REPORT ATTACHMENT

School of Engineering

NAME: Ashutosh M Bhatt

SEMINAR TITLE: Digital to Analog converters

PLAGIARISM AND COLLUSION

Plagiarism occurs when a student passes off as the student’s own work,
or copies without acknowledgment as to its authorship, the work of any
other person.

Collusion occurs when a student obtains the agreement of another

person for a fraudulent purpose with the intent of obtaining an
advantage in submitting an assignment or other work.

DECLARATION
I certify that the attached work is entirely my own. I also certify that it has not
been submitted for assessment in any other unit or course.

An assignment will not be accepted for assessment if the declaration

appearing above has not been duly completed by the author.

Date:

Name:

Signature:

i
 Seminar Report
on

DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS

by

Ashutosh M Bhatt

Master of Technology
in
Embedded Systems

Electronics and Communication Engineering Department

Approved _________________________
Adviser

January - 2014

School of Engineering
R K University
ii
 Acknowledgement

First, I am very much thankful to EC Engineering department, School of Engineering, R

K University to give me this opportunity and resources to present this seminar topic.

Next, I am thankful to Prof. D. S. Pipalia (Asst. Professor, EC Eng Dept., SOE, RKU)

for giving me the guidance regarding preparing report and references.

I am really very thankful to my external guide Mr Pankaj Kumar Gupta (Sci / Eng -

SE) for giving me the suggestions regarding this seminar topic. He has also given

guidance regarding what to include as the content and also suggested some of the

references from where to get it.

iii
 Table of Content
Page
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................... iii

List of figures ........................................................................................................... v

Abstract .................................................................................................................... vi

Chapter
1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Basics of DAC ........................................................................1

1.2 DAC architectures ...................................................................2
1.3 DAC parameters......................................................................2
1.4 DAC interfacing signals ..........................................................3
1.5 DAC classification ..................................................................4

2. Different types of DAC Architectures ..................................................... 5

2.1 Different architectures ............................................................5
2.2 String DAC .............................................................................5
2.3 Segmented DAC .....................................................................6
2.4 Digital POT .............................................................................7
2.5 Fully decoded DAC ................................................................8
2.6 Binary weighted DAC.............................................................9
2.7 R-2R ladder DAC ...................................................................9
2.8 Multiplying DAC .................................................................. 10
2.9 Sigma-delta DAC .................................................................. 11
3. DAC parameters ...................................................................................... 12
3.1 Different parameters of DAC 12
3.2 DAC selection parameters 13
3.3 Current output and voltage output for DAC 16
4. DAC classifications 18
4.1 General DAC 18
4.2 High speed DAC 19
4.3 Digital potentiometer 19
4.4 Video DAC 19
4.5 Audio DAC 20

Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 21

References ................................................................................................................ 22

iv
 List of Figures

Figure 1 - ADC and DAC ................................................................................................... 1

Figure 2 - Basic DAC ......................................................................................................... 2

Figure 3 - DAC interfacing signals ..................................................................................... 3

Figure 4 - DAC classification ............................................................................................. 4

Figure 5 - String DAC......................................................................................................... 5

Figure 6 - Digital Potentiometer ......................................................................................... 6

Figure 7 - fully decoded DAC ............................................................................................ 7

Figure 8 - binary weighted DAC ........................................................................................ 8

Figure 9 - R-2R DAC .......................................................................................................... 9

Figure 10 - MDAC ............................................................................................................ 10

Figure 11 - segmented DAC ............................................................................................. 10

Figure 12 - delta sigma DAC ............................................................................................ 11

Figure 13 - INL DNL ........................................................................................................ 14

Figure 14 - Gross and Gain errors..................................................................................... 15

Figure 15 - current op and voltage op ............................................................................... 17

v
 Abstract

We know that the real word deals in analog domain with analog signals. All the signals

like audio, video, speech etc all those are of analog type. But the processing of these

signals is done with digital techniques only because it becomes easier. So we need

converters on either sides of such digital signal processing system that will convert the

signals in to analog to digital and then again back from digital to analog. So in this

report I have tried to explain different types of Digital to Analog Converters, popularly

known as DAC (or DtoA) in some detailed manner. It first describes different types of

architectures or technologies that are used to convert given digital value into

corresponding analog signal. Then it describes various important parameters of any

