What are the Six Basic Aircraft Instruments?

A quick scan of the six pack provides the pilot with current information on aircraft speed, altitude,
climb/descent, attitude, heading, and turning/banking. Individually, the six pack instruments are:

 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

 Altimeter
 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

 Attitude Indicator (AI)

 Heading Indicator (HI)
 Turn Coordinator (TC)
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The Pilot Six Pack Explained

The instruments in the six pack are powered by various aircraft systems. The ASI, altimeter, and
VSI use the pitot-static system, which provides ram air pressure from the pitot tube and ambient
pressure from the static port. Only the ASI uses the pitot tube; all three instruments use the static
port.

The AI, HI, and turn indicator are gyroscopic instruments that contain an internal gyro powered
by vacuum, pressure, or electrical power.

Airspeed Indicator

The ASI uses the pressure differential in the pitot-static system to measure and display the
aircraft’s speed. In most aircraft the ASI displays speed in knots or miles per hour. A needle
points to the aircraft’s current indicated air speed (IAS). Standard color-coded markings provide
various critical speed information for that model of aircraft, including stall, flap setting, normal
operating, caution, and never exceed speeds. The table below shows what the colors on an
airspeed indicator mean.
Airspeed Indicator Markings

Marking Color Type Meaning

White Arc Flap operating range
Bottom: Flaps-down stall speed (VS0)
Top: Maximum airspeed for full flaps extended (VFE)
Green Arc Normal operating range
Bottom: Flaps-up stall speed (VS1)
Top: Maximum structural cruising speed (VN0)
Blue Line Airspeed for best single-engine rate-of-climb at gross
weight and sea level
Yellow Arc Caution area
Bottom: Maximum structural cruising speed (VN0)
Top: Never exceed speed (VNE)
Red Line Never exceed speed (VNE)

Source: FAA Instrument Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-15B

Attitude Indicator (AI)

Also known as the artificial horizon, the AI uses a rigidly-mounted internal gyro to display the
aircraft’s attitude relative to the horizon. The display consists of a miniature aircraft aligned to the
horizon in straight-and-level flight, with a blue sky above and brown or black ground below.

A vertical scale crossing the horizon shows degrees of pitch up or down. A curved scale across
the top shows degrees of bank left or right. When the aircraft changes pitch or direction, the
aircraft essentially rotates around the AI’s gyro, and the instrument display responds accordingly.
Altimeter

The altimeter uses barometric pressure obtained from the static port to display the aircraft’s
approximate altitude or height above mean sea level (MSL) in feet. Three pointers provide the
altitude information in 100, 1,000 and 10,000 foot increments.

Because barometric pressure changes with altitude and atmospheric conditions, most altimeters
contain an adjustment knob to dial in the local barometric pressure (also known as the altimeter
baro setting).
Turn Coordinator (TC)

The TC uses a canted internal gyro to display both initial roll rate and stabilized rate of turn. An
aircraft silhouette mimics the aircraft to show the direction of turn, and will align with a mark on
the display if the aircraft is turning in a standard rate of three degrees per second.

Note that the TC is not meant to indicate a bank angle, just rate and direction of turn. The TC
may include a liquid-filled inclinometer that provides slip or skid information.

Heading Indicator (HI)

The HI uses a rotating gyro to display the current compass rose direction (otherwise known as
the heading) that the aircraft is flying. Using a 360-degree compass card with north as zero or
“N,” the HI shows headings in 5-degree increments with every 30 degrees enumerated. To
reduce crowding, the last “zero” of the heading is omitted—”3” is 30 degrees, “12” is 120, etc.
An adjustment knob turns the internal HI compass card to align with the aircraft’s magnetic
compass.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The VSI uses internal pressure differential to provide a visual indication of how fast the aircraft is
climbing or descending. A diaphragm with chambers connected to the static port expands or
contracts in response to climbs and descents, causing the instrument to indicate the rate of climb
or descent in hundreds of feet per minute (fpm). A hole in the diaphragm releases the pressure
change to return to zero rate when no change is occurring.

