M A TE RI A L S CH A RACT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7 –3 3 6

Microstructure, mechanical properties, electrical conductivity

and wear behavior of high volume TiC reinforced
Cu-matrix composites

Farid Akhtar a,b,⁎, Syed Javid Askari a , Khadijah Ali Shah a , Xueli Du a,c , Shiju Guo a
a
Institute of Powder Metallurgy, Materials Science Department, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 100083, China
b
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300191, China

AR TIC LE D ATA ABSTR ACT

Article history: This study deals with the processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, electrical
Received 22 February 2007 conductivity and wear behavior of high volume titanium carbide reinforced copper matrix
Received in revised form composites. The microstructural study revealed that the titanium carbide particles were
21 August 2008 distributed uniformly in the matrix phase. No interface debonding and micro-cracks were
Accepted 28 September 2008 observed in the composite. The addition of alloying elements in the copper considerably
increased the sintered density and properties. The composite hardness and strength
Keywords: increased with titanium carbide content and alloying elements in the matrix phase. The
Titanium carbide composites electrical conductivities of the composites were predicted using three point upper bound
Microstructure and two phase self consistent predictive models. The wear resistance of the composites was
Electrical conductivity studied against high speed steel. Wear mechanisms were discussed by means of microscope
Mechanical properties observations on the worn surfaces. The ratio of titanium carbide average grain size to the
Wear mean free path of the binder was introduced as a parameter to determine wear
performance.
© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction strength above 500 °C due to the structural instability

Copper is used in industrial products because of its high
electrical and thermal conductivities, low cost, ease of
fabrication and good corrosion resistance. However, the
relative low hardness, low tensile strength and poor wear
resistance limits its applications. There are generally two
ways to improve the mechanical properties and wear resis-
tance of copper; either by an age hardening mechanism or by
incorporation of a hard second phase [1–5]. In the case of age
hardening, addition of small amounts of chromium or
zirconium to copper can lead to the precipitation of a hard
second phase, which is not soluble in the copper matrix at
lower temperatures. These age-hardenable alloys show lack of
associated with the coarsening of the precipitate phase [6,7].
On the other hand, it is more appropriate to incorporate hard
phase particles such as carbides, oxides, borides into copper
i.e. by developing copper base metal matrix composites.
Metal matrix composites with ceramic reinforcement
particles are candidates for structural applications in the
wear industry, primarily because of their superior toughness
and wear resistance. Alumina/silicon carbide particles are
often used as dispersoids to reinforce copper, which results in
superior elevated temperature strength, increased hardness
and improved wear resistance [8–12]. Cu-matrix composites
are promising candidates for sliding contact applications,
where high electrical/thermal conductivity and good wear

⁎ Corresponding author. Institute of Powder Metallurgy, Materials Science Department, University of Science and Technology Beijing,
100083, China.
E-mail address: faridmet22@hotmail.com (F. Akhtar).

1044-5803/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2008.09.014
328 MA TE RI A L S CH A R A CT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7– 3 3 6