DAC chip. Also it throws some light on which parameter are most important while

selecting any DAC for one particular application. Finally I have classified DACs on the

bases of different applications like audio, video, high speed etc.

vi
 1

Chapter - 1

Introduction
The real word deals with analog signals only and the processing of signals is easier,
convenient, and reliable in digital domain only. So it is required to convert these analog
signals in to digital and after processing again convert them form digital to analog. So
there are two devices Analog to Digital converters (ADC) and Digital to Analog
converters (DAC) used for this purpose. The following figure gives more idea regarding
this.

Figure 1 - ADC and DAC

As shown in figure 1 the analog signal is converted into digital equivalent and fed to
digital processor for processing. It can be any of the digital processing device such as
micro-controller, micro-processor, digital signal processor or FPGA. After it processes
the signal the digital signal is converted back into analog using DAC.

Now a days both devices are fabricated on semiconductor chip so they are available as
single chip or IC. Depending upon various kinds of applications there are various
architectures of ADC as well as DAC. Also there are different parameters that one should
understand while working with these devices. Here I have discussed about the Digital to
Analog Converters.

This introduction chapter explains the basics of DAC that how it actually converts digital
input (byte or word or code) in to analog equivalent. Then it briefs major DAC
architectures that are described in chapter 2. It also briefs DAC parameters and categories
DAC based on application at last.

1.1 Basics of DAC:

The main building blocks of DAC are current sources of same value or different values
and switches mainly digital (CMOS). These switches serve as digital input that generates
corresponding analog output from current sources. The current is generated from applied
voltage by passing it through fixed value resistor. Or it can be a direct current source. The
figure 2 shows basic structure of DAC.

As we moved on in time these functions were integrated on the same die, additional
digital circuitry, specifically latches to store the digital input, were added. Then a second
rank of latches was often added.
 2

Figure 2 - Basic DAC

The purpose of the second rank was to allow the microprocessor or microcontroller to
write to many DACs in a system and the updated them all at the same time. The input
rank of latches could also be a shift register, which would allow a serial interface. On the
back end, since the output of the DAC is often a current, an op amp is often added to
perform the current-to-voltage (I/V) conversion. On the front end a voltage reference is
often added.

1.2 DAC architectures:

Following different DAC architectures are currently used for different applications. I will
discuss all these architectures in details in next chapter
A) String DAC – consist of n to 2n decoder and 2n number of same value of resistors.
The n-bit digital input (code) is applied to input of decoder that will switch
number of resistors and generate analog output as current
B) Digital POT – similar to string DAC. Gives variable resistance between two
terminals that is varied using digital input to decoder
C) Fully decoded DAC – variant in string DAC. Instead of multiple resistors selected
in string DAC, here only one resister is selected at a time.
D) Binary weighted DAC – for n-bit DAC it consist of n switches and n binary
weighted registers from R, R/2, R/4……….R / 2n – 1
E) R – 2R ladder DAC – most widely used. Consist of n switches and n resistances
of 2 different values R and 2R
F) Multiplying DAC – it’s a DAC with variable reference voltage input. The output
voltage is multiplication of reference with digital input
G) Segmented DAC – two different kinds of architectures or same architectures are
combined to achieve high performance
H) Sigma – Delta DAC – fully digital DAC. Consist of delta sigma modulator and
LPF. Operates on bit stream.

1.3 DAC parameters:

The performance of DAC is described by its different parameters. There are several such
parameters that are discussed in some more details in chapter 3. These parameters are
• Resolution
 3

• Reference voltage
• Midscale error / bipolar zero error
• Differential non linearity (DNL)
• Integral non linearity (INL) / relative accuracy
• Full scale output range
• Logic ‘1’ input
• Logic ‘0’ input
• Input leakage current
• Settling time
• Analog power supply (+Ve / -Ve)
• Analog output impedance
• Gain error / full scale error
• SNR
• THD (third harmonic distortion)

While selecting DAC for any particular application, it is not required to see all above
parameters. Few most important parameters like resolution, required analog output
voltage, biasing voltage, errors, temperature drift etc need to be considered only. I have
discussed these in more details in chapter 3.

