition, f(x) is monic and irreducible, it is said to be

self-conjugate-reciprocal irreducible monic (SCRIM).

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Let q be a prime power and let n be a positive integer such that

gcd(q, n) = 1.
Denote by Ωq2 ,n and Λq2 ,n the set of SCRIM factors of
xn − 1 and the set of pairs of CRIM polynomial pairs in the
factorization of xn − 1 in Fq2 [x], respectively.
Then xn − 1 can be factorized into a product of irreducible
monic polynomials in Fq2 [x] of the following form

|Ωq2 ,n | |Λq2 ,n |
∏ ∏ ( )
n
x −1= fi (x) gi (x)g†j (x) , (3)
i=1 j=1

where fi (x) is a SCRIM polynomial and gj (x) and g†j (x) are
a CRIM polynomial pair for all 1 ≤ i ≤ |Ωq2 ,n | and
1 ≤ j ≤ |Λq2 ,n |.

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Let
{
1 if there exists an odd positive integer e such that i|(qe + 1),
λ(q, i) =
0 if i ∤ (qe + 1) for all odd positive integers e.

Lemma
Let n be a positive integer such that gcd(q, n) = 1. Then the
following statements are equivalent.
mi (x) is SCRIM in Fq2 [x].
Cq2 (i) = Cq2 (−qi).
λ(q, i) = 1.

Hence, the number of SCRIM factors of xn − 1 over Fq2 is

∑ ϕ(d)
|Ωq2 ,n | = λ(q, d) (4)
ordd (q2 )
d|n

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
SCRIM Divisors of xn − 1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Possible Generalizations

1 Use different automorphism in Aut(Fq ).

2 Extend the concept to finite groups.

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Applications of SRIM and SCRIM

Polynomials in Coding Theory

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Linear Codes

For a prime power q, denote by Fq the finite field of q elements.

(For instance, consider the prime field Fp = Zp .)

A set C ⊆ Fnq is called a linear code of length n over Fq if C is a

subspace of the Fq -vector space Fnq

Example
C = {0000, 1010, 0101, 1111} is a linear code of length 4
over F2 .
D = {00000, 11111} is a linear code of length 5 over F2 .

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

The Euclidean dual of C of length n over Fq is defined to be

C⊥E = {u ∈ Fnq | ⟨u, c⟩E = 0 for all c ∈ C},

∑n
where ⟨u, v⟩E = i=1 ui vi .

C is Euclidean self-dual if C = C⊥E .

C is Euclidean complementary dual if C ∩ C⊥E = {0}.

Example
C = {0000, 1010, 0101, 1111}
⇒ C⊥E = C.

D = {00000, 11111}
⇒ D⊥E = ⟨00000, 11000, 01100, 00110, 00011⟩ and
D ∩ D⊥E = {00000}.

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Definition
A linear code C of legth n over Fq is said to be cyclic if
(cn−1 , c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−2 ) ∈ C whenever (c0 , c1 , . . . , cn−1 ) ∈ C.

Example
C = {0000, 1010, 0101, 1111} is cyclic over F2 .
D = {00000, 11111} is cyclic over F2 .

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Let π : Fnq → Fq [x]/⟨xn − 1⟩ be an Fq -linear isom. given by

π((v0 , v1 , . . . , vn−1 )) = v0 + v1 x + · · · + vn−1 xn−1 .

Theorem
Let C be a linear code of length n over Fq . Then C is cyclic if
and only if π(C) is an ideal in the principal ideal ring
Fq [x]/⟨xn − 1⟩.

In this case, π(C) is uniquely generated by a monic divisor G(x)

of xn − 1 of minimal degree in π(C).

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Euclidean Complementary Dual Cyclic Codes

|Bq,n′ | |Γq,n′ |
∏ ∏
n′ pν pν
gj (x)p g∗j (x)p
n ν ν
x − 1 = (x − 1) = fi (x) ×
i=1 j=1

Proposition
A cyclic code C of length n over Fq with the generator polynomial
G(x) is Euclidean complementary dual if and only if
|Bq,n′ | |Γq,n′ |
∏ ∏
G(x) = fi (x)αi × (gj (x)g∗j (x))βj , where αi , βj ∈ {0, pν }.
i=1 j=1

The number of Euclidean complementary dual cyclic codes of

length n over Fq is 2|Bq,n′ |+|Γq,n′ | .

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Euclidean Self-Dual Cyclic Codes

Lemma
There exists a Euclidean self-dual cylcic code of length n over Fq if
and only if q and n are even.
|B2m ,n′ | |Γ2m ,n′ |
∏ ∏
n′ 2ν 2ν
gj (x)2 g∗j (x)2 ,
ν ν
n
x − 1 = (x − 1) = fi (x) ν>0
i=1 j=1

Proposition
A cyclic code C of length n = 2ν n′ over F2m with the generator
polynomial G(x) is Euclidean self-dual if and only if
|B2m ,n′ | |Γ2m ,n′ |
∏ ∏
gj (x)βj g∗j (x)2 −βj , where
ν−1 ν
G(x) = fi (x)2
i=1 j=1
0 ≤ βj ≤ 2ν .
The number of Euclidean self-dual cyclic codes of length n = 2ν n′
over F2m is (2ν + 1)|Γ2m ,n′ | .
S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Hermitian Complementary Dual and Self-Dual Codes

The Hermitian dual of C of length n over Fq2 is defined to be

C⊥H = {u ∈ Fnq2 | ⟨u, c⟩H = 0 for all c ∈ C},

∑n
where ⟨u, v⟩H = i=1 ui vqi .

C is Hermitian self-dual if C = C⊥H .

C is Hermitian complementary dual if C ∩ C⊥H = {0}.

The Changes for the Hermitian Case over Fq2

∗→†
SRIM → SCRIM
|Bq,n | → |Λq2 ,n |
|Γq,n | → |Ωq2 ,n |

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields

 How to Factor xn − 1?
SRIM and SCRIM Divisors of xn −1 over Finite Fields
Applications

Somphong Jitman - SJitman@Gmail.com

S. Jitman SRIM and SCRIM Factors of xn −1 over Finite Fields