Table 1 – Fretting conditions used in the present study matrix powders were wet milled in ethanol for 48 h. The
Parameter magnitude Equipment range milled powders were poured into the die and pressed
uniaxially at 500 MPa pressure. The green compact was
Normal load 100 N–300 N Up to 1200 N
37.5 mm in diameter. The prepared green compacts were
Oscillating amplitude 1 mm 1–15 mm
sintered in a temperature range from 1200 °C to 1350 °C for 1 h
Oscillating frequency 40 Hz 200 Hz
Counter body High speed steel (10 mm) in vacuum. The sintering cycle applied to the samples was as
Specimen temperature Room (22 °C) follows; samples were heated to 900 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min
Relative humidity range 50–70% and held at 900 °C for 15 min, then the samples were heated to
Humidity not controlled the desired sintering temperatures at a rate of 5 °C/min and
they were held at sintering temperature for 1 h. The sintered
density was measured by the Archimedes water immersion
method. Hardness was measured on a micro-indentation
resistance are needed. In the case of carbide reinforced copper hardness tester. Three-point bend tests were conducted at a
matrix composites, several studies have been reported on SiC strain rate of 0.25 mm/min. Samples for bend strength
reinforced copper matrix composites [11–14]. However, the measurement were machined from the sintered samples in
literature on the use of other carbides (titanium carbide/ cuboids and polished on SiC emery papers up to 1000#. At least
tungsten carbide) for reinforced Cu-matrix composites is very four tests for each composition were conducted under the
limited [15,16]. same conditions. For metallographic study, the samples were
Ductile copper generally exhibits poor wear resistance.
Material removal in the form of wear debris is commonly
observed on the copper surface during sliding wear on a hard
steel counterpart [17]. Oxides, carbides, and borides are widely
incorporated in the soft and ductile materials like aluminium,
to reduce the extent of wear deformation in the subsurface
regions. Consequently, the wear resistance of Al is increased
considerably [18–20].
As mentioned above, Cu-base metal matrix composites are
candidates for sliding contacts. It is very practical to improve
wear resistance and to understand wear behavior of Cu-base
composites. In this study, we attempted to fabricate Cu-base
TiC reinforced composites with a high volume fraction of TiC
particles (69 vol.% to 77 vol.%). The titanium carbide particle is
an interesting candidate for reinforcement of copper because
of its high melting point, high hardness and superior wear
resistance.
The copper matrix composites are prepared via a powder
metallurgy (P/M) route. P/M has been used for several years as
a low-cost fabrication method for producing near-net shape
composites; therefore, P/M may be a cost-effective method for
producing TiC–Cu matrix composites. P/M technology was
selected as the processing method, due to the simplicity
associated with the incorporation of a hard phase into a metal
phase through the blending of powders [21]. It is ideal to
prepare copper matrix composites via powder metallurgy
because of its efficient dispersion of the fine reinforcing
particles. The fretting wear behavior of the Cu-matrix
composites is studied under different wear conditions.