1.4 DAC interfacing signals:

These are the signals that are interfaced with digital processing device. They take digital
input and convert it into analog output. There are input signals that are digital, output
signal that is analog and some are control signal that controls the conversion. Figure 3
shows most common interfacing signals of DAC.

Figure 3 - DAC interfacing signals

1. Data signals / data bus – digital inputs. It can be serial or parallel

2. Control signals

Chip select or enable – enables or selects chip.

Write enable – enables or disables writing to DAC
3. Biasing signals Vdd, Gnd
4. Reference input
 4

5. Output signal – analog output. Can be current or voltage

1.5 DAC classification:

The following figure 4 shows classification of DAC. They are classified on the bases of
applications. Most of all the DAC falls in one of the given categories.

Figure 4 - DAC classification

For example to generate high frequency analog signal from digital bit stream the DAC
used is RF / IF type high speed DAC. Multiplying DAC and digital pots are used in
variable gain amplifiers (VGA). In controlling or industrial application like close loop
control system, precision type DACs are used. In chapter 4 some more details are given
on all these given DACs.
 5

Chapter – 2

DAC Architectures
There are many different techniques by which the digital input can be converted in to
analog equivalent. Based on these there are different DAC architectures. All the
architectures have their merits and demerits. Also the architecture is especially for kind of
application(s). So here I have tried to cover major categories of DAC architectures.

2.1 Different Architectures:

Difference in the DAC architecture is because of difference in application and the
requirements. Some architectures are useful in high speed conversion while some are
applicable for slow and precise variation. Some architectures are not capable to give high
resolution. Also the type of output (either current or voltage) is also dependent on
architecture. So because of such variation in requirements and applications there are
different DAC architectures. . So let us see them one by one

2.2 String DAC:

The simplest structure of all is the Kelvin divider or string DAC as shown in Figure 5. An
N-bit version of this DAC simply consists of 2N equal resistors in series and 2N switches
(usually CMOS), one between each node of the chain and the output. The output is taken
from the appropriate tap by closing just one of the switches (there is some slight digital
complexity involved in decoding to 1 of 2N switches from N-bit data).

Figure 5 - String DAC

This architecture is simple, has a voltage output and is inherently monotonic—even if a

resistor is accidentally short-circuited, output n cannot exceed output n + 1. It is linear if
 6

all the resistors are equal, but may be made deliberately nonlinear if a nonlinear DAC is
required. The output is a voltage, but it has the disadvantage of having relatively large
output impedance. This output impedance is also code dependant (the impedance changes
with changes to the digital input). In many cases it will be beneficial to follow the output
of the DAC with an op amp to buffer this output impedance and present low impedance

Since only two switches operate during a transition it is a low glitch architecture (the
concept of glitch will be examined in a following section). Also, the switching glitch is
not code-dependent, making it ideal for low distortion applications. Because the glitch is
constant regardless of the code transition, the frequency content of the glitch is at the
DAC update rate and its harmonics—not at the harmonics of the DAC output signal
frequency. The major drawback of the Kelvin DAC is the large number of resistors and
switches required for high resolution. There are 2N resistors required, so a 10 bit DAC
would require 1024 switches and resistors, and as a result it was not commonly used as a
simple DAC architecture until the recent advent of very small IC feature sizes made it
very practical for low and medium resolution (typically up to 10 bits) DACs.

As we mentioned in the section on sampling theory, the output of a DAC for an all 1s
code is 1 LSB below the reference, so a Kelvin divider DAC intended for use as a
general-purpose DAC has a resistor between the reference terminal and the first switch as
shown in Figure.

2.3 Digital Potentiometers:

Another variation of the string DAC is the digital potentiometer. A simple digital
Potentiometer is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 - Digital Potentiometer

 7

The major difference is that the lower arm of the potentiometer (terminal B) is not
connected to ground, but is instead left floating. The absolute values of the resistors in a
Kelvin DAC typically are not critical. They are limited by the available material. They
must, of course, be the same as each other. In a digital potentiometer the end-to-end
resistance is specified. The accuracy of the end to end resistance is on the order of a
mechanical potentiometer. Digital potentiometers are typically available in end-to-end
resistance values from 10 kΩ to 1 MΩ. Lower values of end-to-end resistance are
difficult since the on resistance of the CMOS switches is on the order of the resistor
segment, so the linearity of the pot suffers at the low end.