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Aircraft Components &

Structure

Introduction:
 The airframe is the basic structure of an aircraft and is designed to withstand all
aerodynamic forces, as well as the stresses imposed by the weight of the fuel, crew, and
payload
 Although similar in concept, aircraft can be broken down into fixed and rotary wing
structures
 The airplane is controllable around its lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes by deflection of
flight control surfaces
 These control devices are hinged or movable surfaces with which the pilot adjusts the
airplane's attitude during takeoff, flight maneuvering, and landing
 They are operated by the pilot through connecting linkage by means of rudder pedals and a
control stick or wheel
 Principle Structure:
o Fuselage:
main structural unit
o Wings:
airfoils to produce lift
o Flight Control Surfaces:
 Primary:
ailerons, elevator, rudders
 Secondary:
movable trim tabs located on the primary flight control surfaces
 Auxiliary:
 wing flaps, spoilers, speed brakes and slats

Fuselage:

 Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,

Monocoque

 Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,

Semimonocoque
 The fuselage is the principal structural unit of an aircraft
 The fuselage is designed to accommodate the crew, passengers, cargo, instruments, and
other essential equipment
 Types of Fuselage Construction:
o The construction of aircraft fuselages evolved from the early wood truss structural
arrangements to monocoque shell structures to the current semimonocoque shell
structures
 Truss Structure:
 In this construction method, strength and rigidity are obtained by
joining tubing (steel or aluminum) to produce a series of triangular
shapes, called trusses
 Lengths of tubing, called longerons, are welded in place to
form a wellbraced framework
  Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the longerons
and give the structure a square or rectangular shape when
viewed from the end
 Additional struts are needed to resist stress that can come
from any direction
 Stringers and bulkheads, or formers, are added to shape the
fuselage and support the covering
 As designs progressed these structures were enclosed, first with
cloth and eventually with metals
 These upgrades streamlined shape and increased performance
 In some cases, the outside skin can support all or a major portion of
the flight loads

o
Aircraft Fuselage
o Most modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure known as monocoque
or semimonocoque construction
 Monocoque:
 Monocoque (French for "single shell") construction uses stressed skin
to support almost all loads much like an aluminum beverage can
 In monocoque construction, rigs, formers, and bulkheads of varying
sizes give shape and strength to the stressed skin fuselage [ Figure
1]
 Although very strong, monocoque construction is not highly tolerant
to deformation of the surface
 For example, an aluminum beverage can supports considerable
forces at the ends of the can, but if the side of the can is deformed
slightly while supporting a load, it collapses easily
 Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the
external skin rather than by an open framework, the need for
internal bracing was eliminated or reduced, saving weight and
maximizing space
 One of the notable and innovative methods for using monocoque
construction was employed by Jack Northrop
 In 1918, he devised a new way to construct a monocoque fuselage
used for the Lockheed S-1 Racer
 The technique utilized two molded plywood half-shells that were
glued together around wooden hoops or stringers
 To construct the half shells, rather than gluing many strips of
plywood over a form, three large sets of spruce strips were soaked
with glue and laid in a semi-circular concrete mold that looked like a
bathtub
 Then, under a tightly clamped lid, a rubber balloon was inflated in
the cavity to press the plywood against the mold
  Twenty-four hours later, the smooth half-shell was ready to be
joined to another to create the fuselage
 The two halves were each less than a quarter inch thick
 Although employed in the early aviation period, monocoque
construction would not reemerge for several decades due to the
complexities involved
 Every day examples of monocoque construction can be found in
automobile manufacturing where the unibody is considered standard
in manufacturing
 Semimonocoque:
 Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a substructure
to which the airplane's skin is attached. The substructure, which
consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various sizes and stringers,
reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress
from the fuselage. The main section of the fuselage also includes
wing attachment points and a firewall. On single-engine airplanes,
the engine is usually attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a
fireproof partition between the rear of the engine and the flight deck
or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine
fires. This partition is called a firewall and is usually made of heat-
resistant material such as stainless steel. However, a new emerging
process of construction is the integration of composites or aircraft
made entirely of composites [Figure 2]

 Pilot
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Monoplane (left) and Biplane (right)

Wings:

 Wing Bracing
 Wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that
support the airplane in flight
 Wings may be attached at the top ("high-wing"), middle ("mid-wing"), or lower ("low-wing")
portion of the fuselage
 The number of wings can also vary
o Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with
two sets are called biplanes [Figure 4]