2. Experimental

In this study, powder technology is used to prepare the Cu-

matrix TiC reinforced composites. The starting materials were
titanium carbide powders (5 μm), copper powders (N37 μm),
nickel powders (N37 μm), titanium powders (N37 μm), cobalt
powders (N37 μm) and aluminium powders (N37 μm). Five
different compositions were fabricated. Pure Cu, Cu–Ti–Al
(66 at.% Cu) and Cu–Ni–Co (84.5 at.% Cu) were used as the Fig. 1 – SEM micrographs of composites sintered at 1300 °C
binder phase for TiC reinforcements. TiC was incorporated in (a) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu composite (b) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al
the composite from 69 vol.% to 77 vol.%. TiC and Cu base composite (c) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite.
 M A TE RI A L S CH A RACT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7 –3 3 6
prepared according to standard metallographic procedure.
The microstructure was characterized in a scanning electron
microscope. Quantitative metallography was used to deter-
mine the microstructural parameters; average TiC grain size
and mean free path of the binder phase. At least, three
micrographs taken from different areas were used to obtain an
accurate measurement of microstructural parameters. The DC
electrical conductivities of the TiC reinforced copper matrix
composites were measured at room temperature after grind-
ing with successively smoother grades of SiC emery paper
down to 1500#.
A sphere-on-flat geometry was used for the low-amplitude
oscillating dry sliding tests, in ambient conditions. The tests
were performed under gross slip conditions. An amplitude of
1 mm and an oscillating frequency of 40 Hz were selected for
the tests in the present study. The applied dead loads were
150 N and 300 N. The values for the tangential force and the
displacement pass through an analogue/digital card into a
computer where, at specified intervals, friction force displace-
ment loops were stored. The coefficient of friction (COF) was
calculated as the dissipated energy per cycle divided by the
normal load and twice the stroke. The friction data of the
fretting tests was presented both by the COF and the dissipated
energy. The room temperature range was 18–22 °C and the
relative humidity 40–60%. High speed steel balls of hardness
62.5HRC, with 10 mm diameter, were used as counter bodies,
loaded with a dead weight against the TiC–Cu matrix
composites. The wear conditions are summarized in Table 1.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Microstructure
Three different copper base binders were used to process high
volume fraction TiC reinforced copper matrix composites. The
micrographs of the composites are shown in Fig. 1. It shows
that TiC particles are surrounded by the matrix phase. A very
important factor influencing the structure and properties of
the composite is the ceramic metal interface [22,23]. Interface
debonding is not found in the composite. The matrix phase
and reinforcement do not show interfacial debonding, indicat-
ing the good wettability of TiC particles with the binder phase.
For the TiC reinforced copper matrix composites, it is very
important to obtain homogeneous reinforcements in the
matrix phase in order to enhance mechanical and electrical
properties. The distribution of TiC particles in the matrix
Table 2 – An overview of the properties of the TiC–Cu base matrix composites
Binder TiC Hardness %Relative density
(vol.%) (HV)
Cu 77 544 ± 10 93.4
Cu–Ti–Al 69 514 ± 10 98.2
Cu–Ti–Al 77 682 ± 10 98.8
Cu–Ni–Co 69 518 ± 10 98.9
Cu–Ni–Co 77 719 ± 10 98.6
TiC-465 stainless steel composite is with equal volume fraction of TiC particles.
329
phase is homogeneous. Homogeneous distribution of the
reinforcements ensures the isotropic mechanical properties
and uniform distribution of stresses in the sintered composite
[22–25]. Fig. 1(a) shows the scanning electron micrograph of
TiC reinforced copper matrix composite containing 77 vol.%
TiC particles. A range of reinforcement size is present from
0.2 μm to 6 μm. The TiC particles have retained their shape.
This is due to the low solubility of TiC particles in a pure
copper matrix. Small and large TiC particles do not undergo
solution and re-precipitation process and give a range of
particle size in the sintered composite.
Fig. 1(b) and (c) shows the micrographs of 77 vol.% TiC
particles embedded in Cu–Ti–Al (66 at.% Cu) and Cu–Co–Ni
(84.5 at.% Cu) matrix respectively. Alloying elements Ti, Al, Co
and Ni are added to the copper matrix in order to increase
wettability of the matrix phase with the reinforcements. Cu–Ti–Al
and Cu–Co–Ni binder phase is chosen carefully [26,27]. These two
binder phases are at the eutectic composition and form a liquid
phase at 885 °C and 1040 °C respectively, which is well below the
melting temperature of copper. This serves a dual purpose. First, it
reduces the sintering temperature. Second, it increases the
wettability of the binder phase with the reinforcements. The
lack of literature on TiC reinforced copper composite is due to the
fact that it is not easy to sinter TiC with a copper matrix. Fig. 1(b)
and (c) shows the distribution and morphologies of TiC particles
in a copper alloy matrix. The distribution is homogeneous and TiC
reinforcements are found in the particle size range of 0.2 μm to
7 μm. The morphologies of TiC reinforcement in the alloy matrix
are different from the pure copper matrix. Some round TiC
particles indicate the dissolution process of TiC particles in the
binder phase. This is also an indication of increased wettability
between the ceramic and metal phase, and is further supported
by increased sintered density, mechanical properties and wear
resistance which are discussed below in this study. Absence of
interface debonding and microcracks ensures higher mechanical
and wear properties.
3.2. Mechanical Properties
An overview of the mechanical properties of high volume TiC
reinforced copper matrix composites is given in Table 2. It
shows that the hardness and strength of the composites
increase with increase in density and TiC content. Due to a
high volume fraction and higher elastic modulus of TiC than
the copper phase, most of the load is applied to the TiC phase,
when an external load is applied. Therefore, the hardness of
TiC reinforced copper composite, which represents resistance
Bending strength Bending strength (MPa) of
(MPa) TiC-465steel
335 ± 20 791 ± 25
748 ± 20 1034 ± 25
787 ± 20 791 ± 25
682 ± 20 1034 ± 25
814 ± 20 791 ± 25
330 MA TE RI A L S CH A R A CT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7– 3 3 6