The advantages to digital potentiometers are many. Even the lowest resolution digital
potentiometers have better setability than their mechanical counterparts. Also, they are
immune to mechanical vibration and oxidation of the wiper contact. Obviously,
adjustments can be made without human intervention. In most digital potentiometers the
voltage on the input pins cannot exceed the supplies (typically 3 V or 5 V) due to the
CMOS switches used in their construction, but certain models are designed for ±15 V
operation.

Another design feature on many of the digital potentiometers is that on power up

(sometimes from an internal timer, sometimes controlled by an external pin) the wiper is
shorted to one of the terminals. This is useful since output on power up is undefined until
it is written to. Since it might take a while (relatively) for the micro-controller to initialize
itself and then get around to initializing the rest of the system, having the digital
potentiometer in a known state can be useful. Some digital potentiometers incorporate
non volatile logic so that their settings are retained when they are turned off.

2.4 Thermometer (Fully Decoded) DACs:

Figure 7 - fully decoded DAC

 8

There is a current-output DAC architecture analogous to a string DAC which consists of

2N – 1 switchable current sources (which may be resistors and a voltage reference or may
be active current sources) connected to an output terminal. This output must be at, or
close to, ground. Figure 6.7 shows a thermometer DAC which use resistors connected to
a reference voltage to generate the currents.

If active current sources are used as shown in Figure 7, the output may have more
compliance (the allowable voltage on the output pin which still guarantees performance),
and a resistive load is typically used to develop an output voltage. The load resistor must
be chosen so that at maximum output current the output terminal remains within its rated
compliance voltage

Once a current in a thermometer DAC is switched into the circuit by increasing the
digital code, any further increases do not switch it out again. The structure is thus
inherently monotonic, irrespective of inaccuracies in the currents. Again, like the Kelvin
divider, only the advent of high density IC processes has made this architecture practical
for general purpose medium resolution DACs, although a slightly more complex
version—shown in the next diagram—is quite widely used in high speed applications.
Unlike the Kelvin divider, this type of current-mode DAC does not have a unique name,
although both types may be referred to as fully decoded DACs or thermometer DACs.

2.5 Binary Weighted DAC:

The voltage-mode binary-weighted resistor DAC shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 - binary weighted DAC

It is usually the simplest textbook example of a DAC. However, this DAC is not
inherently monotonic and is actually quite hard to manufacture successfully at high
resolutions due to the large spread in component (resistor) values. In addition, the output
impedance of the voltage mode binary DAC changes with the input code.

An N-bit DAC of this type consists of N weighted current sources (which may simply be
resistors and a voltage reference) in the ratio 1:2:4:8:....:2N–1. The LSB switches the 2N–1
 9

current, the MSB the 1 current, etc. The theory is simple but the practical problems of
manufacturing an IC of an economical size with current or resistor ratios of even 128:1
for an 8-bit DAC are enormous, especially as they must have matched temperature
coefficients. This architecture is virtually never used on its own in integrated circuit
DACs, although, again, 3-bit or 4-bit versions have been used as components in more
complex structures.

2.6 R-2R Ladder:

One of the most common DAC building-block structures is the R-2R resistor ladder
network shown in Figure. It uses resistors of only two different values, and their ratio is
2:1. An N-bit DAC requires 2N resistors, and they are quite easily trimmed. There are
also relatively few resistors to trim.

Figure 9 - R-2R DAC

2.7 Multiplying DACs (MDACs):

In most cases the reference to a DAC is a highly stable dc voltage. In some instances,
however, it is useful to have a variable reference. The R-2R ladder structure using CMOS
switches can easily handle a bipolar signal on its input. Having the ability to have bipolar
(positive and negative) signals on the input allows construction of 2-quadrant and 4-
quadrant Multiplying DACs. Figure 10 shows the schematic 8-bit DAC.