 Wing Construction
 Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts that transmit the flight and
landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure [ Figure 5]
 Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type
of wing structure is called semi-cantilever
 A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry
the loads without external struts
 The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers [Figure 6]
 These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin
 The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil)
 In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks are either an integral part of the wing's structure or
consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing
 Attached to the rear, or trailing edges, of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred
to as ailerons and flaps
 Alternate Types of Wings:
o Design variations provide information on the effect controls have on lifting surfaces
from traditional wings to wings that use both flexing (due to billowing) and shifting
(through the change of the aircraft's CG). For example, the wing of the weight-shift
control aircraft is highly swept in an effort to reduce drag and allow for the shifting of
weight to provide controlled flight. [Figure 3-9] Handbooks specific to most
categories of aircraft are available for the interested pilot and can be found on the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website at www.faa.gov
 Ailerons:
o Ailerons (French for "little wing") are control surfaces on each wing which control the
aircraft about its longitudinal axis allowing the aircraft to "roll" or "bank"
 This action results in the airplane turning in the direction of the roll/bank
 With aileron deflection, there is asymmetrical lift (rolling moment) about the
longitudinal axis and drag (adverse yaw)
o They are located on the trailing (rear) edge of each wing near the outer tips
 They extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip,
and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the
airplane to roll
o The yoke manipulates the airfoil through a system of cables and pulleys and act in an
opposing manor
 Yoke "turns" left: left aileron rises, decreasing camber and angle of attack on
the right wing which creates downward lift
 At the same time, the right aileron lowers, increasing camber and
angle of attack which increases upward lift and causes the aircraft to
turn left
  Yoke "turns" right: right aileron rises decreasing camber and angle of attack
on the right wing which creates downward lift
 At the same time, the left aileron lowers, increasing camber and
angle of attack on the left wing which creates upward lift and causes
the aircraft to turn right
o Although uncommon, some ailerons are configured with trim tabs which relieve
pressure on the yoke on the aileron for rolling
 Wing Planform:
o The shape and design of a wing is dependent upon the type of operation for which
an aircraft is intended and is tailored to specific types of flying: [ Figure 7]
 Rectangular:
 Rectangular wings are best for training aircraft, as well as low speed
aircraft
 Designed with twist to stall at the wing root first, to provide aileron
control in stalls
 Elliptical:
 Elliptical wings are most efficient, but difficult to produce (spitfire)
 Tapered:
 More efficient than a rectangle wing but easier to produce than an
elliptical design
 Swept:
 Usually associated with swept-back, but can also be swept-foreword
 Sweptback wings are best for high speed aircraft for delaying Mach
tendencies
 Stall at the tips first, providing poor stall characteristics
 Delta:
 Advantages of a swept wing, with good structural efficiency and low
frontal area
 Disadvantages are the low wing loading and high wetted area
needed to obtain aerodynamic stability
o These design variations are discussed in Chapter 5, Aerodynamics of Flight, which
provides information on the effect controls have on lifting surfaces from traditional
wings to wings that use both flexing (due to billowing) and shifting (through the
change of the aircraft's CG). For example, the wing of the weight-shift control aircraft
is highly swept in an effort to reduce drag and allow for the shifting of weight to
provide controlled flight. [Figure 3-9] Handbooks specific to most categories of
aircraft are available for the interested pilot and can be found on the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) website at www.faa.gov

o
Airplane Flying Handbook, Airfoil types
Empennage:

 Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,

Empennage Components

 Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,

Stabilator Components
 Commonly known as the "tail section," the empennage includes the entire tail group which
consists of fixed surfaces such as the vertical fin or stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer; the
movable surfaces including the rudder and rudder trim tabs, as well as the elevator and
elevator trim tabs
 These movable surfaces are used by the pilot to control the horizontal rotation (yaw) and the
vertical rotation (pitch) of the airplane
 In some airplanes the entire horizontal surface of the empennage can be adjusted from the
cockpit as a complete unit for the purpose of controlling the pitch attitude or trim of the
airplane. Such designs are usually referred to as stabilators, flying tails, or slab tails
 The empennage, then, provides the airplane with directional and longitudinal balance
(stability) as well as a means for the pilot to control and maneuver the airplane
 Rudder:
 o Rudders are used to control the direction (left or right) of "yaw" about an airplane's
vertical axis
o Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a
fixed surface that, in this case, is the vertical stabilizer, or fin
o Its action is very much like that of the elevators, except that it swings in a different
plane - from side to side instead of up and down
 It is not used to make the airplane turn, as is often erroneously believed
 In practice, both aileron and rudder control input are used together to turn
an aircraft, the ailerons imparting roll
 This relationship is critical in maintaining coordination or creating a
slip
 Improperly ruddered turns at low speed can precipitate a spin
o Rudders are controlled by the pilot with his/her feet through a system of cables and
pulleys:
 "Step" on the right rudder pedal: rudder moves right creating a yaw to the
right
 "Step" on the left rudder pedal: rudder moves left creating a yaw to the left
 Elevator:
o The elevator, which is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer, is used to
move the nose of the airplane up and down during flight
 Stabilator:
o A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator
o Instead, it incorporates a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central
hinge point
o This type of design is called a stabilator and is moved using the control wheel, just as
the elevator is moved
o For example, when a pilot pulls back on the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the
trailing edge moves up
o This increases the aerodynamic tail load and causes the nose of the airplane to move
up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending across their trailing edge [Figure 3-
11]
o The anti-servo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator
and helps make the stabilator less sensitive
o The anti-servo tab also functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and helps
maintain the stabilator in the desired position

Flight Control Surfaces:

 Flight Control Surfaces
 Flight control surfaces consist of primary, secondary, and auxiliary controls [ Figure 10]
 Auxiliary Flight Control Surfaces:
o Tabs are small, adjustable aerodynamic devices on the trailing edge of the control
surface
o These movable surfaces reduce pressures on the controls
o Trim controls a neutral point, like balancing the aircraft on a pin with unsymmetrical
weights
o This is done either by trim tabs (small movable surfaces on the control surface) or by
moving the neutral position of the entire control surface all together
o These tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator
o Trim Tabs:
 The force of the airflow striking the tab causes the main control surface to be
deflected to a position that corrects the unbalanced condition of the aircraft
 An aircraft properly trimmed will, when disturbed, try to return to its previous
state due to aircraft stability
 Trimming is a constant task required after any power setting, airspeed,
altitude, or configuration change
 Proper trimming decreases pilot workload allowing for attention to be
diverted elsewhere, especially important for instrument flying
 Trim tabs are controlled through a system of cables and pulleys
 Trim tab adjusted up: trim tab lowers creating positive lift, lowering
the nose
 This movement is very slight
 Trim tab adjusted down: trim tab raises creating positive lift, raising
the nose
 This movement is very slight
 To learn more about how to use the trim tab in flight see the trimming the
aircraft
o Servo Tabs:
 Servo tabs are similar to trim tabs in that they are small secondary controls
which help reduce pilot workload by reducing forces
 The defining difference however, is that these tabs operate automatically,
independent of the pilot
 Types of Servo Tab Designs:
 Anti-servo:
 Also called an anti-balance tab, are tabs that move in the
same direction as the control surface
 Servo:
  Tabs that move in the opposite direction as the control
surface

Controls:
 Slats:
o Slats are part of the Flight Control System
o Attached to the leading edge of the wings and are designed to be controlled by the
pilot or automatically by the flight computer
o Some aircraft employ aerodynamic slats that when lowered create added lift
o Slats increase the camber of the wings/airfoil
o By extending the slats additional lift is created when the aircraft is at slower
airspeeds, normally on takeoff and landing
 Flaps:
o Flaps are part of the Flight Control System
o Attached to the trailing edge of the wings and are controlled by the pilot from the
cockpit
o By extending the flaps additional lift is created when the aircraft is at slower
airspeeds, normally on takeoff and landing
o Slats and flaps are used in conjunction with each other to increase both lift and stall
margin by increasing the overall wings camber thus, allowing the aircraft to maintain
control flight at slower airspeeds
o Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing
o The flaps are normally flush with the wing's surface during cruising flight
o When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting
force of the wing for takeoffs and landings [Figure 3-8]
 Elevator:
control surfaces which control the aircraft about its lateral axis allowing the aircraft to pitch