of alloying elements in the binder phase. The composite

Fig. 2 – SEM fracture morphologies of composites sintered at
1300 °C (a) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu composite (b) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al
composite (c) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite.
against plastic deformation, is mainly dependent on the
volume fraction of TiC particles in the composite. For sliding
contact applications, hardness of the copper reinforced
composite is an important parameter and determines the
wear resistance of the composite. The hardness values of the
composites containing alloying elements are higher than the
composite containing pure copper as a binder phase. This is
due to increase in the density and the solute hardening effect
containing Ni and Co as alloying elements in copper shows the
maximum hardness (719HV). Hardness values of the compo-
sites are given in Table 2 and are suitable to meet the
requirement for sliding contact applications.
The bending strength of the composite shows a similar
trend. With increase in volume percent of TiC particles,
bending strength increases. It is well known that copper has
very low strength. S.C. Tjong et al. incorporated SiC in copper
matrix up to 20 vol.%. They observed a large decrease in the
yield strength and elongation of the composite [4]. Similarly,
there are some other studies dealing with low volume fraction
ceramic reinforced copper matrix composites [3,28]. Recently,
P. K. Deshpanday et al. introduced high volume fraction WC
reinforced copper composite by melt infiltration [16]. They
obtained a maximum hardness of 368HV with 53 vol.% WC.
However, strength of the composite is not mentioned. In our
case, we measured the bending strength of the TiC reinforced
copper composite and, for the purpose of comparison, TiC
reinforced stainless steel matrix composites containing an
equal volume fraction of TiC reinforcements are used, due to
the lack of literature on high volume fraction ceramic
reinforced copper matrix composites. TiC reinforced copper
matrix composites show the least strength due to the lowest
density. Defects such as porosity, macro and microcracks and
interface debonding promote premature failure and ultimate
fracture occurs earlier. In the case of TiC reinforced copper
alloy matrix, a high bending strength is obtained. The TiC
reinforced copper alloy composite shows an increase in
strength with increase in TiC volume fraction, which is
contrary to the previous findings in the Cu–SiC system [4].
Increase of strength with increase in TiC volume fraction
demonstrates the stability of TiC reinforcements in a copper
alloy matrix and is a measure of TiC copper alloy matrix
interfacial bond. The values of strength of TiC reinforced
copper alloy composite are comparable in the case of 77 vol.%
reinforcement content, with the TiC reinforced steel compo-
site prepared by the same processing route and an equal
volume fraction of TiC particles.
The fracture morphologies of the TiC reinforced copper
matrix composites are shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2(a) shows the
fracture morphologies of TiC reinforced pure copper matrix. It
shows the TiC reinforcements, copper matrix and porosity.
The fracture mode is mixed. The fracture path passes through
the TiC particles and the binder phase. No secondary cracks
are observed in the brittle TiC grains indicating premature
failure of the composite. The binder phase decohesion is not
observed and shows the interfacial bond in strong. Fig. 2(b)
and (c) shows the fracture morphologies of the TiC reinforced
copper alloy (Cu–Ti–Al) and (Cu–Co–Ni) matrix composite

Table 3 – Electrical conductivities of the TiC reinforced copper matrix composites

Composite TiC Binder Electrical conductivity Three point upper bond model Two phase self-consistent
(vol.%) (vol.%) (Exp) %IACS (%IACS) (%IACS)