DACs utilizing bipolar transistors as switches, such as the DAC-08 above, cannot
accommodate bipolar signals on the reference. Therefore they can only implement 2-
 10

quadrant MDACs. In addition, the reference voltage cannot go all the way to 0 V. The
maximum allowable range is typically from 10% to 100% of the allowable reference
voltage range. One of the main applications of the MDAC is as a variable gain amplifier,
where the gain is controlled by the digital word applied to the MDAC.

Figure 10 - MDAC

The frequency response of the MDAC is limited by the parasitic capacitance across the
switches in the off condition. As the frequency goes up the impedance of the capacitors
goes down, effectively bypassing the switch. This reduces the off isolation at higher
frequencies. Typically the frequency response of an MDAC will be on the order of
1 MHz.

2.8 Segmented DACs:

Figure 11 - segmented DAC

So far we have considered mostly basic DAC architectures. When we are required to
design a DAC with a specific performance, it may well be that no single architecture is
ideal. In such cases, two or more DACs may be combined in a single higher resolution
 11

DAC to give the required performance. These DACs may be of the same type or of
different types and need not each have the same resolution. For example, the segmented
string DAC is a segmented DAC where 2 Kelvin DACs are cascaded.

Typically, one DAC handles the MSBs, another handles the LSBs, and their outputs are
added in some way. The process is known as “segmentation,” and these more complex
structures are called “segmented DACs.” There are many different types of segmented
DACs and some, but by no means all, will be illustrated in the next few diagrams. It is
sometimes not obvious from looking at the data sheet that a particular DAC is segmented.

Very high speed DACs for video, communications and other HF reconstruction
applications are often built with arrays of fully decoded current sources. The two or three
LSBs may use binary-weighted current sources. It is extremely important that such DACs
have low distortion at high frequency, and there are several important issues to be
considered in their design.

2.9 Sigma – Delta DAC:

A delta sigma DAC consists of a delta sigma modulator which produces the bit stream
and a low pass filter. The modulator will be implemented with digital technology if you
have a digital signal source and in analogue technique in case of an analogue signal
source You will use an analogue low pass filter if you need an analogue signal output or a
digital low pass filter if you want a digital output

Figure 12 - delta sigma DAC

2.9.1 Bit stream –

Can be analog or digital signal

It’s one bit serial signal

its average level represents the average input signal level

A digital "high" represents the highest and a "low" represents the lowest possible
output value.

The delta sigma kind of bit stream is also known as a pulse proportion modulated
(PPM) signal
2.9.2 Low Pass Filter –

Required to get the average signal level out of the bit stream

The bit stream has information in lower frequency band and noise in higher
frequency band
 12

Chapter - 3

DAC Parameters
3.1 Different parameters of DAC:
The parameters decide the performance of DAC. One can compare the different types of
DACs based on these parameters. There may be more such parameters depending upon
different architectures but here I am discussing some of general parameters that are
common in all types of DACs

Resolution - If a DAC has n bits, then its output analog signal span can be divided (or
"resolved") into 2n states, each corresponding to its own digital input code. The higher
the number of bits, the better is the resolution of a DAC.

Reference voltage - This indicates the minimum and maximum voltages that may be used
as the DAC's external reference voltage.

Analog o/p range - This is the difference between the maximum and minimum analog
output values that the DAC is specified to provide.

Logic ‘1’ input - This is the minimum voltage that the digital inputs of the DAC are
guaranteed to recognize as Logic "1".

Logic ‘0’ input - This is the maximum voltage that the digital inputs of the DAC are
guaranteed to recognize as Logic "0".

Analog power supply - This is the voltage range that can be used for the analog supply of
the DAC.

Input leakage current - This is maximum leakage current exhibited by a digital input at
logic "0".

Settling time - This is the time required by the outputs of a DAC to reach and remain
within a specified error band about its final value. This is measured from the digital input
transition.

Analog o/p impedance - This is the dynamic load presented by a DAC at its analog
output.

SNR - This is the ratio of the amplitude of the analog output of the DAC when the output
is set to full-scale to the amplitude of the output when it is set to zero.

THD - This is the ratio of the rms sum of the first few (2nd to 6th) harmonic components
of the DAC output to the DAC output's fundamental value
 13

Mid scale error - This is the deviation of the actual analog output of the DAC from
the ideal output of 0V when the 2's complement input code representing half-scale
(all zeros) is loaded into the input register.