o The elevators are attached to the horizontal portion of the empennage - the
horizontal stabilizer
 The exception to this is found in those installations where the entire
horizontal surface is a one piece structure which can be deflected up or down
to provide longitudinal control and trimming
o A change in position of the elevators modifies the camber of the airfoil, which
increases or decreases lift
o When forward pressure is applied on the controls, the elevators move downward
o This increases the lift produced by the horizontal tail surfaces
o The increased lift forces the tail upward, causing the nose to drop
o Conversely, when back pressure is applied on the wheel, the elevators move upward,
decreasing the lift produced by the horizontal tail surfaces, or maybe even producing
a downward force
o The tail is forced downward and the nose up
o The elevators control the angle of attack of the wings
o When back-pressure is applied on the controls, the tail lowers and the nose rises,
increasing the angle of attack
o Conversely, when forward pressure is applied, the tail raises and the nose lowers,
decreasing the angle of attack
o Stabilizer: a control surface other than the wings which provide stabilizing qualities
 Speed Brakes:
o Designed to slow the aircraft when in a dive or descent, location and style vary with
aircraft, and are controlled by a switch in the cockpit
 Trim Tabs:
o Movable tabs located on the primary control surfaces i.e., ailerons, elevators and
rudder reducing the pilot's workload enabling the aircraft to hold a particular attitude
without the need of constant pressure/inputs into the system
 Landing Gear:
o The landing gear is the principal support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking
off, or landing
o A steerable nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout
all operations while on the ground
o Most aircraft are steered by moving the rudder pedals, whether nosewheel or
tailwheel. Additionally, some aircraft are steered by differential braking
 Power Plant:

o Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical

Knowledge, Engine Compartment
o The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller
o Engine:
 The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the
propeller
 It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight
instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat
for the pilot and passengers [Figure 11]
 On single engine airplanes the engine is usually attached to the front of the
fuselage
 There is a fireproof partition between the rear of the engine and the cockpit
or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine fires. This
partition is called a firewall and is usually made of a high heat resistant,
stainless steel
o Cowling:
 The engine is covered by a cowling, or a nacelle, which are both types of
covered housing
 The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around
the engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders
o Propeller:
 The propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating
force of the engine into thrust, a forward acting force that helps move the
airplane through the air
 A propeller is a rotating airfoil that produces thrust through aerodynamic
action
 A high-pressure area is formed at the back of the propeller's airfoil, and low
pressure is produced at the face of the propeller, similar to the way lift is
generated by an airfoil used as a lifting surface or wing
 This pressure differential develops thrust from the propeller, which in turn
pulls the airplane forward
 Engines may be turned around to be pushers with the propeller at the rear
  There are two significant factors involved in the design of a propeller that
impact its effectiveness
 The angle of a propeller blade, as measured against the hub of the propeller,
keeps the angle of attack (AOA) (See definition in Glossary) relatively
constant along the span of the propeller blade, reducing or eliminating the
possibility of a stall
 The amount of lift being produced by the propeller is directly related to the
AOA, which is the angle at which the relative wind meets the blade
 The AOA continuously changes during the flight depending upon the direction
of the aircraft
 The pitch is defined as the distance a propeller would travel in one revolution
if it were turning in a solid
 These two factors combine to allow a measurement of the propeller's
efficiency
 Propellers are usually matched to a specific aircraft/ powerplant combination
to achieve the best efficiency at a particular power setting, and they pull or
push depending on how the engine is mounted