TiC–Cu 77 23 2.24 19 8
TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 69 31 5.10 27 15
TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 77 23 4.10 19 8
TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 69 31 6.65 27 15
TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 77 23 4.64 19 8
 M A TE RI A L S CH A RACT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7 –3 3 6
Fig. 3 – (a) Wear loss (mg) of TiC–Cu composite with 77 vol.%
TiC content as a function of fretting distance; (b) wear loss
(mg) of TiC–Cu–Ti–Al composite with 77 vol.% and 69 vol.%
TiC content as a function of fretting distance; (c) wear loss
(mg) of TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite with 77 vol.% and 69 vol.%
TiC content as a function of fretting distance.
respectively. The fracture path passes through the TiC grains
and matrix phase. A few secondary cracks are visible. Binder
phase decohesion is not observed.
331
Porosity is absent, indicating that the addition of alloying
elements to the binder phase at the eutectic composition (with
a liquid phase well below the melting point of pure copper) is
effective in reducing the porosity in the sintered composite.
3.3. Electrical Conductivity
The TiC content in the composites varies from 69 vol.% to 77 vol.
%. As alloying elements are added in the binder phase, the
density increases, because the wettability of binder with the
reinforcements is increased, and the liquid phase appears at
lower sintering temperatures. The electrical conductivity
decreases with increasing TiC content because the volume
fraction of nonconducting particles increases. The electrical
conductivities of TiC reinforced Cu base matrix composite are
predicted using the predictive three point upper bound model
[29], the two phase self-consistent model [30] and are compared
to those of present composites (experimentally measured) and
are given in Table 3. It is found that the three point upper bound
model has large differences in electrical conductivities com-
pared to the experimental values because the model takes into
account microscopically isotropic geometries of either conduct-
ing or nonconducting phases. Also, alloying elements are added
to the matrix phase. The experimental values are closer to the
two phase self-consistent model. The differences are due to the
addition of alloying elements in the copper phase, in the case of
copper alloy matrix, and porosity in the case of a pure copper
matrix. It can be seen from Table 3 that the addition of alloying
elements to the copper base matrix increased the electrical
conductivity. This is due to the elimination of porosity from the
composite. Ideally the alloying elements additions (Ni,Co,Ti,Al)
adversely affect the electrical conductivity. But in our case with
pure copper, porosity present in the composite reduces the
electrical conductivity to a larger extent as shown in Table 3.
With the addition of alloying elements the porosity phase is
reduced/eliminated and the overall increase in the electrical
conductivity value is observed (Table 3). It is also worth
mentioning that when we compare the electrical conductivities
of composites containing Cu–Ti–Al (66 at.% Cu) and Cu–Ni–Co
(84.5 at.% Cu) as binders, Cu–Ni–Co composites show greater
electrical conductivity. This is due to the greater amount of
copper (84.5 at.% Cu) present in the Cu–Co–Ni binder phase.
3.4. Wear Properties
Fig. 3 shows the variation of weight loss with fretting distance of
450 m for the TiC reinforced Cu base matrix composites with
69 vol.% and 77 vol.% TiC content tested under an applied load of
150 N and 300 N at 40 Hz frequency with 1 mm amplitude. Fig. 3(a)
shows the wear loss of TiC–Cu composite with 77 vol.% TiC
content at 150 N and 300 N load. The wear loss increases with the
fretting distance and applied load. At higher load (300 N) the wear
loss of the composite is very high. The hardness of the counter
body is 62.5HRC, which is much higher than the hardness of
copper. The copper matrix is removed by the hard counter body
and this removal is very rapid under a 300 N load.
The wear mechanisms operative at 150 N are plastic
ploughing and grooving of the copper base matrix phase. At
higher loads, removal of the copper from the surface is very high.
The material loss is considered to result from removal of material
332 MA TE RI A L S CH A R A CT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7– 3 3 6

Fig. 4 – An overview of the hardness and wear loss of the TiC–Cu

base matrix composites at different wear loads.

chips from the specimen, due to the microcutting of the abrasive

particles. Residual porosity plays an important role when the
wear is performed under a high wear load [16]. So, the porosity
effect must be counted. Porosity in the wear surface of the
composite effectively reduces the contacting surface area and
thus increases the net wear load. Other factors that increase the
wear loss due to porosity are the notch effect and the shape of the
porosity. The TiC reinforced pure copper matrix composite shows
a higher wear loss due to the porosity effect. Fig. 3(b) shows the
wear loss vs. fretting distance of TiC reinforced Cu–Ti–Al binder. It
is apparent that the composite experiences a larger weight loss as
the amount of TiC decreases from 77 vol.% to 69 vol.%. Moreover, Fig. 5 – Variation of friction coefficient with the fretting
the wear loss of TiC cermets increases rapidly with increasing distance of TiC–Cu base matrix composites (a) at 150 N load;
fretting distance, indicating that the counter body (high speed (b) at 300 N load.
steel) can deform and remove the material from TiC composites
progressively. However, a much slower increase in wear loss is
strongly depend on TiC loading in the composite and wear loss
observed at a lower load (150 N) for all TiC composites, whereas
has a direct relation with the hardness of the composite. At
the wear loss varies almost linearly with the fretting distance
lower loads and higher TiC content, the matrix deformation
under specific loading conditions. It can be noted that at higher
and removal is protected by the TiC particles. As the hardness
loads, material removal is fast. This implies that the extent of
of metal matrix composites (MMCs) tends to increase with
plastic deformation or material removal from the matrix of TiC
increasing TiC content, thus the fretting wear resistance of TiC
composite decreases with increase in TiC loading in the
cermets improves considerably with increasing TiC content.
composite. TiC reinforcing particles can resist plastic deformation
The variation of friction coefficient of 77 vol.% TiC
and provide protection to the soft copper alloy matrix. TiC
composite under different loading conditions is given in Fig. 5.
composite with 77 vol.% TiC content shows a little variation in
It can be seen that the friction coefficient follows similar trends
wear loss with sliding distance. This is because the TiC composite
to the wear performance. The friction coefficient increases with
containing 77 vol.% TiC exhibits the higher hardness than 69 vol.%
increase in load from 150 N to 300 N, and causes more wear loss
TiC, and more TiC particles resist plastic deformation of the
under higher loads. In the case of 77 vol.% TiC content in the
matrix phase.
Fig. 3(c) shows the wear loss of TiC–Cu–Ni–Co matrix Table 4 – Effect of binder (vol.%) change on the wear loss of
composite. It shows that the composite wear loss strongly the composite
depends on TiC loading in the composite. As the TiC content
Composite Binder Wear loss (mg) Wear loss (mg)
increases from 69 vol.% to 77 vol.%, the wear loss decreases. (vol.%) at 150 N at 300 N
This composite also shows that wear loss increases with the
TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 23 1.0 2.9
applied load.
TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 31 6.2 12.5
The comparison of hardness with wear loss at 150 N and
TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 23 1.0 2.1
300 N is summarized in Fig. 4. Comparing the hardness and TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 31 6.1 14.1
wear loss of composites it can be concluded that the wear loss
 M A TE RI A L S CH A RACT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7 –3 3 6 333