Gain error - This indicates how closely the analog output of a DAC matches its ideal
value at full scale and may be expressed in mV or as a % of the FSR. For many
DAC's, the ideal maximum output voltage is Vref-1 LSB.

DNL - This is the difference between the actual or measured output change and the
ideal output change for a digital input change of 1 LSB, i.e., for a transition between
two adjacent codes. Measured as % of FSR

INL - This is the maximum deviation of the output from the straight line between the
zero and full-scale points, excluding the effects of zero and full-scale errors.

3.2 DAC selection parameters:

The suitability of a DAC for a particular application is determined by six main
parameters: physical size, power consumption, resolution, speed, accuracy, cost.
While choosing DAC for any particular application the following parameters are
considered mostly. However there is always compromise because it is not possible to
match all the required parameters. But we should always to consider following DAC
parameters
1. Resolution
2. INL – DNL
3. Gain error
4. Settling time
5. Input digital interface
6. Reference voltage
7. Temperature drift
8. Output type

So let us see all the parameters in somewhat more detail.

3.2.1 Resolution-

In selecting a DAC, the first step is to determine the necessary resolution N

From N we get
maximum analog output = 2N × LSB

It gives the number of steps in which whole analog output voltage span is divided

e.g. For 8 bit DAC with output voltage span of -5 to +5 has 256 steps of 40 mv (10 /
256 = 0.039 = 40 mv)

Resolution gives no indication of accuracy, because other sources of error must be
taken into account.

3.2.2 Differential nonlinearity-

It is the difference between an actual step height and the ideal value of 1 LSB. The
target value for DNL (greater than -1 LSB) ensures that the DAC is monotonic.
 14

Means no data is lost because the output always changes in accord with the digital
input.

3.2.3 Integral nonlinearity-

It describes the deviation of a DAC's transfer function from a straight line. For DACs,
this deviation is measured at every step. For high-end DACs, INL values are better
than ±1 LSB.

Figure 13 - INL DNL

3.2.4 Offset error-

It is equal to the output voltage when the digital input is zero. This error remains
constant for all input values, and normally can be compensated by calibrating the
circuit. it is often specified as an absolute value in millivolts rather than LSBs. Offset
error in LSBs depends on the output step height, which in turn depends on the level of
reference voltage. An acceptable offset error is usually less than ±10mV.

3.2.5 Gain error-

It is the difference between the ideal maximum output voltage and the actual
maximum value of the transfer function after subtracting the offset error. Because
gain error changes the slope of the transfer function, it delivers the same percentage
error for each step. Gain error is expressed in LSB or millivolts, as a percent of the
maximum value

3.2.6 Settling time-

An ideal DAC would deliver its analog output immediately after a digital value is
applied to the input. Actual DACs, however, impose a settling time that consists of
the internal propagation delay and a limited slew rate in the output driver. Settling
time begins with the start of a conversion, ends when the DAC output becomes stable
For high speed DAC this must be as low as possible
 15

Figure 14 - Gross and Gain errors

3.2.7 Input data interface-

There are two types of interfaces used in current DAC for input that are serial and
parallel. Both have their pros and cons. In serial type, two most popular and currently
used interfaces are IIC and SPI. They have also some advantages and disadvantages
that are described here.
1. Parallel interface
Advantages -

fast transmission

simple data protocol

Perfect for high update rates and high speed operations
Disadvantages –

More data lines (pins) required

Size is big requires more board space

Cross talk interference
2. Serial interface
Advantages -

requires less board space and allows a smaller package

lower pin count – less data lines required
Disadvantages –

Slower data transmission

Requires handshaking signals

Not suitable for high update rates and high speed operations
3. IIC interface
Advantages –

Required only two pins

Any number of devices can be connected to IIC bus

Master-slave configuration for networking
 16

Disadvantages –

More power consumption

Half duplex or simplex transmission

Comparatively lower speed
4. SPI (Serial Peripheral interface)
Advantages –

Much higher speed

Do not requires pull ups

Full duplex transmission possible
Disadvantages –

Requires more pins (4) than IIC

Cannot be configured in network

3.2.8 Reference voltage and temperature drift-

the characteristics of a DAC are defined by its reference voltage

It sets the DAC's maximum output voltage (if the output signal is not amplified by
an additional output stage)

It also defines the voltage step by which the output changes in response to a 1-
LSB transition at the input

It can be internal (generated within the DAC) or applied externally.