Rotary-Wing Components:
 The major difference between helicopters and fixed-wing is the source of lift
 Fixed-winged aircraft derive lift from fixed airfoils while helicopters use rotating airfoils known
as rotor blades
 Lift and control are relatively independent of forward speed
 Controls:
o Cyclic Stick:
 Controls movement about the lateral and longitudinal axis of the helicopter
 It is located centered in front of the pilot's seat and changes the tip path
plane of the main rotor for directional flight
 By changing the tip path plane, the direction of thrust is changed, and the
corresponding intended direction of movement or flight is achieved
o Collective Stick:
 Always located to the left of the pilot's seat and varies the lift of the main
rotor by decreasing or increasing the angle of attack on all rotor plates
equally and in the same direction
 Also used in combination with the cyclic to regulate speed and altitude
o Rudder Pedals:
 Controls movement about the vertical axis (yaw) of the helicopter by
changing the pitch (angle of attack) of the tail rotor plates
 This causes more or less force to be developed which is counteracting the
torque caused by the main rotors
 Additionally, by the pilot deflecting the rudder pedals left or right the aircraft
heading or direction is changed left or right
 Components:
o Rotor Blade:
 Spinning "wings" which allow for lift on helicopters or "rotor-craft"
o Main Rotor Assembly:
 Consists of rotor blades, rotor hub assembly, pitch control rod/links, mast,
swashplate and support assembly
 Some may have scissor and sleeve assembly
 All of the above items work to change linear (push/pull motion) into rotating
control movement
o Gearboxes/Transmission:
 Changes direction and provides power produced by the engines via drive
shafts to the main and trail rotor assemblies
  The main transmission also provides mounting pads for accessory mounting
such as hydraulic flight control pumps, generators, and rotor brake
 Most helicopters have a main, intermediate and a tail gearbox
 Latest Materials Used for Aircraft Manufacturing
 The materials used in manufacturing of aircraft have changed significantly from the construction of the
first aircraft. With its objective of flying using air support while, resisting gravitational forces, the
materials used for construction of aircraft must have a small weight, high specific strength, heat
resistant, fatigue load resistant, crack resistant and corrosion resistant. Back in the days, aircrafts were
constructed using wood and fabrics. But aircrafts that are made up of wood and fabric were subject to
rapid deterioration and high maintenance. Thus, the search for better materials began. Now, aluminium,
steel, titanium and composite materials are preferred in the construction of aerospace structures.
 Materials used in manufacturing of aircrafts
Aluminium is used due to its low density (2.7 g/cm3), high strength properties, good thermal and electric
conductivity, technological effectiveness and high corrosion resistance. But because aluminium loses its
strength at high temperatures, it is not used in the skin surface of an aircraft.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and can be three times stronger and heavier than aluminium. It is
usually used in a landing gear due to its strength and hardness as well as in the skin surface of aircrafts
due to its high heat resistance.

Wind tunnels are large tubes with air moving inside. The tunnels are used to copy the actions of
an object in flight. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly.
NASA uses wind tunnels to test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Some wind tunnels are
big enough to hold full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object,
making it seem like the object is really flying

AIRFOIL
An airfoil is a device which gets a useful reaction from air moving over its surface.
When an airfoil is moved through the air, it is capable of producing lift. Wings,
horizontal tail surfaces, vertical tails surfaces, and propellers are all examples of
airfoils.
Forces on aircraft thrust lift dag etc
Pic downloaded

PRINCIPLES

Forces Acting on An Airplane

There are four forces acting on the airplane all the time during airplane is flying.The four forces are
(1) Lift, (2) Gravity force or Weight, (3) Thrust, and (4) Drag.
Lift and Drag are considered aerodynamics forces because they exist due to the movement of the
Airplane through the Air.
Lift: is produced by a lower pressure created on the upper surface of an airplane's wings compared
to the pressure on the wing's lower surfaces,causing the wing to be LIFTED upward. The special shape
of the airplane wing (airfoil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater distance
and faster resulting in a lower pressure area (see illustration) thus lifting the wing upward. Lift is that
force which opposes the force of gravity (or weight).

Lift depends upon (1) shape of the airfoil (2) the angle of attack (3) the area of the surface exposed to
the airstream (4) the square of the air speed (5) the air density.

Weight: The weight acts vertically downward from the center of gravity (CG) of the airplane.
Thrust: is defined as the forward direction pushing or pulling force developed by aircraft engine .
This includes reciprocating engines , turbojet engines, turboprop engines.
Drag: is the force which opposes the forward motion of airplane. specifically, drag is a retarding
force acting upon a body in motion through a fluid, parallel to the direction of motion of a body. It is
the friction of the air as it meets and passes over an airplane and its components. Drag is created by
air impact force, skin friction, and displacement of the air.