Table 5 – Effect of ratio of average grain size of TiC to mean free path of binder phase (GSTiC/MFPbinder) on the wear
performance of the composite
Composite Binder Mean free path Average grain Ratio of average grain size of Wear loss (mg) Wear loss (mg)
(vol.%) (μm) of binder size of TiC (μm) TiC to mean free path of binder at 150 N at 300 N

TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 23 0.9 3.4 3.77 1.0 2.9

TiC–Cu–Ti–Al 31 1.2 3.7 3.08 6.2 12.5
TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 23 0.9 3.4 3.77 1.0 2.1
TiC–Cu–Ni–Co 31 1.25 3.6 2.88 6.1 14.1

composite, the wear mechanisms operative are polishing wear
at lower load and polishing wear with plastic ploughing at
higher wear loads.
Tables 4 and 5 summarize the wear loss of the composite
under different fretting conditions with the binder volume
fraction in the composite and the mean free path of the binder
phase. Table 4 shows that with an increase in the binder
phase, the wear loss increases. With a binder increase of
31 vol.% the wear loss increases rapidly at lower load of 150 N
i.e. 600% increase in wear loss. The increase in binder volume
fraction rapidly decreases the wear resistance of material at
lower wear loads. The wear loss is very sensitive to the binder
volume fraction. Small variations in binder volume fraction
have a major effect on the wear rate.
Table 5 shows the variation of wear loss with the mean free
path of the binder phase. As long as the ratio of TiC particle
size to the mean free path is greater than the TiC particle size
in the composite, it shows higher wear performance at all

Fig. 6 – SEM micrographs of wear surfaces at 150 N load (a) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu composite; (b) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al composite;
(c) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite; (d) 69 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al composite; (e) 69 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite.
334 MA TE RI A L S CH A R A CT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7– 3 3 6

Fig. 7 – SEM micrographs of wear surfaces at 300 N load (a) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu composite; (b) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al composite;
(c) 77 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite; (d) 69 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ti–Al composite; (e) 69 vol.% TiC–Cu–Ni–Co composite.