For a changing temperature, the output voltage drift has a direct bearing on the
DAC's quality

Internal references are typically 100 ppm/°C, and are, therefore, qualified only for
a limited temperature range
When connecting an external reference, you should consider not only the current
required and the voltage range of the DAC's reference input, but also any dynamic
effects produced by the DAC's inner structure. With variation of the applied digital
value, the reference input resistance can also change. Thus, the reference selected
must be capable of following each load step within the required time, or you must add
a bypass capacitor or an op amp buffer.

3.2.9 Output type

DAC can give either voltage output or current output

With current output it requires to have external resistors or op-amp with F/B
resistors to give voltage output

With direct voltage output if you don't need further amplification then you can
take direct o/p of DAC

This issue is discussed in more detail in next section

3.3 Current output type and voltage output type DAC:

Modern IC DACs provide either voltage or current outputs. 3 configurations are
shown in which op-amp is used for buffered op voltage. For voltage op it may not be
required to have additional external op-amp. As shown in figure C is just simple I to
V converter. In Figure B, a voltage is developed across external load resistor.
External op amp can be used to buffer and/or amplify this voltage if required. The
 17

output current is dumped into a resistor instead of into an op amp directly since the
fast edges may exceed the slew rate of the amplifier and cause distortion. Some of the
major differences are listed here for both types of configurations.

Figure 15 - current op and voltage op

3.3.1) Voltage output DAC-

1. Gain may be adjusted with a series resistor at the VREF terminal
2. code-independent impedance
3. The normal connection of a current-mode ladder network output is to an op amp’s
inverting input
4. larger switching glitch than voltage mode since the switches connect directly to
the output line(s)
5. The reference voltage may have either polarity

3.3.2) Current output DAC-

1. Gain cannot be adjusted by means of a resistor in series with the VREF terminal.
2. constant output impedance
3. the switches switch the arms of the ladder between a low impedance VREF
connection and ground
4. reference input impedance varies widely with code
5. It can be operated on single supply
 18

Chapter - 4

DAC classification

In chapter 2 we have seen different types of DAC architectures. Means DACs were
classified based on the technique that how they convert digital input into analog output.
These different types of architectures are due to different kinds of requirements and
applications. Like some application requires very high speed conversion, for that we have
one type of architecture and some application requires higher resolution that is given by
another kind of architecture. So in this chapter I have classified the DACs based on the
applications in which they are used.

4.1 General purpose DAC:

General Purpose D/A Converters are critical data conversion components which are
utilized in most high-performance signal processing systems. They have resolution from
8 bit to 20 bit. Most widely used in control applications in industries. They are further
categories into following categories.

4.1.1 Bipolar DAC-

Bipolar DACs are used in multiple end systems to realize functions like sensor excitation,
offset & gain adjustment, trigger generation or DC set point control, to name but a few.
Generating bipolar output signals by combining complex analog circuitry with a range of
discrete components often proves a time consuming challenge with unpredictable
accuracy and performance. These products internally generate the bipolar outputs
required, thereby eliminating a host of external circuitry and a multitude of complex
design activity.

4.1.2 Industrial DAC-

The latest technological advances with its in-depth knowledge of the demands posed by
harsh industrial environments to develop a portfolio of leading industrial converters
which address the challenge of enhancing system accuracy, reliability and overall
functionality while reducing form factor and power dissipation. Whether the application
is for PLC, DCS, Smart transmitter or Temperature Controller, a tailored solution is
available to enable the development of feature rich, robust, high performance analog
output solutions.

Intelligently integrated digital to analog converts with voltage and current drivers.
Industrial converters provide a range of user programmable output ranges from standard
4-20mA for current loop communication to ±10V for actuator control.
Housed in compact packages, these products simplify industrial system design by
offering high levels of control functionality with advanced on-chip diagnostics to
maximize system up time.
 19

They offer industry leading temperature drift specification. Thus industrial converters
eliminate the need for multiple costly calibration routines typically required by traditional
discrete architectures.