Aircraft propulsion
An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to
generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.
An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion
system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the
thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to
accelerate. The greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust,
the faster the airplane will accelerate[

Reciprocating (piston) engines[edit]

Main article: reciprocating engine

In-line engine[edit]
Main article: Straight engine

In this entry, for clarity, the term "inline engine" refers only to engines with a single row of
cylinders, as used in automotive language, but in aviation terms, the phrase "inline engine" also
covers V-type and opposed engines (as described below), and is not limited to engines with a
single row of cylinders. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines. A straight
engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-
cylinder engines. The greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be
designed with a low frontal area to minimize drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the
cylinders, it is called an inverted inline engine: this allows the propeller to be mounted high up to
increase ground clearance, enabling shorter landing gear. The disadvantages of an inline engine
include a poor power-to-weight ratio, because the crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus
heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more
common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders directly. Inline
engines were common in early aircraft; one was used in the Wright Flyer, the aircraft that made
the first controlled powered flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon
became apparent, and the inline design was abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.
TUrbopop
While military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes do not. Yet, civil aircraft
designers wanted to benefit from the high power and low maintenance that a gas turbine engine
offered. Thus was born the idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller. Because gas
turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop features a gearbox to lower the speed of the
shaft so that the propeller tips don't reach supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the
propeller are separate from the rest of the rotating components so that they can rotate at their
own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine engine). A turboprop is very efficient when operated
within the realm of cruise speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to 400 mph (320 to
640 km/h)
Turbojet
A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed for
military fighters during World War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It
consists of a compressor to draw air in and compress it, a combustion section where fuel is
added and ignited, one or more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to
drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust gases out the back of
the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft
equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft.
In the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became apparent. Below about
Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs
also respond very slowly to power changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots when they
attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks eventually led to the downfall of the pure
turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in production. The last airliner that used turbojets
was the Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be highly efficient.
Turbofan
A turbofan engine is much the same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the front that
provides thrust in much the same way as a ducted propeller, resulting in improved fuel efficiency.
Though the fan creates thrust like a propeller, the surrounding duct frees it from many of the
restrictions that limit propeller performance. This operation is a more efficient way to provide
thrust than simply using the jet nozzle alone, and turbofans are more efficient than propellers in
the transsonic range of aircraft speeds and can operate in the supersonic realm. A turbofan
typically has extra turbine stages to turn the fan. Turbofans were among the first engines to use
multiple spools—concentric shafts that are free to rotate at their own speed—to let the engine
react more quickly to changing power requirements. Turbofans are coarsely split into low-bypass
and high-bypass categories. Bypass air flows through the fan, but around the jet core, not mixing
with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through the engine core is
the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters due
to high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel
efficiency and low noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is
traveling at 500 to 550 miles per hour (800 to 885 km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners.
Low-bypass turbofans can reach supersonic speeds, though normally only when fitted
with afterburners.

Pulse jets[edit]
Main article: Pulsejet
Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices that—in a repeating cycle—draw air through a no-
return valve at the front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignite it. The combustion
forces the exhaust gases out the back of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses
rather than as a steady output, hence the name. The only application of this type of engine was
the German unmanned V1 flying bomb of World War II. Though the same engines were also
used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise generated by the engines
caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea unworkable.

Ramjet engine
These are the lightest types of engines in aircraft and come with no
moving components. The speed of an aircraft is responsible for forcing
air into the engine. Ramjet operates the same as a turbojet, except that
the rotating parts are not present. However, the fact that the
compression ratio depends on the speed of an aircraft restricts the
application of ramjet engines.
Runaway
a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for
the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may be a man-made surface
(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface
(grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, as well as taxiways and ramps, are sometimes
referred to as “tarmac,” though very few runways are built using tarmac. Runway lengths are
now commonly given in meters worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly
used.[1]
Taxiway

A taxiway is a path for aircraft at

an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly
have a hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller general aviation airports
sometimes use gravel or grass.
Aprons
The airport apron, apron, flight line, or ramp, is the area of an airport where aircraft are
parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled, or boarded.[1] Although the use of the apron is covered by
regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than
the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a permit
may be required to gain access.
Hangars
A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft. Hangars are built of metal,
wood, or concrete. The word hangar comes from Middle French hanghart ("enclosure near a
house"), of Germanic origin, from Frankish *haimgard ("home-enclosure", "fence around a group
of houses"), from *haim ("home, village, hamlet") and gard ("yard").