wear loads. When, the ratio of TiC particle size to the mean
free path is lower than the TiC particle size in the composite,
the wear properties of the composite show degradation and
when this ratio is decreased much the wear loss becomes very
high even at lower wear loads. So, the binder volume fraction
and the ratio of the average particle size of the reinforcements
to the mean free path of the binder phase is the key factor
controlling the wear mechanisms and wear performance [31]
(In Tables 4 and 5, TiC reinforced pure copper matrix
composite is not included because it contains a large amount
of porosity). When the ratio of TiC particle size to the mean
free path is greater than the TiC particle size in the composite
(GSTiC/MFPbinder N GSTiC) the dominating wear mechanism is
polishing wear and less wear loss is observed. When the ratio
of TiC particle size to the mean free path is lower than the TiC
particle size in the composite (GSTiC/MFPbinder b GSTiC) the
dominating wear mechanisms are plastic ploughing, grooving
and microcutting, and high wear loss is observed.
Fig. 6 shows the worn surfaces of the TiC composites tested
under an applied load of 150 N. The worn surface is
characterized by long continuous grooves, which form as the
counter body ploughs across the surface and eventually
removes or pushes material into ridges along the sides of
the grooves. The surface morphologies of these worn surfaces
show the ploughing effect on the copper matrix.
The severity of micro-ploughing is substantially less
pronounced on the worn surface of TiC composite containing
77 vol.% TiC [Fig. 6(a), (b) and (c)]. Careful examination of the
SEM micrographs reveals that reinforcing particles are
exposed on the worn surface of MMC specimens at lower
loads. It can be seen from these micrographs that TiC
reinforcing particles reside on the top surface of TiC cermet
after fretting. No particle cracking and separation of particle
from the matrix can be observed at 150 N wear loads, shown in
Fig. 6. Thus, the volume fraction of TiC reinforcing particles is
very effective in increasing the fretting wear resistance.
 M A TE RI A L S CH A RACT ER IZ A TI O N 60 ( 20 0 9 ) 3 2 7 –3 3 6
It is considered that the counter body (high speed steel
62.5HRC) deforms the alloy matrix of the specimens during the
early stages of fretting wear and causes microploughing and
grooving in the surface of copper base matrix. Subsequently,
material chips are removed from the grooves formed in the
surface, thereby exposing the hard reinforcing particles
[18,32]. In this case, the hard TiC particles come in contact
with the counter body. The large size of TiC particles can offer
protection to Cu/Cu alloy matrix during fretting. Once the
reinforcing TiC particles fracture or loosen from the matrix
phase, they can be removed easily, resulting in a certain
amount of wear loss. The hardness of the steel counter body is
lower than the TiC particles, and microploughing was the
dominant wear mechanism on 69 vol.% TiC [4,33]. In the case
of 77 vol.% TiC, less binder phase was present and the wear
mechanisms were polishing wear and microploughing at a
lower load. It is apparent from the worn surfaces in Fig. 6 that
TiC cermet with a higher TiC content provides better wear
resistance.
Fig. 7 shows the worn surfaces of the TiC composites tested
under an applied load of 300 N. The worn surface is
characterized by long and deep continuous grooves, which
form as the counter body plough across the surface under
higher load and forces material into ridges along sides of the
grooves. The surface morphology of this worn surface shows
very heavy ploughing of the copper matrix. At higher loads,
micro-ploughing is severe and cause fast removal of material
from the surface of the composite [Fig. 7(b) to (e)]. Thick
material chips are present on the surface of the composite as
shown in Fig. 7 produced, by heavy deformation of the matrix
under high wear loads. The TiC–Cu matrix composite exhibits
the mechanism of removal of Cu matrix chips at 300 N load, as
shown in Fig. 7(a). This is due to the notch effect of porosity at
higher wear stress. No particle cracking and separation of
particle from the matrix can be observed under a 300 N wear
load, as shown in Fig. 7. So, the volume fraction of TiC
reinforcing particles and the ratio of TiC particle size to the
mean free path are key factors controlling the wear rate of the
TiC–Cu matrix composites at low and higher loads.
4. Conclusions
1. Three TiC reinforced copper base matrix composites were
fabricated by powder technology. Alloying elements (Al, Ti,
Ni and Co) were added to enhance the sintering and
mechanical properties.
2. The microstructure of the composites revealed that the TiC
particles were distributed uniformly in the matrix phase.
The microstructure of TiC reinforced copper alloy matrix
composites was defect-free. No interface debonding and
micro-cracks were observed in the composite.
3. The hardness and strength of the composite increased with
TiC content and alloying elements in the matrix phase.
4. Electrical conductivities of the composites were predicted
using three point upper bound model and two phase self-
consistent model and compared to the experimentally
measure values. Experimental values were close to a two
phase self consistent model and seemed to be affected by
the addition of alloying elements in the copper binder.
335
5. The wear resistance of the composites was studied against
high speed steel. Microploughing of copper base matrix
was found to be the dominant wear mechanism. Less
microploughing and wear loss was observed at lower loads
and high vol.% of TiC particles. Heavy microploughing
observed under a 300 N wear load caused very rapid
removal of material from the wear surface.
6. As long as the ratio of TiC average grain size to mean free
path of the binder was higher than the average grain size of
the TiC, the material showed good wear performance.
When, this ratio was decreased to less than the average TiC
grain size, the plastic ploughing, grooving and cutting of
the matrix phase was the dominant wear mechanism, and
high wear loss was observed.
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