4.1.3 Multiplying DAC-

Bipolar DACs are used in multiple end systems to realize functions like sensor excitation,
offset & gain adjustment, trigger generation or DC set point control, to name but a few.
Generating bipolar output signals by combining complex analog circuitry with a range of
discrete components often proves a time consuming challenge with unpredictable
accuracy and performance. These products internally generate the bipolar outputs
required, thereby eliminating a host of external circuitry and a multitude of complex
design activity.

4.1.4 High voltage output DAC-

Some of the digital-to-analog converters have on-chip high voltage output amplifiers.
Such DACs have output range of 0 – 60 V or 0 – 200 V.

4.1.5 Single supply DAC-

Some of DAC have single supply. The required reference voltage it generates internally.
Such DACs have small footprint, 8 to 16 bit resolution, voltage output, one – two – quad
channel input. Mostly used in precision circuit that requires digital closed-loop control.

4.2 High speed DAC:

They enable designers to implement high-performance transmit signal synthesis solutions
with optimal cost, size, power, performance and reliability. Their major applications in
wired / wireless communication, electronic warfare, radar etc. we can categories them in
to following two categories.
1. RF / IF DAC - Resolution 12 – 16 bits, Throughput 100 MSPS to >5 GSPS
2. Baseband DAC- Resolution 8 – 16 bits, throughput 20 – 500 MSPS

4.3 Digital Potentiometers:

A digital potentiometer adjusts and trims electronic circuits similar to variable resistors,
rheostats and mechanical potentiometers. Sometimes called digital POT, RDAC, or
digipot, these compact devices can be used to calibrate system tolerances or dynamically
control system parameters. Nonvolatile memory digital potentiometers provide wiper
setting retention after a power OFF to ON cycle. In addition, fuse link parts offer one
time program trimmer feature.

4.4 Video DAC:

Video signals from a digital source, such as a computer, must be converted to analog
form if they are to be displayed on an analog monitor. A video DAC is, however,
incorporated in any digital video player with analog outputs. The DAC is usually
integrated with some memory (RAM), which contains conversion tables for gamma
correction, contrast and brightness, to make a device called a RAMDAC. Digital video
encoders output multiple analog formats conforming to international SDTV & HDTV
 20

video standards. 8- to 14-bit DAC options offer designers flexibility and performance,
meeting the most demanding product requirements.

4.5 Audio DAC:

Most modern audio signals are stored in digital form (for example MP3s and CDs) and in
order to be heard through speakers they must be converted into an analog signal. DACs
are therefore found in CD players, digital music players, and PC sound cards. Specialist
standalone DACs can also be found in high-end hi-fi systems. These normally take the
digital output of a compatible CD player or dedicated transport (which is basically a CD
player with no internal DAC) and convert the signal into an analog line-level output that
can then be fed into an amplifier to drive speakers. Similar digital-to-analog converters
can be found in digital speakers such as USB speakers, and in sound cards. They have
much higher resolution in terms of 16 to 24 bit. The architectures are mostly R – 2R
ladder type or sigma – delta type.
These are the major types of DAC classified on the bases of where and how they are
used.
 21

Conclusion

For different kind of application many different kind of DACs with different architectures
are available
For selecting DAC for one particular application one has to see DAC’s resolution, digital
input interface, output type, max output voltage, settling time etc various parameters as
per the requirements
 22

References

1) “Digital to analog converters”, wikipedia.org, para. 1,2,3, Aug. 1,2013 (last updated).
[Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital-to-analog_converter.
[Accessed: Aug. 5, 2013].
2) “D/A converters”, analog.com, [online]. Available: http://www.analog.com
/en/digital-to-analog-converters/products /index.html [Accessed: Aug. 5, 2013].
3) “Digital-to-Analog Converters are a "Bit" Analog”, maximintegrated.com, para. 1 –
10, 12 – 15, Apr 16, 2002. [Online]. Available: http://www.maximintegrated.
com/app-notes/index.mvp/id/1055 [Accessed: Aug. 5, 2013].
4) “Basic liner Design”, Chapter-6: Converters, Section 6.1: Digital-To-Analog
Converters Architectures